Gut microbiota: A contributing factor to obesity

Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology

Volumn 6, Issue AUG, 2016, Pages

  Harakeh, Steve M ^a   Khan, Imran ^a   Kumosani, Taha ^a   Barbour, Elie ^a,b   Almasaudi, Saad B ^a   Bahijri, Suhad M ^a   Alfadul, Sulaiman M ^c   Ajabnoor, Ghada M A ^a   Azhar, Esam I ^a  

^a KING ABDULAZIZ UNIVERSITY   (Saudi Arabia)

^b AMERICAN UNIVERSITY OF BEIRUT   (Lebanon)

^c KING ABDULAZIZ CITY FOR SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY   (Saudi Arabia)

Author keywords

Food; GM obesity dilema; Gut microbiota; Obesity; Saudi Arabia

Indexed keywords

BUTYRIC ACID; CHOLESTEROL; CONJUGATED LINOLEIC ACID; PREBIOTIC AGENT; PROBIOTIC AGENT;

ACTINOBACTERIA; AKKERMANSIA MUCINIPHILA; BACTEROIDES; BACTEROIDETES; BILE ACID METABOLISM; BODY FAT; CALORIC INTAKE; DIET; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; ESCHERICHIA COLI; FAECALIBATERIUM PRAUSNITZII; FECES MICROFLORA; FIRMICUTES; GENETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY; HUMAN; INTESTINE FLORA; LACTOBACILLUS REUTERI; LACTOBACILLUS RHAMNOSUS; LIPID METABOLISM; LIVER DISEASE; METABOLOMICS; METAGENOME; METAGENOMICS; METHANOBREVIBACTER SMITHII; NONHUMAN; OBESITY; ORGANISMAL INTERACTION; REVIEW; SLEEP DEPRIVATION; SPECIES COMPOSITION; STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS; VERRUCOMICROBIA; ANIMAL; COMPLICATION; DYSBIOSIS; GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT; MICROBIOLOGY;

ANIMALS; DYSBIOSIS; GASTROINTESTINAL MICROBIOME; GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT; HUMANS; OBESITY;

EID: 84990026617     PISSN: None     EISSN: 22352988     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2016.00095     Document Type: Review

References (107)

