Viricidal Activity of Biocides

Russell, Hugo and Ayliffe's Principles and Practice of Disinfection, Preservation and Sterilization: Fourth Edition

Volumn , Issue , 2008, Pages 272-323

  Maillard, Jean Yves ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF BRIGHTON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Carrier tests; Control; Human infections; Viricidal activity; Virus surrogates

Indexed keywords

EID: 84986913552     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1002/9780470755884.ch9     Document Type: Chapter

References (431)

1. Abad, F.X., Pintó, R.M. & Bosch, A. (1994a) Survival of enteric viruses on environmental fomites. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 60, 3704-3710.
2. Abad, F.X., Pintó, R.M. Diez, J.M. & Bosch, A. (1994b) Disinfection of human enteric viruses in water by copper and silver combination with low levels of chlorine. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 60, 2377-2383.
3. Abad, F.X., Pintó, R.M. & Bosch, A. (1997) Disinfection of human enteric viruses on fomites. FEMS Microbiology Letters, 156, 107-111.
4. Abad, F.X., Villena, C., Guix, S., Caballero, S., Pintó, R.M. & Bosch, A. (2001) Potential role of fomites in the vehicular transmission of human astroviruses. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 67, 3904-3907.
5. Adler-Storthz, K., Sehulster, L.M., Dreesman, G.R., Hollinger, F.B. & Melnick, J.L. (1983) Effect of alkaline glutaraldehyde on hepatitis B virus antigens. European Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 2, 316-320.
6. Allen, L.B., Kehoe, M.J., Hsu, S.C., Barfield, R., Holland, C.S. & Dimitrijevich, S.D. (1988) A simple method of drying virus on inanimate objects for virucidal testing. Journal of Virological Methods, 19, 239-248.
7. Allison, A.C. (1962) Observations of viruses by sulfhydryl reagents. Virology, 17, 176-183.
8. Alvarez, M.E. & O'Brien, R.T. (1982a) Effects of chlorine concentration on the structure of poliovirus. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 43, 237-239.
9. Alvarez, M.E. & O'Brien, R.T. (1982b) Mechanisms of inactivation of poliovirus by chlorine dioxide and iodine. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 44, 1064-1071.
10. American Society for Testing and Materials (1996) Standard test method to determine the virus-eliminating effectiveness of liquid hygienic handwash agents using the fingerpads of adult panellists. Designation E-1838-95. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
11. American Society for Testing and Materials (1999) Standard test method for evaluation of hand-washing formulations for virus-eliminating activity using the entire hand. Designation 2011-99. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
12. American Society for Testing and Materials (2001) A standard test for determining virus-eliminating effectiveness of liquid handwash agents using the fingerpads of adult volunteers. Designation 1838-96. West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.
13. Anderson, L.J. & Winkler, W.G. (1979) Aqueous quaternary ammonium compounds and rabies treatment. Journal of Infectious Diseases, 139, 494-495.
14. Anon. (1982) Richtlinie des Bundesgesundheitsamts und der Deutschen Vereinigung zur Bekümpfung der Viruskrankheiten e.V. zur Prüfung von chemischen Desinfektionsmitteln auf Wirksamkeit gegen Viren. Bundesgesundheitsblatt, 25, 397-398.
15. Anon. (1990) Guidelines of Bundesgesundheitsamt (BGA; German Federal Health Office) and Deutsche Vereinigung zur Bekämpfung der Viruskrankheiten e.V. (DVV; German Association for the Control of Virus Diseases) for testing the effectiveness of chemical disinfectants against viruses. Zentralblatt für Hygiene und Umweltmedizin, 189, 554-562.
16. Anon. (1995) Richtlinie des Robert-Koch-Institutes zur Prüfung der Viruzidie von chemischen Flächendesinfektionsmitteln und Instrumentendesinfktionsmitteln, die in die Liste gemäß' §10c des Bundesseuchengesetzes aufgenommen werden sollen. Bundesgesundheitsblatt, 6, 242.
17. Anon. (1997) Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Memorandum. EPA-registered Disinfectants for HIV/HBV. February 28, 1997.
18. Anon. (2002a) Guideline for hand hygiene in health-care settings. Recommendations of the Health-care Infection control practices advisory committee and the HICPAC/SHIA/APIC/IDSA Hand hygiene task force. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 51 (No-RR16). Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
19. Anon. (2002b) prEN 14476. Chemical disinfectants and antiseptics. Virucidal quantitative suspension test for chemical disinfectants and antiseptics used in human medicine. Test method and requirements (phase 2, step 1). Brussels: CEN.
20. Ansari, S.A., Sattar, S.A., Springthorpe, V.S., Wells, G.A. & Tostowaryk, W. (1988) Rotavirus survival on human hands and transfer of infectious virus to animate and non-porous inanimate surfaces. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 26, 1513-1518.
21. Ansari, S.A., Sattar, S.A., Springthorpe, V.S., Wells, G.A. & Tostowaryk, W. (1989) In vivo protocol for testing efficacy of handwashing agents against viruses and bacteria: experiments with rotavirus and Escherichia coli. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 55, 3113-3118.
22. Ansari, S.A., Springthorpe, V.S. & Sattar, S.A. (1991) Survival and vehicular spread of human rotavirus: possible relation to seasonality of outbreaks. Reviews in Infectious Diseases, 13, 448-461.
23. Arenas, M.D., Sanchez-Paya, J., Munoz, C., Egea, J.J, Martin, F., Gil, M.T. & Sarro, F. (2001) Nosocomial transmission of hepatitis C virus: dialysis machines, staff or both? Nefrologia, 21, 476-484.
24. AFNOR, Association Française de Normalisation (1989). Antiseptiques et désinfectants utilisés à l'état liquide, miscibles à l'eau. Détermination de l'activité virucide vis-à-vis des virus de vertébrés. NFT72-180. Paris: AFNOR.
25. Ayliffe, G.A.J, Coates, D. & Hoffman, P.N. (1993) Chemical Disinfection in Hospitals. London: PHLS.
26. Bailey, A. & Longson, M. (1972) Virucidal activity of chlorhexidine on strains of Herpesvirus hominis, poliovirus and adenovirus. Journal of Clinical Pathology, 25, 76-78.
