Associations between trajectories of perceived racial discrimination and psychological symptoms among African American adolescents

Development and Psychopathology

Volumn 26, Issue 4, 2014, Pages 1049-1065

  Smith Bynum, Mia A ^a   Lambert, Sharon F ^b   English, Devin ^b   Ialongo, Nicholas S ^c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND   (United States)

^b GEORGE WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ADOLESCENT; AFRICAN AMERICAN; AGGRESSION; ANXIETY; CHILD; CHILD PSYCHOLOGY; DEPRESSION; FEMALE; HUMAN; LONGITUDINAL STUDY; MALE; PSYCHOLOGY; RACISM;

ADOLESCENT; AFRICAN AMERICANS; AGGRESSION; ANXIETY; CHILD; DEPRESSION; FEMALE; HUMANS; LONGITUDINAL STUDIES; MALE; PSYCHOLOGY, ADOLESCENT; RACISM;

EID: 84991503782     PISSN: 09545794     EISSN: 14692198     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0954579414000571     Document Type: Article

References (110)

1. Agnew, R. (1992). Foundation for a general strain theory of crime and delinquency. Criminology, 30, 47-88. doi:10. 111/j. 1745-9125. 1992. tb01093. x
2. Agnew, R. (2001). Building on the foundation of general strain theory: Specifyingthe types of strain most likely to lead to crime and delinquency. Journalof Research in Crime and Delinquency, 38, 319-361. doi:10. 1177/0022427801038004001
3. Akaike, H. (1987). Factor analysis and AIC. Psychometrika, 52, 317-332. doi:10. 1007/BF02294359
4. American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manualof mental disorders (4th ed. ). Washington, DC: Author.
5. Arbuckle, J. L. (1996). Full information estimation in the presence of incompletedata. In G. A. Marcoulides&R. E. Schumacker (Eds. ), Advanced structuralequation modeling: Issues and techniques. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
6. Asarnow, J. R., Carlson, G. A. (1985). Depression self-rating scale: Utilitywith child psychiatric inpatients. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 53, 491-499. doi:10. 1037//0022-006X. 53. 4. 491
7. Berkel, C., Murry, V. M., Hurt, T. R., Chen, Y., Brody, G. H., Simons, R. L., et al. (2009). It takes a village: Protecting rural African American youth inthe context of racism. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 28, 175-188. doi:10. 1007/s10964-008-9346-z
8. Bongers, I. L., Koot, H. M., Van Der Ende, J., Verhulst, F. C. (2004). Developmentaltrajectories of externalizing behaviors in childhood and adolescence. Child Development, 75, 1523-1537. doi:10. 1111/j. 1467-8624. 2004. 00755. x
9. Borrell, L., Kiefe, C., Williams, D., Diez-Roux, A., Gordon-Larsen, P. (2006). Self-reported health, perceived racial discrimination, and skincolor in African Americans in the CARDIA study. Social Science&Medicine(1982), 63, 1415-1427. doi:10. 1016/j. socscimed. 2006. 04. 008
10. Bowleg, L. (2008). When black lesbian woman=black lesbian woman: Themethodological challenges of qualitative and quantitative intersectionalityresearch. Sex Roles, 59, 312-325. doi:10. 1007/s11199-008-9400-z
11. Brendgen, M., Wanner, B., Morin, A. J., Vitaro, F. (2005). Relations withparents and with peers, temperament, and trajectories of depressed moodduring early adolescence. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 33, 579-594. doi:10. 1007/s10802-005-6739-2
12. Brody, G. H., Chen, Y. F., Murry, V. M., Ge, X., Simons, R. L. (2006). Perceiveddiscrimination and the adjustment of African American youths: Afive-year longitudinal analysis with contextual moderation effects. ChildDevelopment, 77, 1170-1189. doi:10. 1111/j. 1467-8624. 2006. 00927. x
