Exploring Sexual Minority Women's Experiences of External and Internalized Heterosexism and Sexism and their Links to Coping and Distress

Sex Roles

Volumn 70, Issue 1-2, 2014, Pages 28-42

  Szymanski, Dawn M ^a   Henrichs Beck, Christy ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE   (United States)

Author keywords

Bisexual; Coping; Distress; Heterosexism; Internalized homophobia; Lesbian; Sexism

Indexed keywords

EID: 84893754531     PISSN: 03600025     EISSN: 15732762     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s11199-013-0329-5     Document Type: Article

References (92)

1. Aldwin, C. M. (1991). Does age affect the stress and coping process? Implications of age differences in perceived control. Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 46, 174-180. doi: 10. 1093/geronj/46. 4. P174.
2. Almeida, J., Johnson, R. M., Corliss, H. L., Molnar, B. E., & Azrael, D. (2009). Emotional distress among LGBT youth: The influence of perceived discrimination based on sexual orientation. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 38, 1001-1014. doi: 10. 1007/s10964-009-9397-9.
3. American Psychological Association (2004). Answers to your questions about sexual orientation and homosexuality. Retrieved from http://www. apa. org/pubinfo/answers. html.
4. American Psychological Association. (2007). Guidelines for psychological practice with girls and women. American Psychologist, 62, 949-979. doi: 10. 1037/0003-066X. 62. 9. 949.
5. Balsam, K. F. (2003). Traumatic victimization in the lives of lesbian and bisexual women: A contextual approach. Journal of Lesbian Studies, 7, 1-14. doi: 10. 1300/J155v07n01_01.
6. Balsam, K. F., & Mohr, J. J. (2007). Adaptation to sexual orientation stigma: A comparison of bisexual and lesbian/gay adults. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 54, 306-319. doi: 10. 1037/0022-0167. 54. 3. 306.
7. Balsam, K. F., Rothblum, E. D., & Beauchaine, T. P. (2005). Victimization over the life span: A comparison of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and heterosexual siblings. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73, 477-487. doi: 10. 1037//0022-006X. 73. 3. 477.
8. Bowleg, L. (2008). When African American + lesbian + woman ≠ African American lesbian woman: The methodological challenges of qualitative and quantitative intersectionality research. Sex Roles, 59, 312-325. doi: 10. 1007/s11199-008-9400-z.
9. Buchanan, N. T., & Fitzgerald, L. F. (2008). Effects of racial and sexual harassment on work and the psychological well-being of African American women. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 13, 137-151. doi: 10. 1037/1076-8998. 13. 2. 137.
10. Buchanan, T., & Smith, J. L. (1999). Using the Internet for psychological research: Personality testing on the World Wide Web. British Journal of Psychology, 90, 125-144. doi: 10. 1348/000712699161189.
11. Carver, C. S., Scheier, M. F., & Weintraub, J. K. (1989). Assessing coping strategies: A theoretically based approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 267-283. doi: 10. 1037/0022-3514. 56. 2. 267.
12. Cass, V. C. (1979). Homosexual identity formation: A theoretical model. Journal of Homosexuality, 4, 219-235. doi: 10. 1300/J082v04n03_01.
13. Charles, S. T. (2010). Strength and vulnerability integration (SAVI): A model of emotional well-being across adulthood. Psychological Bulletin, 13, 1068-1091. doi: 10. 1037/a0021232.
14. Charles, S. T., & Carstensen, L. L. (2007). Emotion regulation and aging. In J. J. Bross (Ed.), Handbook of emotion regulation (pp. 307-327). New York: Guilford.
15. Clark, R., Anderson, N. B., Clark, V. R., & Williams, D. R. (1999). Racism as a stressor for African Americans: A biopsychosocial model. American Psychologist, 54, 805-816. doi: 10. 1037/0003-066X. 54. 10. 805.
16. Cochran, S. D. (2001). Emerging issues in research on lesbians' and gay men's mental health: Does sexual orientation really matter? American Psychologist, 56, 931-947. doi: 10. 1037/0003-066x. 55. 12. 1440.
17. Cole, E. R. (2009). Intersectionality and research in psychology. American Psychologist, 64, 170-180. doi: 10. 1037/a0014564.
