Demystifying Gender Differences in Mentoring:Theoretical Perspectives and Challenges for Future Research on Gender and Mentoring

Human Resource Development Review

Volumn 5, Issue 2, 2006, Pages 148-175

  Young, Angela M ^a   Cady, Steven ^b   Foxon, Marguerite J ^c  

^a CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b BOWLING GREEN STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c MOTOROLA INC   (United States)

Author keywords

career development; gender; mentoring

Indexed keywords

EID: 84992818739     PISSN: 15344843     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/1534484306287140     Document Type: Article

References (117)

1. Ainsworth, M.D.S., Blehar, M., Waters, E., & Wall, S. (1978). Patterns of attachment. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
2. Allen, T. D., & Eby, L. T. (2004). Factors related to mentor reports of mentoring functions provided: Gender and relational characteristics. Sex Roles, 50, 129-139.
3. Allen, T. D., Poteet, M. L., & Burroughs, S. M. (1997). A field study of factors related to supervisors' willingness to mentor others. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 50, 1-22.
4. Allen, T. D., Poteet, M. L., Eby, L. T., Lentz, E., & Lima, L. (2004). Career benefits associated with mentoring for protégés: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89, 127-136.
5. Allen, T. D., Poteet, M. L., & Russell, J.E.A. (2000). Protégé selection by mentors: What makes the difference? Journal of Organizational Behavior, 21, 271-282.
6. Allen, T. D., Poteet, M. L., Russell, J.E.A., & Dobbins, G. H. (1997). The mentor's perspective: A qualitative inquiry and future research agenda. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 51, 70-89.
7. Aryee, S., & Chay, Y. W. (1994). An examination of the impact of career-oriented mentoring on work commitment attitudes and career satisfaction among professional and managerial employees. British Journal of Management, 5, 241-249.
8. Aryee, S., Chay, Y. W., & Chew, J. (1996). The motivation to mentor among managerial employees: An interactionist approach. Group and Organization Management, 21, 261-277.
9. Atkinson, D. R., Neville, H., & Casas, A. (1991). The mentorship of ethnic minorities in professional psychology. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 22, 336-338.
10. Auster, D. (1984). Mentors and protégés: Power-dependent dyads. Sociological Inquiry, 54, 142-153.
11. Baum, H. S. (1992). Mentoring: Narcissistic fantasies and oedipal realities. Human Relations, 45, 223-245.
12. Berscheid, E. (1994). Interpersonal relationships. Annual Review of Psychology, 45, 79-129.
13. Bierema, L. L. (1998). A synthesis of women's career development issues. New Directions for Adult & Continuing Education, 80, 95-103.
14. Bierema, L. L. (1999). A model of executive women's learning and development. Adult Education Quarterly, 49, 107-119.
15. Bierema, L. L., & D'Abundo, M. L. (2004). HRD with a conscience: Practicing socially responsible HRD. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 25, 443-468.
16. Bowen, D. D. (1985). Were men meant to mentor women? Training and Development Journal, 39(2), 30-34.
17. Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and loss: Vol. 1 Attachment. New York: Basic Books.
18. Broom, M. (1986). The third sex: The new professional woman. New York: William Morrow.
19. Burke, R. J. (1984). Mentors in organizations. Group and Organization Studies, 9, 353-372.
20. Burke, R. J., & McKeen, C. A. (1996). Gender effects in mentoring relationships. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 11, 91-104.
21. Burke, R. J., McKeen, C. A., & McKenna, C. S. (1990). Sex differences and cross-sex effects on mentoring: Some preliminary data. Psychological Reports, 67, 1011-1023.
22. Bushardt, S. C., Fretwell, C., & Holdnak, B. J. (1991). The mentor/protégé relationship: A biological perspective. Human Relations, 44, 619-639.
23. Byrne, D., & Griffitt, W. (1973). Interpersonal attraction. Annual Review of Psychology, 24, 317-336.
24. Byrne, D., Griffitt, W., & Golightly, C. (1966). Prestige as a factor in determining the effect of attitude similarity-dissimilarity on attraction. Journal of Personality, 34, 434-444.
25. Chao, G. T., Walz, P., & Gardner, P. (1992). Formal and informal mentorships: A comparison on mentoring functions and contrast with nonmentored counterparts. Personnel Psychology, 45, 618-636.
26. Clawson, J. G., & Kram, K. E. (1984). Managing cross-gender mentoring. Business Horizons, 27, 22-32.
27. Cox, T. H., & Nkomo, S. M. (1991). A race and gender-group analysis of the early career experience of MBAs. Work & Occupations, 18, 431-446.
28. Crawford, K., & Smith, D. (2005). The we and the us: Mentoring African-American women. Journal of Black Studies, 36, 52-67.
29. Day, N. E. (2000). The relationship among reported disclosure of sexual orientation, antidiscrimination policies, top management support and work attitudes of gay and lesbian employees. Personnel Review, 29, 346-366.