27. Bailly, J.-L., Chambon, M., Peigue-Lafeuille, H., Laveran, H., De Champs, C. & Beytout, D. (1991) Activity of glutaraldehyde at low concentrations (<2%) against poliovirus and its relevance to gastrointestinal endoscope disinfection procedures. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 57, 1156-1160.
28. Baldry, M.G.C., French, M.S. & Slater, D. (1991) The activity of peracetic acid on sewage indicator bacteria and viruses. Water Science Technology, 24, 353-357.
29. Balfour, H.H. (1999) Antiviral drugs. New England Journal of Medicine, 340, 1255-1268.
30. Baltimore, D. & Huang, A.S. (1968) Isopycnic separation of subcellular components from poliovirus-infected and normal HeLa cells. Science (New York), 162, 572-574.
31. Baqui, A.A.M.A., Kelley, J.I., Jabra-Rizk, M.A., DePaola, L.G., Falkler, W.A. & Meiller, T.F. (2001) In vitro effect of oral antiseptics on human immunodeficiency virus-1 and herpes simplex virus type 1. Journal of Clinical Periodontology, 28, 610-616.
32. Bates, R.C., Shaffer, P.T.B. & Sutherland, S.M. (1977) Development of poliovirus having increased resistance to chlorine inactivation. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 34, 849-853.
33. Beck, E.J., Miners, A.H. & Tolley, K. (2001) The cost of HIV treatment and care-a global review. Pharmacoeconomics, 19, 13-19.
34. Bellamy, K. (1995). A review of the test methods used to establish virucidal activity. Journal of Hospital Infection, 30 (Suppl.), 389-396.
35. Bellamy, K., Alcock, R., Babb, J.R., Davies, J.G. & Ayliffe, G.A.J. (1993) A test for the assessment of 'hygienic' hand disinfection using rotavirus. Journal of Hospital Infection, 24, 201-210.
36. Beltrami, E.M., Willams, I.T., Shapiro, C.N. & Chamberland, M.E. (2000) Risk and management of blood-borne infections in healthcare workers. Clinical Microbiology Reviews, 13, 385-407.
37. Benson, L., Leblanc, D., Bush, L. & White, J. (1990) The effect of surfactant systems and moisturizing products on the residual activity of chlorhexidine gluconate handwash using pigskin substrate. Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology, 11, 67-70.
38. Berman, D. & Hoff, J.C. (1984) Inactivation of simian rotavirus SA-11 by chlorine, chlorine dioxide and monochloramine. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 48, 317-323.
39. Best, M., Springthorpe, V.S. & Sattar, S.A. (1994) Feasibility of a combined carrier test for disinfectants: studies with a mixture of five types of micro-organisms. American Journal of Infection Control, 22, 152-162.
40. Bewley, M.C., Springer, K., Zhang, Y.-B., Freimuch, P. & Flanagan, J.M. (1999) Structural analysis of the mechanism of adenovirus binding to its human cellular receptor, CAR. Science, 286, 1579-1583.
41. Black, R.E., Dykes, A.C., Anderson, K.E. et al. (1981) Handwashing to prevent diarrhea in day-care centres. American Journal of Epidemiology, 113, 445-451.
42. Blackwell, J.H. & Chen, J.H.S. (1970) Effects of various germicidal chemicals on H.Ep.2 cell cultures and herpes simplex virus. Journal of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists, 53, 1229-1236.
43. Blanchard, A., Ferris, S., Chamaret, S., Guetard, D. and Montagnier, L. (1998) Molecular evidence for nosocomial transmission of human immunodeficiency virus from a surgeon to one of his patients. Journal of Virology, 72, 4537-4540.
44. Block, S.S. (1991a) Peroxygen compounds. In Disinfection, Sterilization and Preservation, 4th edn (ed. Block, S.S.), pp. 167-181. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger.
45. Block, S.S. (1991b) Surface active agents: amphoteric compounds. In Disinfection, Sterilization and Preservation, 4th edn (ed. Block, S.S.), pp. 263-273. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger.
46. Bloomfield, S.F. & Looney, E. (1992) Evaluation of the repeatability and reproducibility of European suspension test methods for antimicrobial activity of disinfectants and antiseptics. Journal of Applied Bacteriology, 73, 87-93.
47. Bloomfield, S.F., Smith-Burchnell, C.A. & Dalgleish, A.G. (1990) Evaluation of hypochlorite-releasing disinfectants against the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Journal of Hospital Infection, 15, 273-278.
48. Bond, W.W., Favero, M.S., Petersen, N.J., Gravelle, C.R., Ebert, J.W. & Maynard, J.E. (1981) Survival of hepatitis B virus after drying and storage for one week. Lancet, 1, 550-551.
49. Bond, W.W., Favero, M.S., Petersen, N.J. & Ebert, J.W. (1983) Inactivation of hepatitis B virus by intermediateto-high level disinfectant chemicals. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 18, 535-538.
50. Bosch, F.X., Lorincz, A., Munoz, N., Meijer, C.J.L.M. & Shah, K.V. (2002) The causal relation between human papillomavirus and cervical cancer. Journal of Clinical Pathology, 55, 244-265.
51. Boudouma, M., Enjalbert, L. & Didier, J. (1984) A simple method for the evaluation of antiseptic and disinfectant virucidal activity. Journal of Virological Methods, 9, 271-276.
52. Boyce, J.M. (2000) Scientific basis for handwashing with alcohol and other waterless antiseptic agents. In Disinfection, Sterilization and Antisepsis: Principles and Practice in Healthcare Facilities (ed. Rutala, W.A), pp 140-150. Minneapolis: APIC.
53. Brade, L., Schmidt, W.A.K. & Gattert, I. (1981) Zur relativen Wirksam keit von Desinfektion-mitteln gegenuber Rotaviren. Zentralblatt für Bakteriologie, Mikrobiologie und Hygiene (Orig. B), 174, 151-159.
54. Brechot, C., Gozuacik, D., Murakami, Y. & Paterlini-Brechot, P. (2000) Molecular bases for the development of hepatitis B virus (HBV)-related hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Seminars in Cancer Biology, 10, 211-231.
55. Breuer, J. & Jeffries, D.J. (1990). Control of viral infections in hospital. Journal of Hospital Infection, 16, 191-221.