13. Brown, C. S., Bigler, R. (2005). Children's perception of discrimination: Adevelopmental model. Child Development, 76, 533-553. doi:10. 1111/j. 1467-8624. 2005. 00862. x
14. Burton, L. M., Bonilla-Silva, E., Ray, V., Buckelew, R., Freeman, E. H. (2010). Critical race theories, colorism, and the decade's research on familiesof color. Journal of Marriage and Family, 72, 440-459. doi:10. 1111/j. 1741-3737. 2010. 00712. x
15. Bynum, M. S., Best, C., Barnes, S. L., Burton, E. T. (2008). Private regard, identity protection, and perceived racism among African American adolescents. Journal of African American Studies, 12, 142-155. doi:10. 1007/s12111-008-9038-5
16. Caldwell, C. H., Kohn-Wood, L. P., Scmeelk-Cone, K. H., Chavous, T. M., Zimmerman, M. A. (2004). Racial discrimination and racial identity as arisk or protective factors for violent behaviors in African American youngadults. American Journal of Community, 33, 91-105. doi:10. 1023/B:AJCP. 0000014321. 02367. dd
17. Carter, R. T. (2007). Racism and psychological and emotional injury recognizingand assessing race-based traumatic stress. Counseling Psychologist, 35, 13-105. doi:10. 1177/0011000006292033
18. Chavous, T. M., Rivas-Drake, D., Smalls, C., Griffin, T., Cogburn, C. (2008). Gender matters, too: The influences of school racial discriminationand racial identity on academic engagement outcomes among AfricanAmerican adolescents. Developmental Psychology, 44, 637-654. doi:10. 1037/0012-1649. 44. 3. 637
19. Chen, E., Matthews, K. A. (2001). Cognitive appraisal biases: An approachto understanding the relation between socioeconomic status and cardiovascularreactivity in children. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 23, 101-111. doi:10. 1207/S15324796ABM2302-4
20. Clark, R., Anderson, N. B., Clark, V. R., Williams, D. R. (1999). Racismas a stressor: A biopsychosocial model. American Psychologist, 54, 805-816. doi:10. 1037/0003066X. 54. 10. 80
21. Clark, R., Gochett, P. (2006). Interactive effects of perceived racism andcoping responses predict a school-based assessment of blood pressurein black youth. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 32, 1-9. doi:10. 1207/s15324796abm3201-1
22. Collins, P. H. (1998). It's all in the family: Intersections of gender, race, andnation. Hypatia, 13, 62-82. doi:10. 1111/j. 1527-2001. 1998. tb01370. x
23. Cooper, S. M., McLoyd, V. C., Wood, D., Hardaway, C. R. (2008). Racialdiscrimination and the mental health of African American adolescents. InS. M. Quintana, C. McKown (Eds. ), Handbook of race, racism, and thedeveloping child (pp. 278-312). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
24. Copeland, W. E., Shanahan, L., Costello, J., Angold, A. (2009). Childhoodand adolescent psychiatric disorders as predictors of young adultdisorders. Archives of General Psychiatry, 66, 764-772. doi:10. 1001/archgenpsychiatry. 2009. 85
25. Costello, D. M., Swendsen, J., Rose, J. S., Dierker, L. C. (2008). Risk andprotective factors associated with trajectories of depressed mood fromadolescence to early adulthood. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 76, 173-183. doi:10. 1037/0022-006X. 76. 2. 173
26. Crenshaw, K. (1989). Demarginalizing the intersection of race and sex: Ablack feminist critique of antidiscrimination doctrine, feminist theoryand antiracist politics. University of Chicago Legal Forum, 139-167. Retrievedfrom http://heinonline. org/HOL/Pagehandlehein. journals/uchclf1989&div10&g-sent1&collectionjournals#143
27. Crenshaw, K. W. (1991). Mapping the margins: Intersectionality, identitypolitics, and violence against Women of Color. Stanford Law Review, 43, 1241-1299. doi:dx. doi. org/10. 2307/1229039