1. Alang, N., and Kelly, C. R. (2015). Weight gain after fecal Microbiota transplantation. Open Forum Infect. Dis. 2, 1-2. doi: 10.1093/ofid/ofv004
2. Al-Hazzaa, H. M., Abahussain, N. A., Al-Sobayel, H. I., Qahwaji, D. M., and Musaiger, A. O. (2012). Lifestyle factors associated with overweight and obesity among Saudi adolescents. BMC Public Health 12:354. doi: 10.1186/1471-2458-12-354
3. Al-Nuaim, A. A., Bamgboye, E. A., al-Rubeaan, K. A., and al-Mazrou, Y. (1997). Overweight and obesity in Saudi Arabian adult population, role of socio-demographic variables. J. Community Health 22, 211-223. doi: 10.1023/A:1025177108996
4. Arab News (2014). 70% of Saudis are Obese, Says Study. Available Online at: http://www.arabnews.com/news/527031 (Accessed April 1, 2014).
5. Backhed, F., Ding, H., Wang, T., Hooper, L. V., Koh, G. Y., Nagy, A., et al. (2004). The GM as an environmental factor that regulates fat storage. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 101, 15718-15723. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0407076101
6. Batterham, R. L., Cohen, M. A., Ellis, S. M., Le Roux, C. W., Withers, D. J., Frost, G. S., et al. (2003). Inhibition of food intake in obese subjects by peptide YY3-36. N. Engl. J. Med. 349, 941-948. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa030204
7. Befus, M., Lowy, F. D., Miko, B. A., Mukherjee, D. V., Herzig, C. T. A., and Larson, E. L. (2015). Obesity as a determinant of Staphylococcus aureus colonization among inmates in maximum-security prisons in New York State. Am. J. Epidemiol. 182, 494-502. doi: 10.1093/aje/kwv062
8. Bested, A. C., Logan, A. C., and Selhub, E. M. (2013). Intestinal microbiota, probiotics and mental health: from Metchnikoff to modern advances: part III-convergence toward clinical trials. Gut Pathog. 5:4. doi: 10.1186/1757-4749-5-4
9. Blaut, M., and Klaus, S. (2012). Intestinal microbiota and obesity. Handb. Exp. Pharmacol. 2012, 251-273. doi: 10.1007/978-3-642-24716-3_11
10. Boursier, J., and Diehl, A. M. (2015). Implication of GM in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. PLoS Pathog. 11:e1004559-e1004559. doi: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1004559
11. Brahe, L. K., Astrup, A., and Larsen, L. H. (2016). Can we prevent obesity-related metabolic diseases by dietary modulation of the GM? Adv. Nutr. 7, 90-101. doi: 10.3945/an.115.010587
12. Brandt, L. (2012). Faecal microbiota transplant. Gastrointest. Nurs. 10, 6-7. doi: 10.12968/gasn.2012.10.2.6
13. Brun, P., Castagliuolo, I., Di Leo, V., Buda, A., Pinzani, M., Palù, G., et al. (2007). Increased intestinal permeability in obese mice: new evidence in the pathogenesis of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. Am. J. Physiol. Liver Physiol. 292, G518-G525. doi: 10.1152/ajpgi.00024.2006
14. Burcelin, R., Courtney, M., and Amar, J. (2015). "GM and metabolic diseases: from pathogenesis to therapeutic perspective, " in Metabonomics and Gut Microbiota in Nutrition and Disease, eds S. Kochhar and F.-P. Martin (London: Springer), 199-234.
15. Caesar, R., Nygren, H., Orešic, M., and Bäckhed, F. (2016). Interaction between dietary lipids and GM regulates hepatic cholesterol metabolism. J. Lipid Res. 57, 474-481. doi: 10.1194/jlr.M065847
16. Cani, P. D., and Van Hul, M. (2015). Novel opportunities for next-generation probiotics targeting metabolic syndrome. Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. 32, 21-27. doi: 10.1016/j.copbio.2014.10.006
17. Canning, P. M., Courage, M. L., and Frizzell, L. M. (2004). Prevalence of overweight and obesity in a provincial population of Canadian preschool children. CMAJ 171, 240-242. doi: 10.1503/cmaj.1040075