56. Brion, G.M. & Silverstein, J. (1999) Iodine disinfection of a model bacteriophage, MS2, demonstrating apparent rebound. Water Research, 33, 169-179.
57. Bronowicki, J.P., Venard, V., Botté, C. et al. (1997) Patientto-patient transmission of hepatitis C virus during colonoscopy, New England Journal of Medicine, 337, 237-240.
58. Brown, E.G. (2000) Influenza virus genetics. Biomedicine and Pharmacotherapy, 54, 196-209.
59. Brown, T.J., McCrary, M. & Tyring, S.K. (2002) Antiviral agents: Nonantiviral drugs. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology, 47, 581-599.
60. Brown, T.T. (1981) Laboratory evaluation of selected disinfectants as virucidal agents against porcine parvovirus, pseudorabiesvirus, and transmissible gastroenteritis virus. American Journal of Veterinary Research, 42, 1033-1036.
61. Bruch, C.W. (1991) Role of glutaraldehyde and other chemical sterilants in the processing of new medical devices. In: Sterilization of Medical Products, Vol. 5 (eds Morrissey, R.F. & Prokopenko, Y.I.), pp. 377-396. Morin Heights, Canada: Polyscience Publications.
62. van Bueren, J. (1995) Methodology for HIV disinfectant testing. Journal of Hospital Infection, 30 (Suppl.), 383-388.
63. van Bueren, J., Larkin, D.P. & Simpson, R.A. (1994) Inactivation of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 by alcohols. Journal of Hospital Infection, 28, 137-148.
64. Burstyn, D.G. & Hageman, T.C. (1996) Strategies for viral removal and inactivation. Developments in Biological Standardization, 88, 73-79.
65. Butler, M., Medlen, A.R. & Taylor, G.R. (1985) Electrofocusing of viruses and sensitivity to disinfection. Water Science Technology, 17, 201-210.
66. Bydčovská, O. & Kneiflová, J. (1983) Assessment of viral disinfection by means of bacteriophage FX 174. Journal of Hygiene, Epidemiology, Microbiology and Immunology, 27, 60-68.
67. Cardo, D.M. & Bell D.M. (1997) Bloodborne pathogens transmission in healthcare workers. Infectious Disease Clinics of North America, 11, 331-346.
68. Carrigue, G., Enjalbert, L., Hengy, C., Boudouma, M. & Boucays, A. (1984) In vitro virucidal activity of antispetics and disinfectants. 3. Technique by dilution-ultrafiltration-reconcentration. Pathologie Biologie, 32, 647-650.
69. Ceisel, R.J., Osetek, E.M., Turner, D.W. & Spear, P.G. (1995) Evaluating chemical inactivation of viral agents in handpiece splatter. Journal of the American Dental Association, 126, 197-202.
70. Chadwick, P.R., Beards, G., Brown, D. et al. (2000) Management of hospital outbreaks of gastro-enteritis due to small round structured viruses. Journal of Hospital Infection, 45, 1-10.
71. Chambon, M., Bailly, J.-L. & Peigue-Lafeuille, H. (1992) Activity of glutaraldehyde at low concentrations against capsid proteins of poliovirus type 1 and echovirus type 25. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 58, 3517-3521.
72. Chambon, M., Bailly, J.-L. & Peigue-Lafeuille, H. (1994) Comparative sensitivity of the echovirus type 25 JV-4 prototype strain and two recent isolates to glutaraldehyde at low concentrations. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 60, 387-392.
73. Chambon, M., Jallat-Archimbaud, C., Bailly, J.-L. et al.(1997) Comparative sensitivities of Sabin and Mahoney poliovirus type 1 prototype strains and two recent isolates to low concentrations of glutaraldehyde. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 63, 3199-3204.
74. Champsaur, H., Questiaux, E., Prevot, J. et al. (1984) Rotavirus carriage, asymptomatic infection and disease in the first two years of life. Journal of Infectious Disease, 149, 667-674.
75. Chanzy, B., Due-Bin, K.L., Rousset, B. et al. (1999) Effectiveness of a manual disinfection procedure in eliminating hepatitis C virus from experimentally contaminated endoscopes. Gastrointestinal Endoscopy, 50, 147-151.
76. Charrel, R.N., de Cheese, R., Decaudin, A., De Mico, P. & de Lamballerie, X. (2001) Evaluation of disinfectant efficacy against hepatitis C virus using a RT-PCR-based method. Journal of Hospital Infection, 49, 129-134.
77. Chaufour, X., Deva, A.K., Vickery, K. et al. (1999) Evaluation of disinfection and sterilization of reusable engioscopes with the duck hepatitis B model. Journal of Vascular Surgery, 30, 277-282.
78. Chen, J.H.S. & Koski, TA. (1983) Methods of testing virucides. In Disinfection, Sterilization and Preservation, (ed. Block, S.S.) 3rd edn, pp. 981-997. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger.
79. Chepurnov, A.A., Chuev, Y.P., P'yankov, O.V. & Efimova, I.V. (1995) Effects of some physical and chemical factors on inactivation of Ebola virus. Russian Progress in Virology, 2, 40-43.
80. Christensen, E. & Giese, A. (1954) Changes in adsorption spectra of nucleic acids and their derivatives following exposure to ozone and ultraviolet radiations. Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics, 51, 208-216.
81. Churn, C.C., Boardman, G.D. & Bates, R.C. (1984). The inactivation kinetics of H-1 parvovirus by chlorine. Water Research, 18, 195-203.
82. Clarke, N.A., Stevenson, R.E. & Kabler, P.W (1956) The inactivity of purified type 3 adenovirus in water by chlorine. American Journal of Hygiene, 64, 314-319.
83. Cliver, D.O. & Kostenbader, K.D., Jr (1984) Disinfection of virus on hands for the prevention of foodborne disease. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 1, 75-87.
84. Costerton, J.W., Cheng, K.J., Geesey, G.G. et al. (1987) Bacterial biofilms in nature and disease. Annual Review of Micro-biology, 41, 435-464.
85. Cramer, W.N., Kawata, K. & Kruse, W.K. (1976) Chlorination and iodination of poliovirus and f2. Journal of Water Pollution Control Federation, 48, 61-76.
