Exploring Coping Mediators Between Heterosexist Oppression and Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms Among Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Persons

Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity

Volumn 1, Issue 3, 2014, Pages 213-224

  Bandermann, Kyle M ^a   Szymanski, Dawn M ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE   (United States)

Author keywords

Coping; Discrimination; Hate crime; Heterosexism; Trauma

Indexed keywords

EID: 85009512356     PISSN: 23290382     EISSN: 23290390     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/sgd0000044     Document Type: Article

References (82)

1. Alessi, E. J., Meyer, I. H., & Martin, J. I. (2011). PTSD and sexual orientation: An examination of Criterion A1 and Non-Criterion A1 events. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice and Policy, 5, 149–157. doi:10.1037/a0026642
2. American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., text rev.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.
3. American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental Disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing.
4. Baker, T. B., Piper, M. E., McCarthy, D. E., Majeskie, M. R., & Fiore, M. C. (2004). Addiction motivation reformulated: An affective processing model of negative reinforcement. Psychological Review, 111, 33–51. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.111.1.33
5. Balsam, K. F. (2003). Traumatic victimization in the lives of lesbian and bisexual women. Journal of Lesbian Studies, 7, 1–14. doi:10.1300/ J155v07n04_01
6. Balsam, K. F., Rothblum, E. D., & Beauchaine, T. P. (2005). Victimization over the life span: A comparison of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and heterosexual siblings. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73, 477– 487. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.73.3.477
7. Birnbaum, M. H. (2004). Methodological and ethical issues in conducting social psychology research via the Internet. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
8. Bjorck, J. P., & Thurman, J. W. (2007). Negative life events, patterns of positive and negative religious coping, and psychological functioning. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 46, 159–167. doi:10.1111/ j.1468-5906.2007.00348.x
9. Blanchard, E. B., Jones-Alexander, J., Buckley, T. C., & Forneris, C. A. (1996). Psychometric properties of the PTSD checklist (PCL). Behav-iour Research and Therapy, 34, 669–673. doi:10.1016/0005-7967(96)00033-2
10. Boals, A., & Schuettler, D. (2009). PTSD symptoms in response to traumatic and non-traumatic events: The role of respondent perception and A2 criterion. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 23, 458–462. doi:10.1016/ j.janxdis.2008.09.003
11. Brown, L. S. (2003). Sexuality, lies, and loss: Lesbian, gay, and bisexual perspectives on trauma. Journal of Trauma Practice, 2, 55–68. doi: 10.1300/J189v02n02_04
12. Bryant-Davis, T., & Ocampo, C. (2005). The trauma of racism: Implications for counseling, research, and education. The Counseling Psychologist, 33, 574–578. doi:10.1177/0011000005276581
13. Carter, R. T. (2007). Racism and psychological and emotional injury: Recognizing and assessing race-based traumatic stress. The Counseling Psychologist, 35, 13–105. doi:10.1177/0011000006292033
14. Cochran, S. D. (2001). Emerging issues in research on lesbians’ and gay men’s mental health: Does sexual orientation really matter? American Psychologist, 56, 931–947. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.56.11.931
15. Coffey, P., Leitenberg, H., Henning, K., Turner, T., & Bennett, R. T. (1996). The relation between methods of coping during adulthood with a history of childhood sexual abuse and current psychological adjustment. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64, 1090–1093. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.64.5.1090
16. Coffey, S. F., Schumacher, J. A., Brady, K. T., & Cotton, B. D. (2007). Changes in PTSD symptomatology during acute and protracted alcohol and cocaine abstinence. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 87, 241–248. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2006.08.025
17. Corliss, H. L., Cochran, S. D., & Mays, V. M. (2002). Reports of parental maltreatment during childhood in a United States population-based survey of homosexual, bisexual, and heterosexual adults. Child Abuse & Neglect, 26, 1165–1178. doi:10.1016/S0145-2134(02)00385-X
18. D’Augelli, A. R., Grossman, A. H., & Starks, M. T. (2006). Childhood gender atypicality, victimization, and PTSD among lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 21, 1462–1482. doi: 10.1177/0886260506293482
19. Dixon, L. J., Leen-Feldner, E., Ham, L. S., Feldner, M. T., & Lewis, S. F. (2009). Alcohol use motives among traumatic event-exposed, treatment-seeking adolescents: Associations with posttraumatic stress. Addictive Behaviors, 34, 1065–1068. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2009.06.008