18. Carding, S., Verbeke, K., Vipond, D. T., Corfe, B. M., and Owen, L. (2015). Dysbiosis of the GM in disease. Microb. Ecol. Health Dis. 26. doi: 10.3402/mehd.v26.26191
19. Carmody, R. N., Gerber, G. K., Luevano, J. M., Gatti, D. M., Somes, L., Svenson, K. L., et al. (2015). Diet dominates host genotype in shaping the murine GM. Cell Host Microbe 17, 72-84. doi: 10.1016/j.chom.2014.11.010
20. Chakraborti, C. K. (2015). New-found link between microbiota and obesity. World J. Gastrointest Pathophysiol. 6, 110-119. doi: 10.4291/wjgp.v6.i4.110
21. Chaput, J.-P., Klingenberg, L., Rosenkilde, M., Gilbert, J.-A., Tremblay, A., and Sjödin, A. (2010). Physical activity plays an important role in body weight regulation. J. Obes. 2011:360257. doi: 10.1155/2011/360257
22. Chassaing, B., Koren, O., Goodrich, J. K., Poole, A. C., Srinivasan, S., Ley, R. E., et al. (2015). Dietary emulsifiers impact the mouse GM promoting colitis and metabolic syndrome. Nature 519, 92-96. doi: 10.1038/nature14232
23. Conlon, M. A., and Bird, A. R. (2014). The impact of diet and lifestyle on gm and human health. Nutrients 7, 17-44. doi: 10.3390/nu7010017
24. Conterno, L., Fava, F., Viola, R., and Tuohy, K. M. (2011). Obesity and the GM: does up-regulating colonic fermentation protect against obesity and metabolic disease? Genes Nutr. 6, 241-260. doi: 10.1007/s12263-011-0230-1
25. Dao, M. C., Everard, A., Aron-Wisnewsky, J., Sokolovska, N., Prifti, E., Verger, E. O., et al. (2016). Akkermansia muciniphila and improved metabolic health during a dietary intervention in obesity: relationship with gut microbiome richness and ecology. Gut 65, 426-436. doi: 10.1136/gutjnl-2014-308778
26. Darwish, M. A., Al-Saif, G., Albahrani, S., and Sabra, A. A. (2014). Lifestyle and dietary behaviors among saudi preschool children attending primary health care centers, Eastern Saudi Arabia. Int. J. Family Med. 2014:e432732. doi: 10.1155/2014/432732
27. De Filippo, C., Cavalieri, D., Di Paola, M., Ramazzotti, M., Poullet, J. B., Massart, S., et al. (2010). Impact of diet in shaping GM revealed by a comparative study in children from Europe and rural Africa. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 107, 14691-14696. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1005963107
28. De Silva, A., and Bloom, S. R. (2012). Gut hormones and appetite control: a focus on PYY and GLP-1 as therapeutic targets in obesity. Gut Liver 6, 10-20. doi: 10.5009/gnl.2012.6.1.10
29. den Besten, G., van Eunen, K., Groen, A. K., Venema, K., Reijngoud, D. J., and Bakker, B. M. (2013). The role of short-chain fatty acids in the interplay between diet, GM, and host energy metabolism. J. Lipid Res. 54, 2325-2340. doi: 10.1194/jlr.R036012
30. Dethlefsen, L., Eckburg, P. B., Bik, E. M., and Relman, D. A. (2006). Assembly of the human intestinal microbiota. Trends Ecol. Evol. 21, 517-523. doi: 10.1016/j.tree.2006.06.013
31. DiBaise, J. K., Frank, D. N., and Mathur, R. (2012). Impact of the gut microbiota on the development of obesity: current concepts. Am. J. Gastroenterol. (Suppl. 1), 1, 22-27. doi: 10.1038/ajgsup.2012.5. Available Online at: http://www.nature.com/ajgsup/journal/v1/n1/full/ajgsup20125a.html
32. Doré, J., and Blottière, H. (2015). The influence of diet on the GM and its consequences for health. Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. 32, 195-199. doi: 10.1016/j.copbio.2015.01.002