18. Collins, P. H. (1991). African American feminist thought: Knowledge, consciousness, and the politics of empowerment. New York: Routledge.
19. D'Augelli, A. R., Grossman, A. H., & Starks, M. T. (2006). Parents' awareness of lesbian, gay, and bisexual youths' sexual orientation. Journal of Marriage and Family, 67, 474-482. doi: 10. 1177/0886260506293482.
20. Derogatis, L. R., Lipman, R. S., Rickets, K., Uhlenhuth, E. H., & Covi, L. (1974). The Hopkins Symptom Checklist (HSCL): A self-report symptom inventory. Behavioral Science, 19, 1-14. doi: 10. 1002/bs. 3830190102.
21. Diamond, L. M. (2005). A new view of lesbian subtypes: Stable versus fluid identity trajectories over an 8-year period. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 29, 119-128. doi: 10. 1111/j. 1471-6402. 2005. 00174. x.
22. Diamond, L. M. (2008). Female bisexuality from adolescence to adulthood: Results from a 10- year longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology, 44, 5-14. doi: 10. 1037/0012-1649. 44. 1. 5.
23. Diehl, M., Coyle, N., & Labouvie-Vief, G. (1996). Age and sex differences in strategies of coping and defense across the life span. Psychology and Aging, 11, 127-139. doi: 10. 1037/0882-7974. 11. 1. 127.
24. Diehl, M., Chui, H., Hay, E. L., Lumley, M. A., Grühn, D., & Labouvie-Vief, G. (2013). Change in coping and defense mechanisms across adulthood: Longitudinal findings in a European American sample. Developmental Psychology. doi: 10. 1037/a0033619. Advance online publication.
25. Downing, N., & Roush, K. (1985). From passive acceptance to active commitment: A model of feminist identity development for women. The Counseling Psychologist, 13, 695-709. doi: 10. 1177/0011000085134013.
26. Dyson, R., & Renk, K. (2006). Freshmen adaptation to university life: Depressive symptoms, stress, and coping. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 62, 1231-1244. doi: 10. 1002/jclp. 20295.
27. Fischer, A. R., & Bolton Holtz, K. (2010). Testing a model of women's personal sense of justice, control, well-being, and distress in the context of sexist discrimination. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 34, 297-310.
28. Fischer, A. R., Tokar, D. M., Mergl, M. M., Good, G. E., Hill, M. S., & Blum, S. A. (2000). Assessing women's feminist identity development: Studies of convergent, discriminant, and structural validity. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 24, 15-29. doi: 10. 1111/j. 1471-6402. 2000. tb01018. x.
29. Folkman, S., Lazarus, R. S., Pimley, S., & Novacek, J. (1987). Age differences in stress and coping processes. Psychology and Aging, 2, 171-184. doi: 10. 1037/0882-7974. 2. 2. 171.
30. Frost, D. M., & Meyer, I. H. (2009). Internalized homophobia and relationship quality among lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 56, 97-109. doi: 10. 1037/a0012844.
31. Galupo, M. P. (2007). Women's close friendships across sexual orientation: A comparative analysis of lesbian-heterosexual and bisexual-heterosexual women's friendships. Sex Roles, 56, 473-482. doi: 10. 1007/s11199-007-9186-4.
32. Gosling, S. D., Vazire, S., Srivastava, S., & John, O. P. (2004). Should we trust web-based studies: A comparative analysis of six preconceptions about Internet questionnaires. American Psychologist, 59, 93-104. doi: 10. 1037/0003-066X. 59. 2. 93.
33. Hatzenbuehler, M. L. (2009). How does sexual minority stigma "get under the skin?": A psychological mediation framework. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 707-730. doi: 10. 1037/a0016441.
34. Heppner, P. P., & Lee, D. (2002). Problem solving appraisal and psychological adjustment. In C. R. Snyder & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), Handbook of positive psychology (pp. 288-298). New York: Oxford University.
35. Heppner, P. P., Cook, S. W., Wright, D. M., & Johnson, W. C., Jr. (1995). Progress in resolving problems: A problem focused style of coping. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 42, 279-293. doi: 10. 1037/0022-0167. 42. 3. 279.