30. Day, N. E., & Schoenrade, P. (1997). Staying in the closet versus coming out: Relationships between communication about sexual orientation at work and work attitudes. Personnel Psychology, 50, 147-163.
31. Dreher, G. F., & Ash, R. A. (1990). A comparative study of mentoring among men and women in managerial, professional, and technical positions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 75(5), 539-546.
32. Dreher, G. F., & Cox, T. H. (1996). Race, gender, and opportunity: A study of compensation attainment and the establishment of mentoring relationships. Journal of Applied Psychology, 81, 297-308.
33. Eby, L. T. (1997). Alternative forms of mentoring in changing organizational environments: A conceptual extension of the mentoring literature. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 51, 125-144.
34. Eby, L. T., & Allen, T. D. (2002). Further investigation of protégés' negative mentoring experiences. Group & Organization Management, 27, 456-479.
35. Eby, L., Butts, M., Lockwood, A., & Simon, S. (2004). Protégés' negative mentoring experiences: Construct development and nomological validation. Personnel Psychology, 57, 411-447.
36. Emerson, R. M. (1962). Power-dependence relations. American Sociological Review, 27, 31-40.
37. Ensher, E. A., & Murphy, S. E. (1997). Effects of race, gender, perceived similarity, and contact on mentor relationships. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 50, 460-481.
38. Fagenson, E. A. (1989). The mentor advantage: Perceived career/job experiences of protégés versus non-protégés. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 10, 309-320.
39. Fagenson-Eland, E. A., Marks, M. A., & Amendola, K. L. (1997). Perceptions of mentoring relationships. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 51, 29-42.
40. Feldman, D. C., Folks, W. R., & Turnley, W. H. (1999). Mentor-protégé diversity and its impact on international internship experiences. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 20, 597-611.
41. Ferris, G. R., Frink, D. D., Galang, M. C., Zhou, J., Kacmar, K. M., & Howard, J. L. (1996). Perceptions of organizational politics: Prediction, stress-related implications, and outcomes. Human Relations, 49, 233-267.
42. Freeman, S.J.M. (1990). Managing lives. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press.
43. George, P., & Kummerow, J. (1981). Mentoring for career women. Training, 18(2), 44-49.
44. Gilbert, L. A., & Rossman, K. M. (1992). Gender and the mentoring process for women: Implications for professional development. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 23(3), 233-238.
45. Gilson, E., & Kane, S. (1987). Unnecessary choices. New York: William Morrow.
46. González-Figueroa, E., & Young, A. M. (2005). Ethnic identity and mentoring among Latinas in professional roles. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology Journal, 11, 213-226.
47. Hardesty, S., & Jacobs, N. (1986). Success and betrayal. New York: Franklin Watts.
48. Harriman, A. (1985). Women/men/management. New York: Praeger.
49. Heilman, M. E., Block, C. J., & Martell, R. F. (1995). Sex stereotypes: Do they influence perceptions of managers? Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 10(6), 237-252.
50. Hezlett, S. A., & Gibson, S. K. (2005). Mentoring and human resource development: Where we are and where we need to go. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 7, 1-24.
51. Hill, S.E.K., Bahniuk, M. H., & Dobos, J. (1989). The impact of mentoring and collegial support on faculty success: An analysis of support behavior, information adequacy, and communication apprehension. Communication Education, 38, 15-32.
52. Homans, G. C. (1958). Social behavior as exchange. American Journal of Sociology, 63, 597-606.
53. Horgan, D. D. (1989). A cognitive learning perspective on women becoming expert managers. Journal of Business and Psychology, 3, 299-313.
54. Horgan, D. D., & Simeon, R. J. (1990). Gender, mentoring, and tacit knowledge. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 5, 453-471.
55. Hunsaker, J., & Hunsaker, P. (1986). Strategies and skills for managerial women. Cincinnati, OH: South-Western Publishing.
56. Hunt, D. M., & Michael, C. (1983). Mentorship: A career training and development tool. Academy of Management Review, 8, 475-485.
57. Hurley, A. (1996). Challenges in cross-gender mentoring relationships: Psychological intimacy, myths, rumours, innuendoes and sexual harassment. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 17, 42-52.
58. Ibarra, H. (1995). Race, opportunity, and diversity of social circles in managerial networks: A conceptual framework. Academy of Management Journal, 38, 673-703.
59. Kalbfleisch, P. J. (2000). Similarity and attraction in business and academic environments: Same and cross-sex mentoring relationships. Review of Business, 21, 58-62.
60. Kalbfleisch, P. J., & Davies, A. B. (1991). Minorities and mentoring: Managing the multicultural institution. Communication Education, 40, 266-271.