28. Crosby, F. (1984). The denial of personal discrimination. American BehavioralScientist, 27, 371-386.
29. Deardorff, J., Gonzales, N. A., Sandler, I. N. (2003). Control beliefs as amediator of the relation between stress and depressive symptoms amonginner-city adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 31, 205-217. doi:10. 1023/A:1022582410183
30. Dekker, M. C., Ferdinand, R. F., Van Lang, N. D., Bongers, I. L., Van DerEnde, J., Verhulst, F. C. (2007). Developmental trajectories of depressivesymptoms from early childhood to late adolescence: Gender differencesand adult outcome. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 48, 657-666. doi:10. 1111/j. 1469-7610. 2007. 01742. x
31. Dotterer, A. M., McHale, S. M., Crouter, A. C. (2009). Socioculturalfactors and school engagement among African American youth:The roles of racial discrimination, racial socialization, and ethnicidentity. Applied Developmental Science, 13, 61-73. doi:10. 1080/10888690902801442
32. Dulin-Keita, A., Hannon III, L., Fernandez, J. R., Cockerham, W. C. (2011). The defining moment: Children's conceptualization of race andexperiences with racial discrimination. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 34, 662-682. doi:10. 1080/01419870. 2011. 535906
33. Eccles, J. S., Wong, C. A., Peck, S. C. (2006). Ethnicity as a social contextfor the development of African-American adolescents. Journal of SchoolPsychology, 44, 407-426. doi:10. 1016/j. jsp. 2006. 04. 001
34. English, D., Lambert, S. F., Ialongo, N. S. (in press). Longitudinalassociations between experienced racial discrimination and depressivesymptoms in African American adolescents. Developmental Psychology.
35. Fisher, C. B., Wallace, S. A., Fenton, R. E. (2000). Discrimination distressduring adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 29, 679-695. doi:10. 1023/A:1026455906512
36. French, S. E., Seidman, E., Allen, L., Aber, J. L. (2006). The developmentof ethnic identity during adolescence. Developmental Psychology, 42, 1-10. doi:10. 1037/0012-1649. 42. 1. 1
37. Frye, A. A., Liem, J. H. (2011). Diverse patterns in the development of depressivesymptoms among emerging adults. Journal of Adolescent Research, 26, 570-590. doi:10. 1177/0743558411402336
38. Gaertner, S. L., Dovidio, J. F. (1986). The aversive form of racism. Reading, MA: Academic Press.
39. Garcá Coll, C., Lamberty, G., Jenkins, R., McAdoo, H. P., Crnic, K., Wasik, B. H., et al. (1996). An integrative model for the study of developmentalcompetencies in minority children. Child Development, 67, 1891-1914. doi:10. 1111/j. 1467-8624. 1996. tb01834. x
40. Gaylord-Harden, N. K., Cunningham, J. A. (2009). The impact of racialdiscrimination and coping strategies on internalizing symptoms in AfricanAmerican youth. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 38, 532-543. doi:10. 1007/s10964-008-9377-5
41. Gibbons, F. X., Gerrard, M., Cleveland, M. J., Wills, T. A., Brody, G. (2004). Perceived discrimination and substance use in African Americanparents and their children: A panel study. Journal of Personality and SocialPsychology, 86, 517-529. doi:10. 1037/00223514. 86. 4. 517
42. Grant, K. E., Compas, B. E., Thurm, A. E., McMahon, S. D., Gipson, P. Y. (2004). Stressors and child and adolescent psychopathology: Measurementissues and prospective effects. Journal of Clinical Child, AdolescentPsychology, 33, 412-425. doi:10. 1207/s15374424jccp3302-23
43. Greene, M. L., Way, N., Pahl, K. (2006). Trajectories of perceived adultand peer discrimination among Black, Latino, and Asian American adolescents:Patterns and psychological correlates. Developmental Psychology, 42, 218-236. doi:10. 1037/0012-1649. 42. 2. 218
44. Hammond, W. P. (2012). Taking it like a man: Masculine role norms as moderatorsof the racial discrimination-depressive symptoms associationamong African American men. American Journal of Public Health, 102(Suppl. 2), S232-S241. doi:10. 2105/AJPH. 2011. 300485
45. Harrell, S. P. (1997a). The Racism and Life Experiences Scales (RaLES-Revised). Unpublished manuscript, Pepperdine University.