33. Dumas, M.-E., Barton, R. H., Toye, A., Cloarec, O., Blancher, C., Rothwell, A., et al. (2006). Metabolic profiling reveals a contribution of GM to fatty liver phenotype in insulin-resistant mice. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 103, 12511-12516. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0601056103
34. Ehehalt, S., Dietz, K., Willasch, A. M., and Neu, A. (2010). Epidemiological perspectives on type 1 diabetes in childhood and adolescence in germany: 20 years of the Baden-wurttemberg Diabetes Incidence Registry (DIARY). Diabetes Care 33, 338-340. doi: 10.2337/dc09-1503
35. El Mouzan, M. I., Foster, P. J., Al Herbish, A. S., Al Salloum, A. A., Al Omer, A. A., Qurachi, M. M., et al. (2010). Prevalence of overweight and obesity in saudi children and adolescents. Ann. Saudi Med. 30, 203-208. doi: 10.4103/0256-4947.62833
36. Eurostat (2015). Overweight and Obesity-BMI Statistics. Last modified on 25 November 2015. Available online at: http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php/Overweight_and_obesity_-_BMI_statistics
37. Fat, B., Class, O., and Obesity, E. (1998). Clinical Guidelines on the Identification, Evaluation, and Treatment of Overweight and Obesity in Adults. WMJ 97, 20-21, 24-25, 27-37. Available online at: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9813653
38. Ferreira, R. B. R., Gill, N., Willing, B. P., Antunes, L. C. M., Russell, S. L., Croxen, M. A., et al. (2011). The intestinal microbiota plays a role in salmonella-induced colitis independent of pathogen colonization. PLoS ONE 6:e20338. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0020338
39. Fleissner, C. K., Huebel, N., Abd El-Bary, M. M., Loh, G., Klaus, S., and Blaut, M. (2010). Absence of intestinal microbiota does not protect mice from diet-induced obesity. Br. J. Nutr. 104, 919-929. doi: 10.1017/S0007114510001303
40. Foster, J. A., and Neufeld, K.-A. M. (2013). Gut-brain axis: how the microbiome influences anxiety and depression. Trends Neurosci. 36, 305-312. doi: 10.1016/j.tins.2013.01.005
41. Frank, D. N., St Amand, A. L., Feldman, R. A., Boedeker, E. C., Harpaz, N., and Pace, N. R. (2007). Molecular-phylogenetic characterization of microbial community imbalances in human inflammatory bowel diseases. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 104, 13780-13785. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0706625104
42. Gérard, P. (2016). GM and obesity. Cell Mol. Life Sci. 73, 147-162. doi: 10.1007/s00018-015-2061-5
43. Giovanni, M., Gambino, R., and Cassader, M. (2010). Obesity, diabetes and GM. Diabetes Care 33, 2277-2284. doi: 10.2337/dc10-0556
44. Graf, D., Di Cagno, R., Fåk, F., Flint, H. J., Nyman, M., Saarela, M., et al. (2015). Contribution of diet to the composition of the human GM. Microb. Ecol. Health Dis. 26, 26164-26175. doi: 10.3402/mehd.v26.26164
45. Greenblum, S., Turnbaugh, P. J., and Borenstein, E. (2012). Metagenomic systems biology of the human gut microbiome reveals topological shifts associated with obesity and inflammatory bowel disease. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 109, 594-599. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1116053109
46. Hattori, M., and Taylor, T. D. (2009). The human intestinal microbiome: a new frontier of human biology. DNA Res. 16, 1-12. doi: 10.1093/dnares/dsn033
47. Inagaki, T., Choi, M., Moschetta, A., Peng, L., Cummins, C. L., Mcdonald, J. G., et al. (2005). Fibroblast growth factor 15 functions as an enterohepatic signal to regulate bile acid homeostasis. Cell Metab. 2, 217-225. doi: 10.1016/j.cmet.2005.09.001