86. Cunney, R.J., Costigan, P., McNamara, E.B. et al. (2000) Investigation of an outbreak of gastroenteritis caused by Norwalk-like virus, using solid phase immune electron microscopy. Journal of Hospital Infection, 44, 113-118.
87. Darcel, C. (1994) Reflections on viruses and cancer. Veterinary Research Communications, 18, 43-61.
88. Darlix, J.-L., Lapadat-Tapolsky, M., de Rocquigny, H. & Roques, B.P. (1995) First glimpses at structure-function relationships of the nucleocapsid protein of retroviruses. Journal of Molecular Biology, 254, 523-537.
89. Davies, J.G., Babb, J.R., Bradley, C.R. & Ayliffe, G.A. (1993) Preliminary study of test methods to assess the virucidal activity of skin disinfectants using poliovirus and bacteriophages. Journal of Hospital Infection, 25, 125-131.
90. Dawson, F.W., Hearn, H.J. & Hoffman, R.K. (1959) Virucidal activity of beta-propiolactone vapour. I. Effect of betapropiolactone on Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus. Applied Microbiology, 7, 199-201.
91. Dawson, F.W., Janssen, R.J. & Hoffman, R.K. (1960) Virucidal activity of beta-propiolactone vapor. II. Effect on the biological agents of smallpox, yellow fever, psittacosis and Q fever. Applied Microbiology, 8, 39-41.
92. De Lamballerie, X., Olmer, M., Beuchouareb, D., Zandotti, C. & De Micco, P. (1996) Nosocomial transmission of hepatitis C virus in haemodialysis patients. Journal of Medical Virology 49, 296-302.
93. Delarocque-Astagneau, E., Baffoy, N., Thiers, V. et al. (2002) Outbreak of hepatitis C virus infection in a hemodialysis unit: potential transmission by the hemodialysis machine? Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology, 23, 328-334.
94. DeMik, G. & DeGroot, I. (1977) Mechanism of inactivation of bacteriophage FX174 and its DNA in aerosols by ozone and ozomised cyclohexene. Journal of Hygiene (Cambridge), 78, 191-211.
95. Dennison, D.K., Meredith, G.M., Shillitoe, E.J. & Caffesse, R.G. (1995) The antiviral spectrum of Listerine antiseptic. Oral Surgery, Oral Medicine, Oral Pathology, Oral Radiology and Endodontics, 79, 442-448.
96. Denny, F.W., Collier, A.M. & Henderson, F.W. (1986) Acute respiratory infections in day care. Reviews of Infectious Diseases, 8, 527-532.
97. Department of Health and Social Security (1986) Memorandum on the Control of Viral Haemorrhagic Fevers. London: HMSO.
98. Deva, A.K., Vickery, K., Zou, J., West, R.H., Harris, J.P. & Cossart, Y.E. (1996) Establishment of an in-use testing method for evaluating disinfection of surgical instruments using the duck hepatitis B model. Journal of Hospital Infection, 33, 119-130.
99. Dick, E.C., Hossain, S.U., Mink, K.A. et al. (1986) Interruption of transmission of rhinovirus colds among human volunteers using virucidal paper handkerchiefs. Journal of Infectious Diseases, 153, 352-356.
100. Doultree, J.C., Druce, J.D., Birch, C.J., Bowden, D.S. & Marshall, J.A. (1999) Inactivation of feline calcivirus, a Norwalk virus surrogate. Journal of Hospital Infection, 41, 51-57.
101. Dowdle, W.R. (2001) Polio eradication: turning the dream into reality. ASM News, 67, 397-402.
102. Druce, J.D., Jardine, D., Locarnini, S.A. & Birch, C.J. (1995) Susceptibility of HIV to inactivation by disinfectants and ultraviolet light. Journal of Hospital Infection, 30, 167-180.
103. Drulak, M., Wallbank, A.M. & Lebtag, I. (1978a) The relative effectiveness of commonly used disinfectants in inactivation of echovirus 11. Journal of Hygiene, 81,77-87.
104. Drulak, M., Wallbank, A.M., Lebtag, L, Werboski, L. & Poffenroth, L. (1978b) The relative effectiveness of commonly used disinfectants in inactivation of coxsackievirus B5. Journal of Hygiene, 81, 389-397.
105. Drulak, M.W, Wallbank, A.M. & Lebtag, I. (1984) The effectiveness of six disinfectants in the inactivation of reovirus 3. Microbios, 41, 31-38.
106. Dychdala, G.R. (1991) Chlorine and chlorine compounds. In Disinfection, Sterilization and Preservation, 4th edn (ed. Block, S.S.), pp. 131-151, Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger.
107. Eagar, R.G., Leder, J. & Theis, A.B. (1986) Glutaraldehyde: factors important for microbiocidal efficacy. In Proceedings of the 3rd Conference on Progress in Chemical Disinfection, Binghamton, NY, pp. 32-49.
108. Edens, A.L. (2000) Occupational safety and health administration: regulations affecting healthcare facilities. In Disinfection, Sterilization and Antisepsis: Principles and Practice in Healthcare Facilities (ed. Rutala, W.A), pp 49-58. Minneapolis: APIC.
109. Ellner, P.D. (1998) Smallpox: gone but not forgotten. Infection, 26, 263-269.
110. Engelbrecht, R.S., Weber, M.J., Salter, B.L. & Schmidt, C.A. (1980) Comparative inactivation of viruses by chlorine. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 40, 249-256.
111. Evans, D.H., Stuart, P. & Roberts, D.H. (1977) Disinfection of animal viruses. British Veterinary Journal, 133, 356-359.
112. Fauris, C., Danglot, C. & Vilagines, R. (1982) Parameters influencing poliovirus inactivation by chlorine. Comptes Rendu de l'Académie des Sciences (Paris), 295, 73-76.
113. Fauvel, M., Chagnon, A. & Svorc-Ranco, R. (1980) Rotavirus gastroenteritis outbreak in a senior citizen's home-Quebec. Canada Diseases Weekly Reports, 6, 205-206.
114. Fellowes, O.N. (1965) Some surface-active agents and their virucidal effect on foot-and-mouth disease virus. Applied Microbiology, 13, 694-697.
115. Finch, G.R. & Fairbairn, N. (1991). Comparative inactivation of poliovirus type 3 and MS2 coliphage in demandfree phosphate buffer by using ozone. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 57, 3121-3126.