46. Harrell, S. P. (1997b). Development and initial validation of scales to measureracism-related stress. Unpublished manuscript, Pepperdine University.
47. Harrell, S. P. (2000). A multidimensional conceptualization of racism-relatedstress: Implications for the well-being of people of color. American Journalof Orthopsychiatry, 70, 42-57. doi:10. 1037/h0087722
48. Harrison, M. S., Thomas, K. M. (2009). The hidden prejudice in selection:A research investigation on skin color bias. Journal of Applied SocialPsychology, 39, 134-168. doi:10. 1111/j. 1559-1816. 2008. 00433. x
49. Helson, H. (1964). Adaptation level theory: An experimental and systematicapproach to behavior. New York: Harper, Row.
50. Henry, D. B., Miller-Johnson, S., Simon, T. R., Schoeny, M. E., the MultisiteViolence Prevention Project. (2006). Validity of teacher ratings in selectinginfluential aggressive adolescents for a targeted preventive intervention. Prevention Science, 7, 31-41. doi:10. 1007/s11121-005-0004-3
51. Hughes, D., Johnson, D. (2001). Correlates in children's experiences ofparents' racial socialization behaviors. Journal of Marriage and Family, 63, 981-995. doi:10. 1111/j. 1741-3737. 2001. 00981. x
52. Hughes, D. L. Rodriguez, J., Smith, E. P., Johnson, D. J., Stevenson, H. C., Spicer, P. (2006). Parents' ethnic-racial socialization practices: A reviewof research and directions for future study. Developmental Psychology, 42, 747-777. doi:10. 1037/0012-1649. 42. 5. 747
53. Ialongo, N. S., Kellam, S. G., Poduska, J. (1999). Manual for the BaltimoreHow I Feel (Tech. Rep. No. 2). Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins UniversityPress.
54. Ialongo, N. S., Werthamer, L., Kellam, S. G. (1999). Proximal impact oftwo first-grade preventive interventions on the early risk behaviors for latersubstance abuse, depression, and antisocial behavior. American Journalof Community, 27, 599-641. doi:10. 1023/A:1022137920532
55. Jackson, P. B., Stewart, Q. T. (2003). A research agenda for the black middleclass: Work stress, survival strategies, and mental health. Journal ofHealth and Social Behavior, 44, 442-455. doi:10. 2307/1519789
56. Jones, J. M. (1997). Prejudice and racism (2nd ed. ). NewYork:McGraw-Hill.
57. Kovacs, M. (1983). The Children's Depression Inventory: A self-rated depressionscale for school-age youngsters. Unpublished manuscript, Universityof Pittsburgh.
58. Lambert, S. F., Herman, K. C., Bynum, M. S., Ialongo, N. S. (2009). Perceptionsof racism and depressive symptoms in African American adolescents:The role of perceived academic and social control. Journalof Youth and Adolescence, 38, 519-531. doi:10. 1007/s10964-009-9393-0