48. Kalliomäki, M., Collado, M. C., Salminen, S., and Isolauri, E. (2008). Early differences in fecal microbiota composition in children may predict overweight. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 87, 534-538. Available Online at: http://ajcn.nutrition.org/content/87/3/534.long
49. Kang, J. H., Yun, S. I., Park, M. H., Park, J. H., Jeong, S. Y., and Park, H. O. (2013). Anti-obesity effect of Lactobacillus gasseri BNR17 in high-sucrose diet-induced obese mice. PLoS ONE 8:e54617. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0054617
50. Khan, I., Yasir, M., Azhar, E. I., Kumosani, T., Barbour, E. K., Bibi, F., et al. (2014). Implication of GM in human health. CNS Neurol. Disord. Drug Targets 13, 1325-1333. doi: 10.2174/1871527313666141023153506
51. Koenig, J. E., Spor, A., Scalfone, N., Fricker, A. D., Stombaugh, J., Knight, R., et al. (2011). Succession of microbial consortia in the developing infant gut microbiome. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 108, 4578-4585. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1000081107
52. Kondo, S., Kamei, A., Xiao, J. Z., Iwatsuki, K., and Abe, K. (2013). Bifidobacterium breve B-3 exerts metabolic syndrome-suppressing effects in the liver of diet-induced obese mice: a DNA microarray analysis. Benef. Microbes 4, 247-252. doi: 10.3920/BM2012.0019
53. Kovatcheva-Datchary, P., and Arora, T. (2013). Nutrition, the gut microbiome and the metabolic syndrome: EBSCOhost. Best Pract. Res. Clin. Gastroenterol. 27, 59-72. doi: 10.1016/j.bpg.2013.03.017
54. Kuribayashi, H., Miyata, M., Yamakawa, H., Yoshinari, K., and Yamazoe, Y. (2012). Enterobacteria-mediated deconjugation of taurocholic acid enhances ileal farnesoid X receptor signaling. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 697, 132-138. doi: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2012.09.048
55. Lobstein, T., Baur, L., and Uauy, R. (2004). Obesity in children and young people: a crisis in public health. Obes. Rev. 5, 4-85. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-789X.2004.00133.x
56. LoCascio, R. G., Ninonuevo, M. R., Freeman, S. L., Sela, D. A., Grimm, R., Lebrilla, C. B., et al. (2007). Glycoprofiling of bifidobacterial consumption of human milk oligosaccharides demonstrates strain specific, preferential consumption of small chain glycans secreted in early human lactation. J. Agric. Food Chem. 55, 8914-8919. doi: 10.1021/jf0710480
57. Marchesi, J. R., Adams, D. H., Fava, F., Hermes, G. D. A., Hirschfield, G. M., Hold, G., et al. (2016). The GM and host health: a new clinical frontier. Gut 65, 330-339. doi: 10.1136/gutjnl-2015-309990
58. Martin, F. P., Wang, Y., Sprenger, N., Yap, I. K., Lundstedt, T., Lek, P., et al. (2008). Probiotic modulation of symbiotic gut microbial-host metabolic interactions in a humanized microbiome mouse model. Mol. Syst. Biol. 4, 157. doi: 10.1038/msb4100190
59. Martin, M. A., and Sela, D. A. (2013). "Infant GM: developmental influences and health outcomes, " in Building Babies, eds K. B. H. Clancy, K. Hinde, and J. N. Rutherford (New York, NY: Springer), 233-256. Available online at: http://link.springer.com/book/10.1007%2F978-1-4614-4060-4
60. Maslowski, K. M., and Mackay, C. R. (2011). Diet, GM and immune responses. Nat. Immunol. 12, 5-9. doi: 10.1038/ni0111-5
61. Maynard, C. L., Elson, C. O., Hatton, R. D., and Weaver, C. T. (2012). Reciprocal interactions of the intestinal microbiota and immune system. Nature 489, 231-241. doi: 10.1038/nature11551
62. Mbakwa, C. A., Penders, J., Savelkoul, P. H., Thijs, C., Dagnelie, P. C., Mommers, M., et al. (2015). Gut colonization with Methanobrevibacter smithii is associated with childhood weight development. Obesity. 23, 2508-2516. doi: 10.1002/oby.21266