116. Fisman, D.N., Lipsitch, M., Hook, E.W. & Goldie, S.J. (2002) Projection of the future dimensions and costs of the genital herpes simplex type 2 epidemic in the United States. Sexually Transmitted Diseases, 29, 608-622.
117. Floyd, R. & Sharp, D.C. (1977) Aggregation of poliovirus and reovirus by dilution in water. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 33, 159-167.
118. Floyd, R.D., Sharp, G. & Johnson, J.D. (1979) Inactivation by chlorine of single poliovirus particles in water. Environmental Sciences and Technology, 13, 438-442.
119. Friedman, S.M., Schultz, S., Goodman, A., Millian, S. & Cooper, L.Z. (1983) Rubella outbreak among office workers-New York City. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Reports, 32, 349-352.
120. Fox, C.L. & Modak, S.M. (1974) Mechanisms of silver sulphadiazine action on burn wound infections. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, 5, 582-588.
121. Fraise, A.P. (1999) Choosing disinfectants. Journal of Hospital Infection, 43, 255-264.
122. Fraud, S., Hann, A.C., Maillard, J.-Y. & Russell, A.D. (2003) Effects of ortho-phthalaldehyde, glutaraldehyde and chlorhexidine diacetate on Mycobacterium chelonae and M. abscessus strains with modified permeability. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, 51, 575-581.
123. Frösner, G., Jentsch, G. & Uthemann, H. (1982) Destroying of antigenicity and influencing the immunochemical reactivity of hepatitis B virus antigens (HBsAg, HBcAg, HBeAg) through disinfectants-a proposed method for testing. Zentralblatt für Bakteriologie, Parasitenkunde, Infektionskrankheinten und Hygiene. I. Abteilung Originale, Reike, 176, 1-14.
124. Garner, J.S. & Favero, M.S. (1986) CDC Guideline for Handwashing and Hospital Environmental Control 1985. Infection Control, 7, 231-235.
125. Girou, E. & Oppein, F. (2001) Handwashing compliance in a French university hospital: new perspective with the introduction of hand-rubbing with a waterless alcohol-based solution. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 48 (SupplA), A-55.
126. Goldenberg, D., Golz, A., Netzer, A. et al. (2001) Epstein-Barr virus and cancers of the head and neck. American Journal of Otolaryngology, 22, 197-205.
127. Gorman, S.P., Scott, E.M. & Russell, A.D. (1980) Antimicrobial activity, uses and mechanism of action of glutaraldehyde. Journal of Applied Bacteriology, 48, 161-190.
128. Gottardi, W. (1991) Iodine and iodine compounds. In Disinfection, Sterilization and Preservation, 4th edn (ed. Block, S.S.), pp. 152-166. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger.
129. Gottardi, W. & Bock, V. (1988) The reaction of chloramine T (CAT) with protein constituents: model experiments on the halogen demand during the disinfection of biological material. In Proceedings of the 4th Conference on Progress in Chemical Disinfection, Binghamton, NY, p. 35.
130. Gotz, H., De Jong, B., Lindback, J. et al. (2002) Epidemiological investigation of a food-borne gastroenteritis outbreak caused by Norwalk-like virus in 30 day-care centres. Scandinavian Journal of Infectious Diseases, 34, 115-121.
131. Gowda, N.M.M., Trieff, N.M. & Stanton, G.J. (1981) Inactivation of poliovirus by chloramine-T. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 42, 469-476.
132. Grabow, W.O.K. (2001) Bacteriophages: update on application as models for viruses in water. Water SA, 22, 251-268.
133. Grabow, W.O.K., Coubrough, P., Hilner, C. & Bateman, B.W. (1984) Inactivation of hepatitis A virus, other enteric viruses and indicator organisms in water by chlorination. Water Science and Technology, 17, 657-664.
134. Graham, M.L., Springthorpe, V.S. & Sattar, S.A. (1996) Ex vivo protocol for testing virus survival on human skin: experiments on herpes virus 2. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 62, 4252-4255.
135. Graham, M.L., Springthorpe, V.S. & Sattar, S.A. (1997) Ex vivo protocol to test efficacy of topicals against human adenovirus 4. In Proceedings of the 37th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, Toronto.
136. Grossgebauer, K. (1970). Virus disinfection. In Disinfection (ed. Benarde, M.A.), pp 103-148. New York: Marcel Dekker.
137. Gwaltney, J.M., Mosdalski, P.B. & Hendley, J.O. (1978) Hand-to-hand transmission of rhinovirus colds. Annals of Internal Medicine, 88, 463-467.
138. Gwaltney, J.M. & Hendley, J.O. (1982) Transmission of experimental rhinovirus infection by contaminated surfaces. American Journal of Epidemiology, 116, 828-833.
139. Habeeb, A.F.S.A. & Hiramoto, R. (1968) Reaction of proteins with glutaraldehyde. Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics, 126, 16-26.
140. Haley, R.W., Culver, D.H., White, J.W. et al. (1985) The efficacy of infection surveillance and control programs in preventing nosocomial infections in US hospitals. American Journal of Infection Control, 121, 182-205.
141. Hall, R.M. & Sobsey, M.D. (1993) Inactivation of hepatitis A virus and MS2 by ozone and ozone-hydrogen peroxide in buffered water. Water Science and Technology, 27, 371-378.
142. Hall, C.B., Douglas, G., Jr & Geiman, J.M. (1980) Possible transmission by fomites of respiratory syncytial virus. Journal of Infectious Diseases, 141, 98-102.
143. Halvorsrud, J. & Orstavik, I. (1980) An epidemic of rotavirus-associated gastroenteritis in a nursing home for the elderly. Scandinavian Journal of Infectious Diseases, 12, 161-164.
144. Han, L.L., Alexander, J.P. & Anderson, L.J. (1999) Respiratory syncytial virus pneumonia among the elderly: an assessment of disease burden. Journal of Infectious Diseases, 179, 25-30.
145. Handwashing Liaison Group (1999) Handwashing. A modest measure with big effects. British Medical Journal, 318, 686.
146. Hanson, P.J.V., Gor, D., Jeffries, D.J. & Collins, J.V. (1989) Chemical inactivation of HIV on surfaces. British Medical Journal, 298, 862-864.