36. Herek, G. M. (2009). Hate crimes and stigma-related experiences among sexual minority adults in the United States: Prevalence estimates from a national probability sample. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 24, 54-74. doi: 10. 1177/0886260508316477.
37. Herek, G. M., Cogan, J. C., Gillis, J. R., & Glunt, E. K. (1998). Correlates of internalized homophobia in a community sample of lesbians and gay men. Journal of the Gay and Lesbian Medical Association, 2, 17-25. doi: 10. 1016/0145-2134(92)90011-f.
38. Herek, G. M., Cogan, J. C., & Gillis, J. R. (2000). Psychological well-being and commitment to lesbian, gay, and bisexual identities. Paper presented in G. M. Herek (Chair), Identity, community, and well-being among lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
39. Horne, S. G., & Biss, W. J. (2009). Equality discrepancy between women in same-sex relationships: The mediating role of attachment in relationship satisfaction. Sex Roles, 60, 721-730. doi: 10. 1007/s11199-008-9571-7.
40. Kashubeck-West, S., Szymanski, D. M., & Meyer, J. (2008). Internalized heterosexism: Clinical implications and training considerations. The Counseling Psychologist, 36, 615-630. doi: 10. 1177/0011000007309634.
41. King, K. R. (2003). Racism or sexism? Attributional ambiguity and simultaneous membership in multiple oppressed groups. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 33, 223-247. doi: 10. 1111/j. 1559-1816. 2003. tb01894. x.
42. Klevens, C. L. (2008). Coping style as a moderator between gendered racism and emotional eating and binge eating in African American women. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering, 68(10-B), 6968.
43. Landrine, H., Klonoff, E. A., Alcaraz, R., Scott, J., & Wilkins, P. (1995). Multiple variables in discrimination. In B. Lott & D. Maluso (Eds.), The social psychology of interpersonal discrimination (pp. 193-224). New York: Guilford.
44. Lehavot, K. (2012). Coping strategies and health in a national sample of sexual minority women. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 82, 494-504. doi: 10. 1111/j. 1939-0025. 2012. 01178. x.
45. Lehavot, K., Molina, Y., & Simoni, J. M. (2012). Childhood trauma, adult sexual assault, and adult gender expression among lesbian and bisexual women. Sex Roles, 67, 272-284. doi: 10. 1007/s11199-012-0171-1.
46. Mallinckrodt, B., Abraham, W. T., Wei, M., & Russell, W. (2006). Advances in testing the statistical significance of mediation effects. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 53, 372-378. doi: 10. 1037/0022-0167. 53. 3. 372.
47. Martin, J. L., & Dean, L. L. (1987). Ego-dystonic homosexuality scale. Unpublished manuscript, Columbia University. Available at: http://psychology. ucdavis. edu/rainbow/html/ihpitems. html.
48. Mays, V. M., & Cochran, S. D. (2001). Mental health correlates of perceived discrimination among lesbian, gay, and bisexual adults in the United States. American Journal of Public Health, 91, 1869-1876. doi: 10. 2307/2676322. 2001-10008-004.
49. Meyer, I. H. (2003). Prejudice, social stress, and mental health in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: Conceptual issues and research evidence. Psychological Bulletin, 129, 674-697. doi: 10. 1037/0033-2909. 129. 5. 674.
50. Michalak, E. E., & Szabo, A. (1998). Guidelines for internet research: An update. European Psychologist, 3, 70-75. doi: 10. 1027//1016-9040. 3. 1. 70.
51. Moradi, B., & Subich, L. M. (2003). A concomitant examination of the relations of perceived racist and sexist events to psychological distress for African American women. The Counseling Psychologist, 31, 451-469. doi: 10. 1177/0011000003031004007.
52. Myers, R. (1990). Classical and modern regression with application (2nd ed.). Boston: Duxbury.
53. Nelson, N. L., & Probst, T. M. (2004). Multiple minority individuals: Multiplying the risk of workplace harassment and discrimination. In J. L. Chin (Ed.), The psychology of prejudice and discrimination (pp. 193-217). Westport: Praeger.
54. Nyamathi, A., Wayment, H. A., & Dunkel-Schetter, C. (1993). Psychosocial correlates of emotional distress and risk behavior in African-American women at risk for HIV infection. Anxiety, Stress, and Coping: An International Journal, 6, 133-148. doi: 10. 1080/10615809308248375.