63. Meyer, D., and Stasse-Wolthuis, M. (2009). The bifidogenic effect of inulin and oligofructose and its consequences for gut health. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 63, 1277-1289. doi: 10.1038/ejcn.2009.64
64. Million, M., Lagier, J. C., Yahav, D., and Paul, M. (2013a). Gut bacterial microbiota and obesity. Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 19, 305-313. doi: 10.1111/1469-0691.12172
65. Million, M., Maraninchi, M., Henry, M., Armougom, F., Richet, H., Carrieri, P., et al. (2012). Obesity-associated GM is enriched in Lactobacillus reuteri and depleted in Bifidobacterium animalis and Methanobrevibacter smithii. Int. J. Obes. (Lond). 36, 817-825. doi: 10.1038/ijo.2011.153
66. Million, M., Thuny, F., Angelakis, E., Casalta, J.-P., Giorgi, R., Habib, G., et al. (2013b). Lactobacillus reuteri and Escherichia coli in the human GM may predict weight gain associated with vancomycin treatment. Nutr. Diabetes 3:e87. doi: 10.1038/nutd.2013.28
67. Miyata, M., Matsuda, Y., Nomoto, M., Takamatsu, Y., Sato, N., Hamatsu, M., et al. (2009). Cholesterol feeding prevents hepatic accumulation of bile acids in cholic acid-fed farnesoid X receptor (FXR)-null mice: FXR-independent suppression of intestinal bile acid absorption. Drug Metab. Dispos. 37, 338-344. doi: 10.1124/dmd.108.022590
68. Morgun, A., Dzutsev, A., Dong, X., Greer, R. L., Sexton, D. J., Ravel, J., et al. (2015). Uncovering effects of antibiotics on the host and microbiota using transkingdom gene networks. Gut. 64, 1732-1743. doi: 10.1136/gutjnl-2014-308820
69. Musaiger, A. O. (2011). Overweight and obesity in Eastern Mediterranean Region: prevalence and possible causes. J. Obes. 2011:407237. doi: 10.1155/2011/407237
70. Nguyen, T. L. A., Vieira-Silva, S., Liston, A., and Raes, J. (2015). How informative is the mouse for human GM research? Dis. Model. Mech. 8, 1-16. doi: 10.1242/dmm.017400
71. Nobel, Y. R., Cox, L. M., Kirigin, F. F., Bokulich, N. A., Yamanishi, S., Teitler, I., et al. (2015). Metabolic and metagenomic outcomes from early-life pulsed antibiotic treatment. Nat. Commun. 6:7486. doi: 10.1038/ncomms8486
72. Nunez, I. N., Galdeano, C. M., de LeBlanc Ade, M., and Perdigon, G. (2014). Evaluation of immune response, microbiota, and blood markers after probiotic bacteria administration in obese mice induced by a high-fat diet. Nutrition 30, 1423-1432. doi: 10.1016/j.nut.2014.03.025
73. Ogden, C. L., Carroll, M. D., Kit, B. K., and Flegal, K. M. (2014). Prevalence of childhood and adult obesity in the United States, 2011-2012. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 311, 806-814. doi: 10.1001/jama.2014.732
74. Park, D. Y., Ahn, Y. T., Park, S. H., Huh, C. S., Yoo, S. R., Yu, R., et al. (2013). Supplementation of Lactobacillus curvatus KY1032 in diet-induced obese mice is associated with gut microbial changes and reduction in obesity. PLoS ONE 8:e59470. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0059470
75. Parvez, S., Malik, K. A., Ah Kang, S., and Kim, H. (2006). Probiotics and their fermented food products are beneficial for health. J. Appl. Microbiol. 100, 1171-1185. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2672.2006.02963.x
76. Pekkala, S., Munukka, E., Kong, L., Pöllänen, E., Autio, R., Roos, C., et al. (2015). Toll-like receptor 5 in obesity: the role of GM and adipose tissue inflammation. Obesity 23, 581-590. doi: 10.1002/oby.20993
77. Penders, J., Thijs, C., van den Brandt, P. A., Kummeling, I., Snijders, B., Stelma, F., et al. (2007). GM composition and development of atopic manifestations in infancy: the KOALA Birth Cohort Study. Gut 56, 661-667. doi: 10.1136/gut.2006.100164