20. Field, A. (2013). Discovering statistics using IBM SPSS statistics. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
21. Foa, E. B., Hembree, E. A., & Rothbaum, B. O. (2007). Prolonged exposure therapy for PTSD: Emotional processing of traumatic experiences: Therapist guide. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
22. Frazier, P. A., Tix, A. P., & Barron, K. E. (2004). Testing moderator and mediator effects in counseling psychology research. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 51, 115–134. doi:10.1037/0022-0167.51.1.115
23. Freyd, J. J. (2008). Betrayal trauma. In G. Reyes, J. D. Elhai, & J. D. Ford (Eds.), Encyclopedia of psychological trauma (p. 76). New York, NY: Wiley.
24. Gilman, S. E., Cochran, S. D., Mays, V. M., Hughes, M., Ostrow, D., & Kessler, R. C. (2001). Risk of psychiatric disorders among individuals reporting same-sex sexual partners in the National Comorbidity Survey. American Journal of Public Health, 91, 933–939. doi:10.2105/AJPH.91 .6.933
25. Gold, S. D., Marx, B. P., Soler-Baillo, J., & Sloan, D. M. (2005). Is life stress more traumatic than traumatic stress? Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 19, 687–698. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2004.06.002
26. Hatzenbuehler, M. L. (2009). How does sexual minority stigma “get under the skin?:” A psychological mediation framework. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 707–730. doi:10.1037/a0016441
27. Herek, G. M. (2009). Hate crimes and stigma-related experiences among sexual minority adults in the United States: Prevalence estimates from a national probability sample. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 24, 54 – 74. doi:10.1177/0886260508316477
28. Herek, G. M., Gillis, J. R., & Cogan, J. C. (1999). Psychological sequelae of hate-crime victimization among lesbian, gay, and bisexual adults. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 67, 945–951. doi: 10.1037/0022-006X.67.6.945
29. Hughes, T. L., Johnson, T., & Wilsnack, S. C. (2001). Sexual assault and alcohol abuse: A comparison of lesbians and heterosexual women. Journal of Substance Abuse, 13, 515–532. doi:10.1016/S0899-3289(01)00095-5
30. Jelinek, J. M., & Williams, T. (1984). Post-traumatic stress disorder and substance abuse in Vietnam combat veterans: Treatment problems, strategies and recommendations. Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 1, 87–97. doi:10.1016/0740-5472(84)90031-X
31. Kessler, R. C., Sonnega, A., Bromet, E., Hughes, M., & Nelson, C. B. (1995). Posttraumatic stress disorder in the national comorbidity survey. Archives of General Psychiatry, 52, 1048–1060. doi:10.1001/archpsyc .1995.03950240066012
32. Khantzian, E. J. (2003). The self-medication hypothesis revisited: The dually diagnosed patient. Primary Psychiatry, 10, 53–54.
33. Lehavot, K., Stappenbeck, C. A., Luterek, J. A., Kaysen, D., & Simpson, T. L. (2013). Gender differences in relationships among PTSD severity, drinking motives, and alcohol use in a comorbid alcohol dependence and PTSD sample. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 28, 42–52. doi: 10.1037/a0032266
34. Long, M. E., Elhai, J. D., Schweinle, A., Gray, M. J., Grubaugh, A. L., & Frueh, B. C. (2008). Differences in posttraumatic stress disorder diagnostic rates and symptom severity between criterion A1 and non-criterion A1 stressors. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 22, 1255–1263. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2008.01.006
35. Mallinckrodt, B., Abraham, W. T., Wei, M., & Russell, D. W. (2006). Advances in testing the statistical significance of mediation effects. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 53, 372–378. doi:10.1037/0022-0167.53.3.372
36. Mays, V. M., & Cochran, S. D. (2001). Mental health correlates of perceived discrimination among lesbian, gay, and bisexual adults in the United States. American Journal of Public Health, 91, 1869–1876. doi:10.2105/AJPH.91.11.1869
37. Meyer, I. H. (2003). Prejudice, social stress, and mental health in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: Conceptual issues and research evidence. Psychological Bulletin, 129, 674–697. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.129.5 .674
38. Neisen, J. H. (1993). Healing from cultural victimization: Recovery from shame due to heterosexism. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Psychotherapy, 2, 49 – 63. doi:10.1300/J236v02n01_04
39. Nyamathi, A., Wayment, H. A., & Dunkel-Schetter, C. (1993). Psychosocial correlates of emotional distress and risk behavior in African American women at risk for HIV infection. Anxiety, Stress & Coping: An International Journal, 6, 133–148. doi:10.1080/10615809308248375
40. O’Hare, T., & Sherrer, M. (2011). Drinking motives as mediators between PTSD symptom severity and alcohol consumption in persons with severe mental illnesses. Addictive Behaviors, 36, 465– 469. doi:10.1016/ j.addbeh.2011.01.006