55. Parent, M. C. (2013). Handling item-level missing data: Simpler is just as good. The Counseling Psychologist, 41, 568-600. doi: 10. 1177/0011000012445176.
56. Pargament, K. I., Smith, B. W., Koenig, H. G., & Perez, L. (1998). Patterns of positive and negative religious coping with major life stressors. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 18, 710-724. doi: 10. 2307/1388152.
57. Pargament, K. I., Koenig, H. G., & Perez, L. (2000). The many methods of religious coping: Development and initial validation of the RCOPE. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 56, 519-543. doi: 10. 1177/0011000003031004007.
58. Pascoe, E. A., & Smart Richman, L. (2009). Perceived discrimination and health: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 532-554. doi: 10. 1037/a0016059.
59. Piggot, M. (2004). Double jeopardy: Lesbians and the legacy of multiple stigmatized identities. Unpublished thesis, Psychology Strand at Swinburne University of Technology, Australia.
60. Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2008). Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models. Behavior Research Methods, 40, 879-891. doi: 10. 3758/BRM, 40. 3. 879.
61. Riggle, E. D. B., Rostosky, S. S., & Reedy, C. S. (2005). Online surveys for LGBT research: Issues and techniques. Journal of Homosexuality, 49, 1-21. doi: 10. 1300/J082v49n02_01.
62. Root, M. P. (1992). Reconstructing the impact of trauma on personality. In L. S. Brown & M. Ballou (Eds.), Personality and psychopathology: Feminist reappraisals (pp. 229-265). New York: Guilford.
63. Schmidt, W. C. (1997). World-Wide Web survey research: Benefits, potential problems, and solutions. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 2, 274-279. doi: 10. 3758/BF03204826.
64. Shields, S. A. (2008). Gender: An intersectionality perspective. Sex Roles, 59, 301-311. doi: 10. 1007/s11199-008-9501-8.
65. Shrout, P. E., & Bolger, N. (2002). Mediation in experimental and nonexperimental studies: New procedures and recommendations. Psychological Methods, 7, 422-445. doi: 10. 1037/1082-989X. 7. 4. 422.
66. Sophie, J. (1987). Internalized homophobia and lesbian identity. Journal of Homosexuality, 14, 53-65. doi: 10. 1300/J082v14n01_05.
67. Swim, J. K., Cohen, L. L., & Hyers, L. L. (1998). Experiencing everyday prejudice and discrimination. In J. K. Swim & C. Stangor (Eds.), Prejudice: The target's perspective (pp. 37-60). San Diego: Academic.
68. Swim, J. K., Hyers, L. L., Cohen, L. L., & Ferguson, M. J. (2001). Everyday sexism: Evidence for its incidence, nature, and psychological impact from three daily diary studies. Journal of Social Issues, 57, 31-53. doi: 10. 1111/0022-4537. 00200.
69. Szymanski, D. M. (2004). Relations among dimensions of feminism and internalized heterosexism in lesbians and bisexual women. Sex Roles, 51, 145-159. doi: 10. 1023/B: SERS. 0000037759. 33014. 55.
70. Szymanski, D. M. (2005). Heterosexism and sexism as correlates of psychological distress in lesbians. Journal of Counseling & Development, 83, 355-360. doi: 10. 1002/j. 1556-6678. 2005. tb00355. x.
71. Szymanski, D. M. (2006). Does internalized heterosexism moderate the link between heterosexist events and lesbians' psychological distress? Sex Roles, 54, 227-234. doi: 10. 1007/s11199-006-9340-4.
72. Szymanski, D. M., & Chung, Y. B. (2003). Feminist attitudes and coping resources as correlates of lesbian internalized heterosexism. Feminism & Psychology, 13, 369-389. doi: 10. 1177/0959353503013003008.
73. Szymanski, D. M., & Gupta, A. (2009a). Examining the relationship between multiple oppressions and Asian American sexual minority persons' psychological distress. Journal of Gay and Lesbian Social Services, 21, 267-281. doi: 10. 1080/10538720902772212.
74. Szymanski, D. M., & Gupta, A. (2009b). Examining the relationship between multiple internalized oppressions and African American lesbian, gay, and bisexual persons' self- esteem and psychological distress. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 56, 110-118. doi: 10. 1037/a0013317.