78. Qin, J., Li, R., Raes, J., Arumugam, M., Burgdorf, K. S., Manichanh, C., et al. (2010). A human gut microbial gene catalogue established by metagenomic sequencing. Nature 464, 59-65. doi: 10.1038/nature08821
79. Rautava, S., Luoto, R., Salminen, S., and Isolauri, E. (2012). Microbial contact during pregnancy, intestinal colonization and human disease. Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 9, 565-576. doi: 10.1038/nrgastro.2012.144
80. Rezaeian, M., and Salem, Z. (2007). Prevalence of obesity and abdominal obesity in a sample of urban adult population within South East of Iran. Pak. J. Med. Sci. 23, 193-197. Available Online at: http://pjms.com.pk/issues/aprjun107/abstract/article9.html
81. Ridlon, J. M., Kang, D. J., Hylemon, P. B., and Bajaj, J. S. (2014). Bile acids and the gut microbiome. Curr. Opin. Gastroenterol. 30, 332. doi: 10.1097/MOG.0000000000000057
82. Roopchand, D. E., Carmody, R. N., Kuhn, P., Moskal, K., Rojas-Silva, P., Turnbaugh, P. J., et al. (2015). Dietary polyphenols promote growth of the gut bacterium Akkermansia muciniphila and attenuate high-fat diet-induced metabolic syndrome. Diabetes 64, 2847-2858. doi: 10.2337/db14-1916
83. Round, J. L. J., and Mazmanian, S. S. K. (2009). The GM shapes intestinal immune responses during health and disease. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 9, 313-323. doi: 10.1038/nri2515
84. Samuel, B. S., Shaito, A., Motoike, T., Rey, F. E., Backhed, F., Manchester, J. K., et al. (2008). Effects of the GM on host adiposity are modulated by the short-chain fatty-acid binding G protein-coupled receptor, Gpr41. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 105, 16767-16772. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0808567105
85. Sanchez, M., Darimont, C., Drapeau, V., Emady-Azar, S., Lepage, M., Rezzonico, E., et al. (2014). Effect of Lactobacillus rhamnosus CGMCC1.3724 supplementation on weight loss and maintenance in obese men and women. Br. J. Nutr. 111, 1507-1519. doi: 10.1017/S0007114513003875
86. Santacruz, A., Collado, M. C., García-Valdés, L., Segura, M. T., Martín-Lagos, J. A., Anjos, T., et al. (2010). GM composition is associated with body weight, weight gain and biochemical parameters in pregnant women. Brit. J. Nutr. 104, 83-92. doi: 10.1017/S0007114510000176
87. Sayin, S. I., Wahlström, A., Felin, J., Jäntti, S., Marschall, H. U., Bamberg, K., et al. (2013). GM regulates bile acid metabolism by reducing the levels of tauro-beta-muricholic acid, a naturally occurring FXR antagonist. Cell Metab. 17, 225-235. doi: 10.1016/j.cmet.2013.01.003
88. Schneeberger, M., Everard, A., Gomez-Valades, A. G., Matamoros, S., Ramirez, S., Delzenne, N. M., et al. (2015). Akkermansia muciniphila inversely correlates with the onset of inflammation, altered adipose tissue metabolism and metabolic disorders during obesity in mice. Sci. Rep. 5:16643. doi: 10.1038/srep16643
89. Schwiertz, A., Taras, D., Schafer, K., Beijer, S., Bos, N. A., Donus, C., et al. (2010). Microbiota and SCFA in lean and overweight healthy subjects. Obesity (Silver Spring). 18, 190-195. doi: 10.1038/oby.2009.167
90. Scott, K. P., Antoine, J.-M., Midtvedt, T., and van Hemert, S. (2015). Manipulating the GM to maintain health and treat disease. Microb. Ecol. Health Dis. 26:25877. doi: 10.3402/mehd.v26.25877
91. Song, H., Han, W., Yan, F., Xu, D., Chu, Q., and Zheng, X. (2016). Dietary Phaseolus vulgaris extract alleviated diet-induced obesity, insulin resistance and hepatic steatosis and alters GM composition in mice. J. Funct. Foods 20, 236-244. doi: 10.1016/j.jff.2015.10.022