61. Kalbfleisch, P. J., & Keyton, J. (1995). Power and equality in mentoring relationships. In P. J. Kalbfleisch & M. J. Cody (Eds.), Gender, power, and communication in human relationships (pp. 189-212). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
62. Karakowsky, L., & Elangovan, A. R. (2001). Risky decision making in mixed-gender teams: Whose risk tolerance matters most? Small Group Research, 32(1), 94-111.
63. Kitzinger, C. (1991). Lesbians and gay men in the workplace: Psychosocial issues. In M. J. Davidson & J. Earnshaw (Eds.), Wiley series on studies in occupational stress (Vol. 8, pp. 223-240). Oxford, UK: John Wiley & Sons.
64. Koberg, C. S., Boss, R. W., Chappell, D., & Ringer, R. C. (1994). Correlates and consequences of protégé mentoring in a large hospital. Group & Organization Management, 19, 219-239.
65. Kram, K. (1983). Phases of the mentor relationship. Academy of Management Journal, 26, 608-625.
66. Kram, K. (1985). Mentoring at work. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman.
67. Lee, J. H., & Nolan, R. E. (1998). The relationship between mentoring and the career advancement of women administrators in Cooperative Extension. Journal of Career Development, 25, 3-13.
68. Levinson, D. J., Darrow, C. N., Klein, E. B., Levinson, M. A., & McKee, B. (1978). Seasons of a man's life. New York: Knopf.
69. Lewis, A. E., & Fagenson, E. A. (1995). Strategies for developing women managers: How well do they fulfill their objectives? Journal of Management Development, 14, 39-53.
70. Luna, G., & Cullen, D. (1990, April). An ethnographic comparison of mentoring functions for women in academe and business. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Boston. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 322 817)
71. March, J. G., & Simon, H. A. (1958). Organizations. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
72. Marrujo, R. E., & Kleiner, B. H. (1992). Why women fail to get to the top. Equal Opportunities International, 11, 1-6.
73. Martin, P. Y. (2003). “Said and done” versus “saying and doing”: Gendering practices, practicing gender at work. Gender & Society, 17, 342-266.
74. Martin, P. Y. (2004). Gender as a social institution. Social Forces, 82, 1249-1273.
75. Martins-Crane, M.D.L., Beyerlein, M. M., & Johnson, D. A. (1995). Adjusting models of gender and work to new environments. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 10, 27-50.
76. Merriam, S. (1983). Mentors and protégés: A critical review of the literature. Adult Education Quarterly, 33, 161-173.
77. Mertz, N., Welch, O., & Henderson, J. (1987, November). Why women aren't mentored. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Portland, Oregon. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 292 953)
78. Michinov, E., & Monteil, J. (2002). The similarity-attraction relationship revisited: Divergence between the affective and behavioral facets of attraction. European Journal of Social Psychology, 32, 485-500.
79. Miller, D. L., & Karakowsky, L. (2005). Gender influences as an impediment to knowledge sharing: When men and women fail to seek peer feedback. Journal of Psychology, 139(2), 101-118.
80. Morrison, A. M., White, R. P., & Van Velsor, E. (1987). Breaking the glass ceiling. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
81. Noe, R. A. (1988a). An investigation of the determinants of successful assigned mentoring relationships. Personnel Psychology, 41, 457-479.
82. Noe, R. A. (1988b). Women and mentoring: A review and research agenda. Academy of Management Review, 13, 65-78.
83. Noe, R. A., Greenberger, D. B., & Wang, S. (2002). Mentoring: What we know and where we might go. In G. R. Ferris & J. J. Martocchio (Eds.), Research in personnel and human resource management (Vol. 21, pp. 129-173). New York: Elsevier Science.
84. Olian, J. D., Carroll, S. J., & Giannantonio, C. M. (1993). Mentor reactions to protégés: An experiment with managers. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 43, 266-278.
85. Olian, J. D., Carroll, S. J., Giannantonio, C. M., & Feren, D. B. (1988). What do protégés look for in a mentor? Results of three experimental studies. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 33, 15-37.
86. Perrewé, P. L., Young, A. M., & Blass, F. R. (2002). Mentoring within the political arena. In G. R. Ferris, M. R. Buckley, & D. B. Fedor (Eds.), Human resources management: Perspectives, context, functions, and outcomes (4th ed., pp. 343-355). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
87. Ragins, B. R. (1989). Barriers to mentoring: The female manager's dilemma. Human Relations, 42, 1-22.
88. Ragins, B. R. (1997). Diversified mentoring relationships in organizations: A power perspective. Academy of Management Review, 22, 482-521.
89. Ragins, B. R. (1999). Gender and mentoring relationships: A review and research agenda for the next decade. In G. N. Powell (Ed.), Handbook of gender and work (pp. 347-370). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