59. Lazarus, R. S., Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. New York: Springer.
60. Lewinsohn, P. M., Joiner, Jr., T. E., Rohde, P. (2001). Evaluation of cognitivediathesis-stress models in predicting major depressive disorder in adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 110, 203-215. doi:10. 1037/0021-843X. 110. 2. 203
61. Little, R. J. (1995). Modeling the dropout mechanism in repeated-measuresstudies. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 90, 1112-1121. doi:10. 1080/01621459. 1995. 10476615
62. Lo, Y., Mendell, N., Rubin, D. B. (2001). Testing the number of componentsin a normal mixture. Biometrika, 88, 767-778. doi:10. 1093/biomet/88. 3. 767
63. McDonald, R. P., Ho, M.-H. R. (2002). Principles and practice in reportingstructural equation analyses. Psychological Methods, 7, 64-82. doi:10. 1037/1082-989X. 7. 1. 64
64. McKown, C. (2004). Age and ethnic variation in children's thinking aboutthe nature of racism. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 25, 597-617. doi:l0. 1016/j. appdev. 2004. 08. 001
65. McKown, C., Weinstein, R. S. (2003). The development and consequencesof stereotype consciousness in middle childhood. Child Development, 74, 498-515. doi:10. 1111/1467-8624. 7402012
66. Muthén, B. (2003). Statistical and substantive checking in growth mixturemodeling: Comment on Bauer and Curran (2003). PsychologicalMethods, 8, 369-377. doi:10. 1037/1082989X. 8. 3. 369
67. Muthén, B. (2004). Latent variable analysis: Growth mixture modeling andrelated techniques for longitudinal data. In D. Kaplan (Ed. ), Handbookof quantitative methodology for the social sciences (pp. 345-368). ThousandOaks, CA: Sage.
68. Muthén, B. O., Curran, P. J. (1997). General longitudinal modeling of individualdifferences in experimental designs:A latent variable frameworkfor analysis and power estimation. Psychology Methods, 2, 371-402. doi:10. 1037/1082-989X. 2. 4. 371
69. Muthén, B. O., Shedden, K. (1999). Finite mixture modeling withmixture outcomes using the EM algorithm. Biometrica, 55, 463-469. doi:10. 1111/j. 0006-341X. 1999. 00463. x
70. Muthén, L. K., Muthén, B. O. (1998-2010). Mplus user's guide (4th ed. ). Los Angeles: Author.
71. Nagin, D. S., Tremblay, R. E. (1999). Trajectories of boys' physical aggression, opposition, and hyperactivity on the path to physically violent andnonviolent juvenile delinquency. Child Development, 70, 1181-1196.
72. Nagin, D. S., Tremblay, R. E. (2001). Analyzing developmental trajectoriesof distinct but related behaviors: A group-based method. PsychologicalMethods, 6, 18-34. doi:10. 1037//1082-989X. 6. 1. 18
73. Neblett, E. W., Philip, C. L., Cogburn, C. D., Sellers, R. M. (2006). AfricanAmerican adolescents' discrimination experiences and academic achievement:Racial socialization as a cultural compensatory and protectivefactor. Journal of Black Psychology, 32, 199-218. doi:10. 1177/0095798406287072
74. Nyborg, V. M., Curry, J. F. (2003). The impact of perceived racism: Psychologicalsymptoms among African American boys. Journal of ClinicalChild and Adolescent Psychology, 32, 258-266. doi:10. 1207/S15374424JCCP3202-11
75. Nylund, K. L., Asparouhov, T., Muthén, B. O. (2007). Deciding on thenumber of classes in latent class analysis and growth mixture modeling:AMonte Carlo simulation study. Structural Equation Modeling, 14, 535-569. doi:10. 1080/10705510701575396
76. Pachter, L. M., Bernstein, B. A., Szalacha, L. A., Coll, C. G. (2010). Perceivedracism and discrimination in children and youths: An exploratorystudy. Health, Social Work, 35, 61-69. doi:10. 1093/hsw/35. 1. 61
77. Petras, H., Chilcoat, H. D., Leaf, P. J., Ialongo, N. S., Kellam, S. G. (2004). Utility of TOCA-R scores during the elementary school years in identifyinglater violence among adolescent males. Journal of the AmericanAcademy of Child, Adolescent Psychiatry, 43, 88-96. doi:10. 1097/00004583-200401000-00018
78. Phinney, J. S. (1992). The Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure: A new scalefor use with diverse groups. Journal of Adolescent Research, 7, 156-176. doi:10. 1177/074355489272003
79. Prelow, H. M., Danoff-Burg, S., Swenson, R. R., Pulgiano, D. (2004). Theimpact of ecological risk and perceived discrimination on the psychologicaladjustment of African American and European American youth. Journal of Community Psychology, 32, 375-389. doi:10. 1002/jcop. 20007
80. Raver, J. L., Nishii, L. H. (2010). Once, twice, or three times as harmfulEthnic harassment, gender harassment, and generalized workplace harassment. Journal of Applied Psychology, 95, 236-254. doi:10. 1037/a0018377
81. Repetto, P. B., Caldwell, C. H., Zimmerman, M. A. (2004). Trajectories ofdepressive symptoms among high risk African-American adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Health, 35, 468-477. doi:dx. doi. org/10. 1016/j. jadohealth. 2003. 12. 007
82. Reynolds, C. R., Richmond, B. O. (1985). RevisedChildren'sManifest AnxietyScale (RCMAS) manual. Los Angeles, CA:Western Psychological Services.