147. Hanson, P.J.V., Bennett, J., Jeffries, D.J. & Collins, J.V. (1994) Enteroviruses, endoscopy and infection control: an applied study. Journal of Hospital Infection, 27, 61-67.
148. Harakeh, M.S. (1984) Inactivation of enteroviruses, rotaviruses and bacteriophages by peracetic acid in a municipal sewage effluent. FEMS Microbiology Letters, 23, 27-30.
149. Harakeh, S. (1987). The behavior of viruses on disinfection by chlorine dioxide and other disinfectants in effluent. FEMS Microbiology Letters, 44, 335-341.
150. Harakeh, M. & Butler, M. (1984) Inactivation of human rotavirus, SA-11 and other enteric viruses in effluent by disinfectants. Journal of Hygiene, 93, 157-163.
151. Harbarth, S., Szucs, T., Berger, K., Jilg, W. (2000) The economic burden of hepatitis B in Germany. European Journal of Epidemiology, 16, 173-177.
152. Hart, H.F., Hart, W.G., Crossley, J. et al. (1994) Effect of terminal (dry) heat treatment on enveloped-viruses in coagulation factors concentrates. Vox Sanguinis, 67, 345-350.
153. Haskins, R. & Kotch, J. (1986) Day care and illness: evidence, costs, and public policy. Pediatrics, 77, 951-982.
154. Hayashi, K., Kamiya, M. & Hayashi, T. (1995) Virucidal effects of the steam distillate from Houttuynia cordata and its components on HSV-1, influenza virus and HIV. Planta Medica, 61, 237-241.
155. Hayden, G.F., Gwaltney, J.M., Jr., Thacker, D.F. & Hendley, J.O. (1985) Rhinovirus inactivation by nasal tissues treated with virucide. Antiviral Research, 5, 103-109.
156. Heckert, R.A., Best, M., Jordan, L.T., Dulac, G.C., Eddington, D.L. & Sterritt, W.G. (1997) Efficacy of vaporized hydrogen peroxide against exotic animal viruses. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 63, 3916-3918.
157. Heeg, P. (2001) Does hand care ruin hand disinfection. Journal of Hospital Infection, 48 (SupplA), A-37.
158. Helmer, R.D. & Finch, G.R. (1993) Use of MS2 coliphage as a surrogate for enteric viruses in surface waters disinfected with ozone. Ozone Science and Engineering, 15, 279-293.
159. Henderson, F.W. & Giebink, G.S. (1986) Otitis media among children in day care: epidemiology and pathogenesis. Reviews of Infectious Diseases, 8, 533-538.
160. Hendley, J.O., Wenzel, R.P. & Gwaltney, J.M., Jr (1973) Transmission of rhinovirus colds by self-inoculation. New England Journal of Medicine, 288, 1361-1364.
161. Hendley, J.O., Mika, L.A. & Gwaltney, J.M. (1978) Evaluation of virucidal compounds for inactivation of rhinovirus on hands. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, 14, 690-694.
162. Herniman, K.A.J., Medhurst, P.M., Wilson, J.N. & Sellers, R.F. (1973) The action of heat, chemicals and disinfectants on swine vesicular disease virus. Veterinary Record, 93, 620-624.
163. Highsmith, F.A., Xue, H., Caple, M., Walthall, B., Drohan, W.N. & Shanbrom, E. (1994) Inactivation of lipidenveloped and non-lipid-enveloped model viruses in normal human plasma by cross-linked starch-iodine. Transfusion, 34, 322-327.
164. Highsmith, F., Xue, H., Chen, X. et al. (1995) Iodinemediated inactivation of lipid-enveloped and nonlipidenveloped viruses in human antithrombin-III concentrate. Blood, 86, 791-796.
165. Hoff, J.C. & Akin, E.W. (1986) Microbial mechanisms of resistance to disinfectants: mechanisms and significance. Environmental Health Perspectives, 69, 7-13.
166. Hogle, J.M., Chow, M. & Filman, D.J. (1985) Threedimensional structure of poliovirus at 2.9Å resolution. Science, 229, 1358-1365.
167. Holah, J.T., Lavaud, A., Peters, W. & Dye, K.A. (1998) Future techniques for disinfectant efficacy testing. International Biodeterioration and Biodegradation 41, 273-279.
168. Horowitz, B. & Ben-Hur, E. (1996) Viral inactivation of blood components: recent advances. Transfusion Clinique et Biologique, 3, 75-77.
169. Horsfall, F.L., Jr (1965) General principles and historical aspects. In Viral and Rickettsial Infections of Man (eds Horsfall, F.L., Jr & Tamm, I.), pp. 1-10. New York: Lippincott.
170. Howard, C.R., Dixon, J.L., Young, P., Van Eerd, P. & Schellekens, H. (1983) Chemical inactivation of hepatitis B virus: the effect of disinfectants on virus-associated DNA polymerase activity, morphology and infectivity. Journal of Virological Methods, 7, 135-148.
171. Hsu, Y. (1964) Resistance of infectious RNA and transforming DNA to iodine which inactivates f2 phage and cells. Nature (London), 203, 152-153.
172. Hsu, Y.-C., Nomura, S. & Kruse, C.W. (1966) Some bactericidal and virucidal properties of iodine not affecting infectious RNA and DNA. American Journal of Epidemiology, 82, 317-328.
173. Huang, J.L., Wang, L., Ren, N.Q., Liu, X.L., Sun, R.F. & Yang, G.L. (1997) Disinfection effect of chlorine dioxide on viruses, algae and animal planktons in water. Water Research, 31, 455-460.
174. Hugo, W.B. (1992) Disinfection mechanisms. In Principles and Practice of Disinfection, Preservation and Sterilization, 2nd edn (eds Russell, A.D., Hugo, W.B. & Ayliffe, G.A.J.), pp. 187-210. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications.
175. Hull, H.F. & Aylward, R.B. (2001) Progress towards global polio eradication. Vaccine, 19, 4378-4384.
176. Hutto, C., Little, E.A., Ricks, R., Lee, J.D. & Pass, R.F. (1986) Isolation of cytomegalovirus from toys and hands in a day care center. Journal of Infectious Diseases, 154, 527-530.
177. Idilman, R., De Maria, N., Colantoni, A. & Van Thiel, D.H. (1998) Pathogenesis of hepatitis B-and C-induced hepatocellular carcinoma. Journal of Viral Hepatitis, 5, 285-299.