41. Otis, M. D., & Skinner, W. F. (1996). The prevalence of victimization and its effect on mental well-being among lesbian and gay people. Journal of Homosexuality, 30, 93–121. doi:10.1300/J082v30n03_05
42. Ouimette, P., Read, J., & Brown, P. J. (2005). Consistency of retrospective reports of DSM–IV criterion A traumatic stressors among substance use disorder patients. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 18, 43–51. doi:10.1002/ jts.20009
43. Parent, M. C. (2013). Handling item-level missing data: Simpler is just as good. The Counseling Psychologist, 41, 568–600. doi:10.1177/ 0011000012445176
44. Pascoe, E. A., & Smart Richman, L. (2009). Perceived discrimination and health: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 532–554. doi:10.1037/a0016059
45. Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Lee, J., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2003). Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 879–903. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.88.5.879
46. Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2008). Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models. Behavior Research Methods, 40, 879 – 891. doi:10.3758/ BRM.40.3.879
47. Riggle, E. D. B., Rostosky, S. S., & Reedy, C. S. (2005). Online surveys for GLBT research: Issues and techniques. Journal of Homosexuality, 49(2), 1–21. doi:10.1300/J082v49n02_01
48. Roberts, A. L., Austin, S. B., Corliss, H. L., Vandermorris, A. K., & Koenen, K. C. (2010). Pervasive trauma exposure among U.S. sexual orientation minority adults and risk of posttraumatic stress disorder. American Journal Information, 100, 2433–2441. doi:10.2105/AJPH .2009.168971
49. Root, M. P. (1992). Reconstructing the impact of trauma on personality. In L. S. Brown & M. Ballou (Eds.), Personality and psychopathology: Feminist reappraisals (pp. 229–265). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
50. Rothblum, E. D., Balsam, K. F., & Mickey, R. M. (2004). Brothers and sisters of lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals as a demographic comparison group: An innovative research methodology to examine social change. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 40, 283–301. doi:10.1177/ 0021886304266877
51. Ruggiero, K. J., Del Ben, K., Scotti, J. R., & Rabalais, A. E. (2003). Psychometric properties of the PTSD checklist-civilian version. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 16, 495–502. doi:10.1023/A:1025714729117
52. Sanchez-Hucles, J. V. (1999). Racism: Emotional abusiveness and psychological trauma for ethnic minorities. Journal of Emotional Abuse, 1(2), 69–87. doi:10.1300/J135v01n02_04
53. Simpson, T. L. (2003). Childhood sexual abuse, PTSD, and the functional roles of alcohol use among women drinkers. Substance Use & Misuse, 38, 249–270. doi:10.1081/JA-120017248
54. Staiger, P. K., Melville, F., Hides, L., Kambouropoulos, N., & Lubman, D. I. (2009). Can emotion-focused coping help explain the link between posttraumatic stress disorder severity and triggers for substance use in young adults? Journal of Substance Abuse Treatment, 36, 220–226. doi:10.1016/j.jsat.2008.05.008
55. Stewart, S. H., Conrod, P. J., Pihl, R. O., & Dongier, M. (1999). Relations between posttraumatic stress symptom dimensions and substance dependence in a community-recruited sample of substance-abusing women. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 13, 78 – 88. doi:10.1037/0893-164X .13.2.78
56. Stewart, S. H., Mitchell, T. L., Wright, K. D., & Loba, P. (2004). The relations of PTSD symptoms to alcohol use and coping drinking in volunteers who responded to the Swissair flight 111 airline disaster. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 18, 51– 68. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2003.07 .006
57. Szymanski, D. M. (2005). Heterosexism and sexism as correlates of psychological distress in lesbians. Journal of Counseling & Development, 83, 355–360. doi:10.1002/j.1556-6678.2005.tb00355.x
58. Szymanski, D. M. (2006). Does internalized heterosexism moderate the link between heterosexist events and lesbians’ psychological distress? Sex Roles, 54, 227–234. doi:10.1007/s11199-006-9340-4
59. Szymanski, D. M. (2009). Examining potential moderators of the link between heterosexist events and gay and bisexual men’s psychological distress. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 56, 142–151. doi:10.1037/ 0022-0167.56.1.142
60. Szymanski, D. M., & Balsam, K. F. (2011). Insidious trauma: Examining the relationship between heterosexism and lesbians’ PTSD symptoms. Traumatology, 17, 4–13. doi:10.1177/1534765609358464
61. Szymanski, D. M., & Henrichs-Beck, C. (2014). Exploring sexual minority women’s experiences of external and internalized heterosexism and sexism and their links to coping and distress. Sex Roles, 70, 28 – 42. doi:10.1007/s11199-013-0329-5