83. Rodriguez, D., Moss, H. B., Audrain-McGovern, J. (2005). Developmentalheterogeneity in adolescent depressive symptoms: Associationswith smoking behavior. Psychosomatic Medicine, 67, 200-210. doi:10. 1097/01. psy. 0000156929. 83810. 01
84. Rome, D. (2004). Black demons: The media's depiction of the African Americanmale criminal stereotype. Westport, CT: Praeger.
85. Rosenbloom, S. R., Way, N. (2004). Experiences of discrimination amongAfrican American, Asian American, and Latino adolescents in an urbanhigh school. Youth, Society, 35, 420-451. doi:10. 1177/0044118X03261479
86. Salvatore, J., Shelton, J. N. (2007). Cognitive costs of exposure to racialprejudice. Psychological Science, 18, 810-815. doi:10. 1111/j. 1467-9280. 2007. 01984. x
87. Sanders-Phillips, K. (2009). Racial discrimination: A continuum of violenceexposure for children of color. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 12, 174-195. doi:10. 1007/s10567-009-0053-4
88. Schaeffer, C. M, Petras, H., Ialongo, N. S., Poduska, J., Kellam, S. (2003). Modeling growth in boys' aggressive behavior across elementary school:Links to later criminal involvement, conduct disorder, and antisocial personalitydisorder. Developmental Psychology, 39, 1020-1035. doi:10. 1037/0012-1649. 39. 6. 1020
89. Schafer, J. L., Graham, J. W. (2002). Missing data:Our viewof the state of theart. Psychological Methods, 7, 147-177. doi:10. 1037//1082-989X.7.2.147
90. Schwartz, G. (1978). Estimating the dimension of a model. Annals of Statistics, 6, 461-464. doi:10. 1214/aos/1176344136
91. Sclove, S. L. (1987). Application of model-selection criteria to someproblems in multivariate analysis. Psychometrika, 52, 333-343. doi:10. 1007/BF02294360
92. Seaton, E. K. (2010). The influence of cognitive development and perceivedracial discrimination on the psychological well-being of African Americanyouth. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 39, 694-703. doi:10. 1007/s10964-009-9438-4
93. Seaton, E. K., Caldwell, C. H., Sellers, R. M., Jackson, J. S. (2008). Theprevalence of perceived discrimination among African American andCaribbean Black youth. Developmental Psychology, 44, 1288-1297. doi:10. 1037/a0012747
94. Seaton, E. K., Scottham, K. M., Sellers, R. M. (2006). The status model ofracial identity development in African American adolescents: Evidenceof structure, trajectories, and well-being. Child Development, 77, 1416-1426. doi:10. 1111/j. 1467-8624. 2006. 00944. x
95. Sellers, R. M., Caldwell, C. H., Schmeelk-Cone, K. H., Zimmerman, M. A. (2004). Racial identity, racial discrimination, perceived stress, and psychologicaldistress among African American young adults. Journal ofHealth, Social Behavior, 44, 302-317. doi:10. 2307/1519781
96. Sellers, R. M., Copeland-Linder, N., Martin, P. P., Lewis, R. L. (2006). Racialidentitymatters: The relationship between racial discrimination and psychologicalfunctioning in African American adolescents. Journal of Researchon Adolescence, 16, 187-216. doi:10. 1111/j. 1532-7795. 2006. 00128. x
97. Sellers, R. M., Shelton, J. N. (2003). The role of racial identity in perceivedracial discrimination. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 1079-1092. doi:10. 1037/0022-3514. 84. 5. 1079