75. Szymanski, D. M., & Kashubeck-West, S. (2008). Mediators of the relationship between internalized oppressions and lesbian and bisexual women's psychological distress. The Counseling Psychologist, 36, 575-594. doi: 10. 1177/0011000007309490.
76. Szymanski, D. M., & Meyer, D. (2008). Racism and heterosexism as correlates of psychological distress in African American sexual minority women. Journal of LGBT Issues in Counseling, 2, 94-108. doi: 10. 1080/15538600802125423.
77. Szymanski, D. M., & Moffitt, L. B. (2012). Sexism and heterosexism. In N. A. Fouad (Ed.), Handbook of counseling psychology: Volume 2 Theories, Practice, training, and policy (pp. 361-390). Washington: American Psychological Association.
78. Szymanski, D. M., & Obiri, O. (2011). Do religious coping styles moderate or mediate the external and internalized racism-distress links? The Counseling Psychologist, 39, 438-462. doi: 10. 1177/0011000010378895.
79. Szymanski, D. M., & Owens, G. P. (2008). Do coping styles moderate or mediate the relationship between internalized heterosexism and sexual minority women's psychological distress? Psychology of Women Quarterly, 32, 95-104. doi: 10. 1111/j. 1471-6402. 2007. 00410. x.
80. Szymanski, D. M., & Owens, G. P. (2009). Group-level coping as a moderator between heterosexism and sexism and psychological distress in sexual minority women. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 33, 197-205. doi: 10. 1111/j. 1471-6402. 2009. 01489. x.
81. Szymanski, D. M., & Stewart, D. (2010). Racism and sexism as correlates of African American women's psychological distress. Sex Roles, 63, 226-238. doi: 10. 1007/s11199-010-9788-0.
82. Szymanski, D. M., Kashubeck-West, S., & Meyer, J. (2008a). Internalized heterosexism: A historical and theoretical overview. The Counseling Psychologist, 36, 510-524. doi: 10. 1177/0011000007309488.
83. Szymanski, D. M., Kashubeck-West, S., & Meyer, J. (2008b). Internalized heterosexism: Measurement, psychosocial correlates, and research directions. The Counseling Psychologist, 36, 525-574. doi: 10. 1177/0011000007309489.
84. Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2001). Using multivariate statistics (4th ed.). Needham Heights: Allyn & Bacon.
85. Thomas, A. J., Witherspoon, K. M., & Speight, S. L. (2004). Toward the development of the Stereotypic Roles of Black Women Scale. Journal of Black Psychology, 30, 426-442. doi: 10. 1177/0095798404266061.
86. Thomas, A. J., Witherspoon, K. M., & Speight, S. L. (2008). Gendered racism, psychological distress, and coping styles of African American women. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 14, 307-314. doi: 10. 1037/1099-9809. 14. 4. 307.
87. Utsey, S. O., Ponterotto, J. G., Reynolds, A. L., & Cancelli, A. A. (2000). Racial discrimination, coping, life satisfaction, and self-esteem among African Americans. Journal of Counseling & Development, 78, 72-81. doi: 10. 1002/j. 1556-6676. 2000. tb02562. x.
88. Warner, L. R. (2008). A best practices guide to intersectional approaches in psychological research. Sex Roles, 59, 454-463. doi: 10. 1007/s11199-008-9504-5.
89. Wei, M., Ku, T., Russell, D. W., Mallincrodt, B., & Liao, K. Y. (2008). Moderating effects of three coping strategies and self esteem on perceived discrimination and depressive symptoms: A minority stress model for Asian International students. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 55, 451-462. doi: 10. 1037/a0012511.
90. Wei, M., Heppner, P. P., Ku, T., & Lia, K. Y. (2010). Racial discrimination stress, coping, and depressive symptoms among Asian Americans: A moderation analysis. Asian American Journal of Psychology, 1, 136-150. doi: 10. 1177/0011000006287.
91. Weston, R., & Gore, P. A. (2006). A brief guide to Structural Equation Modeling. The Counseling Psychologist, 34, 719-751. doi: 10. 1177/0011000006286345.
92. Woods, K. C., Buchanan, N. T., & Settles, I. H. (2008). Sexual harassment across the color line: Experiences and outcomes of cross versus intra-racial sexual harassment among black women. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 15, 1-11. doi: 10. 1037/a0013541.