92. Tremaroli, V., and Bäckhed, F. (2012). Functional interactions between the GM and host metabolism. Nature 489, 242-249. doi: 10.1038/nature11552
93. Turnbaugh, P. J., Bäckhed, F., Fulton, L., and Gordon, J. I. (2008). Diet-induced obesity is linked to marked but reversible alterations in the mouse distal gut microbiome. Cell Host Microbe 3, 213-223. doi: 10.1016/j.chom.2008.02.015
94. Turnbaugh, P. J., and Gordon, J. I. (2009). The core gut microbiome, energy balance and obesity. J. Physiol. 587, 4153-4158. doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.2009.174136
95. Turnbaugh, P. J., Hamady, M., Yatsunenko, T., Cantarel, B. L., Duncan, A., Ley, R. E., et al. (2009). A core gut microbiome in obese and lean twins. Nature 457, 480-484. doi: 10.1038/nature07540
96. Turnbaugh, P. J., Ley, R. E., Mahowald, M. A., Magrini, V., Mardis, E. R., and Gordon, J. I. (2006). An obesity-associated gut microbiome with increased capacity for energy harvest. Nature 444, 1027-1031. doi: 10.1038/nature05414
97. Twells, L. K., Gregory, D. M., Reddigan, J., and Midodzi, W. K. (2014). Current and predicted prevalence of obesity in Canada: a trend analysis. Can. Med. Assoc. Open Access J. 2, E18-E26. doi: 10.9778/cmajo.20130016
98. Ukibe, K., Miyoshi, M., and Kadooka, Y. (2015). Administration of Lactobacillus gasseri SBT2055 suppresses macrophage infiltration into adipose tissue in diet-induced obese mice. Br. J. Nutr. 114, 1180-1187. doi: 10.1017/s0007114515002627
99. Vaughan, E., de Vries, M., Zoetendal, E., Ben-Amor, K., Akkermans, A. L., and de Vos, W. (2002). The intestinal LABs. Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek 82, 341-352. doi: 10.1023/A:1020672724450
100. Wang, J., Tang, H., Zhang, C., Zhao, Y., Derrien, M., Rocher, E., et al. (2015). Modulation of GM during probiotic-mediated attenuation of metabolic syndrome in high fat diet-fed mice. ISME J. 9, 1-15. doi: 10.1038/ismej.2014.99
101. West, D. B., Delany, J. P., Camet, P. M., Blohm, F., Truett, A. A., and Scimeca, J. (1998). Effects of conjugated linoleic acid on body fat and energy metabolism in the mouse. Am. J. Physiol. Integr. Comp. Physiol. 275, R667-R672.
102. WHO (2015). Fact sheet: Obesity and Overweight. Available online at: http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs311/en/(Accessed June 2016).
103. Yatsunenko, T., Rey, F. E., Manary, M. J., Trehan, I., Dominguez-Bello, M. G., Contreras, M., et al. (2012). Human gut microbiome viewed across age and geography. Nature 486, 222-227. doi: 10.1038/nature11053
104. Zhang, C., Zhang, M., Wang, S., Han, R., Cao, Y., Hua, W., et al. (2010). Interactions between GM, host genetics and diet relevant to development of metabolic syndromes in mice. ISME J. 4, 232-241. doi: 10.1038/ismej.2009.112
105. Zhang, D., Huang, Y., and Ye, D. (2015). Intestinal dysbiosis: an emerging cause of pregnancy complications? Med. Hypotheses 84, 223-226. doi: 10.1016/j.mehy.2014.12.029
106. Zhang, H.-L., Yu, L.-X., Yang, W., Tang, L., Lin, Y., Wu, H., et al. (2012). Profound impact of gut homeostasis on chemically-induced pro-tumorigenic inflammation and hepatocarcinogenesis in rats. J. Hepatol. 57, 803-812. doi: 10.1016/j.jhep.2012.06.011
107. Zhang, L., Huang, Y., Zhou, Y., Buckley, T., and Wang, H. H. (2013). Antibiotic administration routes significantly influence the levels of antibiotic resistance in GM. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 57, 3659-3666. doi: 10.1128/AAC.00670-13