98. Shaffer, D., Fisher, P., Lucas, C., Dulcan, M., Schwab-Stone, M. (2000). NIMH Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children Version IV (NIMHDISC-IV): Description, differences from previous versions, and reliabilityof some common diagnoses. Journal of the American Academy of Child &Adolescent Psychiatry, 39, 28-38. doi:10. 1097/00004583-20000100000014
99. Simons, R. L., Chen, Y., Stewart, E. A., Brody, G. H. (2003). Incidents ofdiscrimination and risk for delinquency: A longitudinal test of strain theorywith an African American sample. Justice Quarterly, 20, 827-854. doi:10. 1080/07418820300095711
100. Simons, R. L., Murry, V., McLoyd, V., Lin, K.-H., Cutrona, C., Conger, R. D. (2002). Discrimination, crime, ethnic identity, and parenting as correlatesof depressive symptoms among African American children: A multilevelanalysis. Development and Psychopathology, 14, 371-393. doi:10. 1017/S0954579402002109
101. Social Science Data Analysis Network. (2011). Baltimore, MD SegregationNeighborhood Exposure by Race.
102. William H. Frey and Dowell Myers'analysis of Census 2000; and the Social Science Data Analysis Network. Retrieved from www. censusscope. org
103. Spence, S. H. (1997). Structure of anxiety symptoms among children: A confirmatoryfactor-analytic study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 106, 280-297. doi:10. 1037//0021843X. 106. 2. 280
104. Stoolmiller, M., Kim, H. K., Capaldi, D. M. (2005). The course of depressivesymptoms in men from early adolescence to young adulthood: Identifyinglatent trajectories and early predictors. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 114, 331. doi:10. 1037/0021-843X. 114. 3. 331
105. Taylor, D. M., Wright, S. C., Porter, L. E. (1993). Dimensions of perceiveddiscrimination: The personal/group discrimination discrepancy. In M. P. Zanna, J. M. Olson (Eds. ), The psychology of prejudice: The OntarioSymposium (Vol. 7, pp. 233-255). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
106. Utsey, S. O., Ponterotto, J. G., Reynolds, A. L., Cancelli, A. A. (2000). Racialdiscrimination, coping, life satisfaction, and self-esteem among AfricanAmericans. Journal of Counseling, Development, 78, 72-80. doi:10. 1002/j. 1556-6676. 2000. tb02562. x
107. Weber, L., Parra-Medina, D. (2003). Intersectionality and women's health:Charting a path to eliminating health disparities. Advances in Gender Research, 7, 181-230. doi:10. 1016/S1529-2126(03)07006
108. Werthamer-Larsson, L., Kellam, S. G., Wheeler, L. (1991). Effect of firstgradeclassroom environment on child shy behavior, aggressive behavior, and concentration problems. American Journal of Community Psychology, 19, 585-602. doi:10. 1007/BF00937993
109. Whitbeck, L. B., Hoyt, D. R., McMorris, B. J., Chen, X., Stubben, J. D. (2001). Perceived discrimination and early substance abuse amongAmerican Indian children. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 42, 405-424. doi:10. 2307/3090187
110. Williams, D. R., Mohammed, S. A. (2009). Discrimination and racial disparitiesin health: Evidence and needed research. Journal of BehavioralMedicine, 32, 20-47. doi:l0.1007/s10865-008-9185-0