62. Szymanski, D. M., & Ikizler, A. S. (2013). Internalized heterosexism as a mediator in the relationship between gender role conflict, heterosexist discrimination, and depression among sexual minority men. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 14, 211–219. doi:10.1037/a0027787
63. Szymanski, D. M., Kashubeck-West, S., & Meyer, J. (2008a). Internalized heterosexism: A historical and theoretical overview. The Counseling Psychologist, 36, 510–524. doi:10.1177/0011000007309488
64. Szymanski, D. M., Kashubeck-West, S., & Meyer, J. (2008b). Internalized heterosexism: Measurement, psychosocial correlates, and research directions. The Counseling Psychologist, 36, 525–574. doi:10.1177/ 0011000007309489
65. Szymanski, D. M., & Meyer, D. (2008). Racism and heterosexism as correlates of psychological distress in African American sexual minority women. Journal of LGBT Issues in Counseling, 2, 94 –108. doi:10.1080/ 15538600802125423
66. Szymanski, D. M., & Moffitt, L. B. (2012). Sexism and heterosexism. In N. A. Fouad (Ed.), Handbook of counseling psychology: Vol. 2 Theories, Practice, training, and policy (pp. 361–390). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
67. Szymanski, D. M., & Obiri, O. (2011). Do religious coping styles moderate or mediate the external and internalized racism-distress links? The Counseling Psychologist, 39, 438–462. doi:10.1177/ 0011000010378895
68. Szymanski, D. M., & Owens, G. P. (2009). Group-level coping as a moderator between heterosexism and sexism and psychological distress in sexual minority women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 33, 197–205. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.2009.01489.x
69. Szymanski, D. M., & Sung, M. R. (2010). Minority stress and psychological distress among Asian American sexual minority persons. The Counseling Psychologist, 38, 848 – 872. doi:10.1177/0011000010366167
70. Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2001). Using multivariate statistics (5th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon/Pearson Education.
71. Thomas, A. J., Witherspoon, K. M., & Speight, S. L. (2008). Gendered racism, psychological distress, and coping styles of African American women. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 14, 307–314. doi:10.1037/1099-9809.14.4.307
72. Ullman, S. E., Filipas, H. H., Townsend, S. M., & Starzynski, L. L. (2005). Trauma exposure, posttraumatic stress disorder and problem drinking in sexual assault survivors. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 66, 610–619.
73. Ullman, S. E., Filipas, H. H., Townsend, S. M., & Starzynski, L. L. (2007). Psychosocial correlates of PTSD symptom severity in sexual assault survivors. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 20, 821–831. doi:10.1002/jts .20290
74. Utsey, S. O., Ponterotto, J. G., Reynolds, A. L., & Cancelli, A. A. (2000). Racial discrimination, coping, life satisfaction, and self-esteem among African Americans. Journal of Counseling & Development, 78, 72–80. doi:10.1002/j.1556-6676.2000.tb02562.x
75. Waldo, C. R., Hesson-McInnis, M., & D’Augelli, A. R. (1998). Antecedents and consequences of victimization of lesbian, gay, and bisexual young people: A structural model comparing rural university and urban samples. American Journal of Community Psychology, 26, 307–334. doi:10.1023/A:1022184704174
76. Weathers, F. W., & Keane, T. M. (2007). The criterion A problem revisited: Controversies and challenges in defining and measuring psychological trauma. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 20, 107–121. doi:10.1002/ jts.20210
77. Weathers, F. W., Litz, B. T., Herman, D. S., Huska, J. A., & Keane, T. M. (1993, October). The PTSD checklist (PCL): Reliability, validity, and diagnostic utility. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies, San Antonio, TX.
78. Weathers, F. W., Litz, B. T., Huska, J. A., & Keane, T. M. (1994). The PTSD Checklist—Civilian Version (PCL-C). Boston, MA: National Center for PTSD.
79. Wei, M., Alvarez, A. N., Ku, T. Y., Russell, D. W., & Bonett, D. G. (2010). Development and validation of a Coping with Discrimination Scale: Factor structure, reliability, and validity. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 57, 328 –344. doi:10.1177/0011000006287
80. Weston, R., & Gore, P. A. (2006). A brief guide to Structural Equation Modeling. The Counseling Psychologist, 34, 719–751. doi:10.1177/ 0011000006286345
81. Yeater, E. A., Austin, J. L., Green, M. J., & Smith, J. E. (2010). Coping mediates the relationship between posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms and alcohol use in homeless, ethnically diverse women: A preliminary study. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 2, 307–310. doi:10.1037/a0021779
82. Yoo, H. C., & Lee, R. M. (2005). Ethnic identity and approach-type coping as moderators of the racial discrimination/well-being relation in Asian Americans. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 52, 497–506. doi: 10.1037/0022-0167.52.4.497