178. Infection Control Nurses Association (1999) Guidelines for Hand Hygiene. ICNA & Deb.
179. Ito, K., Kajiura, T. & Abe, K. (2002) Effect of ethanol on antigenicity of hepatitis B virus envelope proteins. Japanese Journal of Infectious Diseases, 55, 117-121.
180. James, L., Puniya, A.K., Mishra, V. & Singh, K. (2002) Ozone: a potent disinfectant for application in food industry-an overview. Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research, 61, 504-509.
181. Jofre, J., Ollé, E., Ribas, F., Vidal, A. & Lucena, F. (1995). Potential usefulness of bacteriophages that infect Bacteroides fragilis as model organisms for monitoring virus removal in drinking treatment plants. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 61, 3227-3231.
182. Jones, M.V., Bellamy, K., Alcock, R. & Hudson, R. (1991) The use of bacteriophage MS2 as a model system to evaluate virucidal hand disinfectants. Journal of Hospital Infection, 17, 279-285.
183. Jordan, F.T.W. & Nassar, T.J. (1973) The survival of infectious bronchitis (IB) virus in an iodophor disinfectant and the influence of certain components. Journal of Applied Bacteriology, 36, 335-341.
184. Jülich, W.-D. & von Woedtke, T. (2001) Reprocessing of thermosensitive materials-efficacy against bacterial spores and viruses. Journal of Hospital Infection, 48 (SupplA), A-69.
185. Kampf, G., Rudolf, M., Labadie, J.-C. & Barrett, S.P. (2002) Spectrum of antimicrobial activity and user acceptability of the hand disinfectant agent Sterillium® gel. Journal of Hospital Infection, 52, 141-147.
186. Kashiwagi, K., Saito, K., Wang, Y.D., Takahashi, H., Ishijima, K. & Tsukahara, S. (2001) Safety of ozonated solution as an antiseptic of the ocular surface prior to ophthalmic surgery. Ophthalmologica, 215, 351-356.
187. Kawana, R., Kitamura, T., Nakagomi, O. et al. (1997) Inactivation of human viruses by povidone-iodine in comparison with other antiseptics. Dermatology, 195, 29-35.
188. Kennedy, M.A., Mellon, V.S., Caldwell, G. & Potgieter, L.N.D. (1995) Virucidal efficacy of the newer quaternary ammonium compounds. Journal of the American Animal Hospital Association, 31, 254-258.
189. Keswick, B.H., Fujioka, R.S. & Loh, P.C. (1981) Mechanism of poliovirus inactivation by bromine chloride. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 42, 824-829.
190. Keswick, B.H., Pickering, L.K., DuPont, H.L. & Woodward, W.E. (1983) Survival and detection of rotaviruses on environmental surfaces in day-care centers. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 46, 813-816.
191. Keswick, B.H., Satterwhite, T.K., Johnson, P.C. et al. (1985) Inactivation of Norwalk virus in drinking water by chlorine. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 50, 261-264.
192. Khadre, M.A. & Yousef, A.E. (2002) Susceptibility of human rotavirus to ozone, high pressure, and pulsed electric field. Journal of Food Protection, 65, 1441-1446.
193. Kim, C.H., Gentile, D.M. & Sproul, O.J. (1980) Mechanism of ozone inactivation of bacteriophage f2. Journal of Environmental Microbiology, 39, 210-218.
194. Kim, J.G., Yousef, A.E. & Dave, S. (1999) Application of ozone for enhancing the microbiological safety and quality of foods: a review. Journal of Food Protection, 62, 1071-1087.
195. Kirchhoff, H. (1968) The effect of quaternary ammonium compounds on Newcastle disease virus and parainfluenza virus. Deutsche Tierarztliche Wochenschrift, 75, 160-165.
196. Klein, J.O. (1986) Infectious diseases and day care. Reviews of Infectious Diseases, 8, 521-526.
197. Klein, M. & Deforest, A. (1963) The inactivation of viruses by germicides. In Proceedings of the 49th Midyear Meeting of the Chemical Specialties Manufacturers Association, Chicago, pp. 116-118.
198. Klein, M. & Deforest, A. (1983) Principles of viral inactivation. In Disinfection, Sterilization and Preservation (ed. Block, S.S.), pp. 422-434. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger.
199. Kline, L.B. & Hull, R.N. (1960) The virucidal properties of peracetic acid. American Journal of Clinical Pathology, 33, 30-33.
200. van Klingeren, B., Koller, W., Bloomfield, S.F. et al. (1998) Assessment of the efficacy of disinfectants on surfaces. International Biodeterioration and Biodegradation, 41, 289-293.
201. Kobayashi, H. & Tsuzuki, M. (1984) The effects of disinfectants and heat on hepatitis B virus. Journal of Hospital Infection, 5, 93-94.
202. Kobayashi, H., Tsuzuki, M., Koshimizu, K. et al. (1984) Susceptibility of hepatitis B virus to disinfectants or heat. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 20, 214-216.
203. Korn, A.H., Feairheller, S.H. & Filachione, E.M. (1972) Glutaraldehyde: nature of the reagent. Journal of Molecular Biology, 65, 525-529.
204. Kott, Y. (1981) Viruses and bacteriophages. Science of the Total Environment, 18, 13-23.
205. Krilov, L.R. & Harkness, S.H. (1993) Inactivation of respiratory syncytial virus by detergents and disinfectants. Pediatric Infectious Diseases Journal, 12, 582-584.
206. Kuhrt, M.F., Faucher, M.J., McKinlay, M.A. & Lennert, S.D. (1984) Virucidal activity of glutaric acid and evidence for dual mechanism of action. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, 26, 924-927.
207. Kurdziel, A.S., Wilkinson, N., Langton, S. & Cook, N. (2001) Survival of poliovirus on soft fruit and salad vegetables. Journal of Food Protection, 64, 706-709.
208. Kurtz, J.B. (1979) Virucidal effects of alcohols against echovirus 11. Lancet, i, 496-497.
209. Kurtz, J.B., Lee, T.W. & Parsons, A.J. (1980) The action of alcohols on rotavirus, astrovirus and enterovirus. Journal of Hospital Infection, 1, 321-325.