90. Ragins, B. R. (2004). Sexual orientation in the workplace: The unique work and career experiences of gay, lesbian and bisexual workers. In J. J. Martocchio (Ed.), Research in personnel and human resources management (pp. 35-129). New York: JAI Press.
91. Ragins, B. R., & Cotton, J. (1991). Easier said than done: Gender differences in perceived barriers to gaining a mentor. Academy of Management Journal, 34, 939-951.
92. Ragins, B. R., & Cotton, J. (1993). Wanted: Mentors for women. Personnel Journal, 72, 20-21.
93. Ragins, B. R., & Cotton, J. (1999). Mentor functions and outcomes: A comparison of men and women in formal and informal mentoring relationships. Journal of Applied Psychology, 84, 529-549.
94. Ragins, B. R., & McFarlin, D. B. (1990). Perceptions of mentor roles in cross-gender mentoring relationships. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 37, 321-339.
95. Ragins, B. R., & Scandura, T. A. (1994). Gender differences in expected outcomes of mentoring relationships. Academy of Management Journal, 37, 957-971.
96. Ragins, B. R., & Scandura, T. A. (1997). The way we were: Gender and the termination of mentoring relationships. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82, 945-953.
97. Ragins, B. R., Townsend, B., & Mattis, M. (1998). Gender gap in the executive suite: CEOs and female executives report on breaking the glass ceiling. Academy of Management Executive, 12, 28-42.
98. Reciniello, S. (1999). The emergence of a powerful female workforce as a threat to organizational identity: What psychoanalysis can offer. American Behavioral Scientist, 43, 301-323.
99. Russell, J.E.A., & Adams, D. M. (1997). The changing nature of mentoring in organizations: An introduction to the special issue on mentoring in organizations. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 51, 1-14.
100. Scandura, T. A. (1998). Dysfunctional mentoring relationships and outcomes. Journal of Management, 24, 449-467.
101. Scandura, T. A., & Ragins, B. R. (1993). The effects of sex and gender role orientation on mentorship in male-dominated occupations. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 43, 251-265.
102. Scandura, T. A., & Schriesheim, C. (1994). Leader-member exchange and supervisor career mentoring as complementary constructs in leadership research. Academy of Management Journal, 37, 1588-1602.
103. Shapiro, E. C., Haseltine, F. P., & Rowe, M. P. (1977). Moving up: Role models, mentors, and the “patron system.” Sloan Management Review, 19, 51-58.
104. Sprecher, S. (1998). Insiders' perspectives on reasons for attraction to a close other. Social Psychology Quarterly, 61, 287-300.
105. Struthers, N. J. (1995). Differences in mentoring: A function or organizational rank? Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 10, 265-272.
106. Snyder, R. A., & Morris, J. H. (1978). Competence as a moderator of the similarity/attraction relationship: Development and application of a new index. Journal of Psychology, 99, 235-244.
107. Tepper, B. J., Brown, S. J., & Hunt, M. (1993). Strength of subordinates' upward influence tactics and gender congruency effects. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 23, 1903-1919.
108. Thomas, D. A. (1990). The impact of race on managers' experiences of developmental relationships (mentoring and sponsorship): An intra-organizational study. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 11, 479-492.
109. Thye, S. R. (2000). A status value theory of power in exchange relations. American Sociological Review, 65, 407-433.
110. Turban, D. B., & Dougherty, T. W. (1994). Role of protégé personality in receipt of mentoring and career success. Academy of Management Journal, 37, 688-702.
111. Turban, D. B., Dougherty, T. W., & Lee, F. K. (2002). Gender, race and perceived similarity effects in developmental relationships: The moderating role of relationship duration. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 61, 240-262.
112. van Ijzendoorn, M. (1995). Adult attachment representations, parental responsiveness, and infant attachment: A meta-analysis on the predictive validity of the Adult Attachment Interview. Psychological Bulletin, 117, 387-403.
113. Wanberg, C., Welsh, E. T., & Hezlett, S. A. (2003). Mentoring research: A review and dynamic process model. Research in Personnel and Human Resources Management, 22, 39-124.
114. West, C., & Zimmerman, D. H. (1987). Doing gender. Gender and Society, 1(2), 125-151.
115. Whitely, W., Dougherty, T., & Dreher, G. (1991). Relationship of career mentoring and socioeconomic origin to managers' and professionals' early career progress. Academy of Management Journal, 34, 331-351.
116. Young, A. M., & Perrewé, P. L. (2000a). An examination of the exchange relationship between mentors and protégés: The development of a framework. Human Resource Management Review, 10, 177-209.
117. Young, A. M., & Perrewé, P. L. (2000b). What did you expect? An examination of career-related support and social support among mentors and protégés. Journal of Management, 26, 611-632.