210. Larson, E.A. (1988) A causal link between handwashing and risk of infection? Examination of the evidence. Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology, 9, 28-36.
211. Larson, E.L. (1995) American practioners of infection control guidelines for infection control practice: guideline for use of topical antimicrobial agents. American Journal of Infection Control 23, 251-269.
212. Larson, E.L. & Morton, H.E. (1991) Alcohols. In Disinfection, Sterilization and Preservation, 4th edn (ed. Block, S.S.), pp. 191-203. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger.
213. Lawrence, S.A. (1999) Beta-propiolactone and aziridine: their applications in organic synthesis and viral inactivation. Chimica Oggi-Chemistry Today, 17, 51-54.
214. Lazarova, V., Janex, M.L., Fiksdal, L., Oberg, C., Barcina, I., Pommepuy, M. (1998) Advanced wastewater disinfection technologies: short and long term efficiency. Water Science and Technology, 38, 109-117.
215. LeDuc, J.W. (1989) Epidemiology of hemorrhagic-fever viruses. Reviews in Infectious Diseases 11 (Suppl.), 730-735.
216. Lepage, C. & Romond, C. (1984) Détermination de l'activité virucide: intérêt du bactériophage comme modêle viral. Pathologie Biologie, 32, 631-635.
217. Levy, J.A. (1988) Retroviridae: human immunodeficiency virus. In Laboratory Diagnosis of Infectious Disease, Vol. 11 (eds Lennette, E.H., Halonen, P. & Murphy, F.A.), pp. 677-691. New York: Springer-Verlag.
218. Li, J. W., Xin. Z.T., Wang, X.W., Zheng, J.L & Chao, F.H. (2002) Mechanisms of inactivation of hepatitis A virus by chlorine. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 68, 4951-4955.
219. Linemeyer, D.L., Menke, J.G., Martin-Gallardo, A., Hughes, J.V, Young, A. & Mitra, S.W. (1985) Molecular cloning and partial sequencing of hepatitis A viral cDNA. Journal of Virology, 54, 247-255.
220. Lloyd, G., Bowen, E.T.W. & Slade, J.H.R. (1982) Physical and chemical methods of inactivating Lassa virus. Lancet, i, 1046-1048.
221. Lloyd-Evans, N., Springthorpe, V.S. & Sattar, S.A. (1986) Chemical disinfection of human rotavirus-contaminated surfaces. Journal of Hygiene, 97, 163-173.
222. Lopman, B.A., Brown, D.W. & Koopmans, M. (2002) Human caliciviruses in Europe. Journal of Clinical Virology, 24, 137-160.
223. Lorenz, D.E. & Jann, G.J. (1964) Use-dilution test and Newcastle disease virus. Applied Microbiology, 12, 24-26.
224. Luscher-Mattli, M. (2000) Influenza chemotherapy: a review of the present state of art and of new drugs in development. Archives of Virology, 145, 2233-2248.
225. Lyytikainen, O., Hoffmann, E., Timm, H. et al. (1998) Influenza A outbreak among adolescents in a ski hostel. European Journal of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, 17, 128-130.
226. McKenna, R., Xia, D., Willingmann, P. et al. (1992) Atomic structure of single-stranded DNA bacteriophage Phi X174 and its functional implications. Nature, 355, 137-143.
227. Mahnel, H. (1979) Variations in resistance of viruses from different groups to chemico-physical decontamination methods. Infection, 7, 240-246.
228. Mahnel, H. & Kunz, W. (1976a) Suitability of carriers for the examination of disinfectants against viruses. Berliner und Münchener Tierarztliche Wocheschrift, 89, 138-142.
229. Mahnel, H. & Kunz, W (1976b) Suitability of carriers for the examination of disinfectants against viruses. Berliner und Münchener Tierarztliche Wocheschrift, 89, 149-152.
230. Mbithi, J.N., Springthorpe, V.S. & Sattar, S.A. (1990) Chemical disinfection of hepatitis A virus on environmental surfaces. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 56, 3601-3604.
231. Mbithi, J.N., Springthorpe, V.S., Boulet, J.R. & Sattar, S.A. (1992) Survival of hepatitis A virus on human hands and its transfer on contact with animate and inanimate surfaces. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 30, 757-763.
232. Mbithi, J.N., Springthorpe, V.S., Sattar, S.A. & Pacquette, M. (1993a) Bactericidal, virucidal and mycobactericidal activity of alkaline glutaraldehyde under reuse in an endoscopy unit. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 31, 2988-2995.
233. Mbithi, J.N., Springthorpe, V.S. & Sattar, S.A. (1993b) Comparative in vivo efficiency of hand-washing agents against hepatitis A virus (HM-175) and poliovirus type 1 (Sabin). Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 59, 3463-3469.
234. Maillard, J.-Y. (1996) Bacteriophages: a model system for human viruses. Letters in Applied Bacteriology, 23, 1.
235. Maillard, J.-Y. (1999) Viricidal activity of biocides. In Principles and Practice of Disinfection, Preservation and Sterilization, 3rd edn (eds Russell, A.D., Hugo, W.B. and Ayliffe, G.A.J.), pp 207-221. Oxford: Blackwell Science.
236. Maillard, J.-Y. (2001) Virus susceptibility to biocides: an understanding. Reviews in Medical Microbiology, 12, 63-74.
237. Maillard, J.-Y. & Russell, A.D. (1997) Viricidal activity and mechanisms of action of biocides. Science Progress, 80, 287-315.
238. Maillard, J.-Y., Beggs, T.S., Day, M.J., Hudson, R.A. & Russell, A.D. (1994) Effect of biocides on MS2 and K coliphages. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 60, 2205-2206.
239. Maillard, J.-Y., Hann, A.C., Beggs, T.S., Day, M.J., Hudson, R.A. & Russell, A.D. (1995a) Electron-microscopic investigation of the effect of biocides on Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO bacteriophage F116. Journal of Medical Microbiology, 42, 415-420.
240. Maillard, J.-Y., Hann, A.C., Beggs, T.S., Day, M.J., Hudson, R.A. & Russell, A.D. (1995b) Analysis of X-rays: study of the distribution of chlorhexidine and cetylpyridinium chloride on the Pseudomonas aeruginosa bacteriophage F116. Letters in Applied Microbiology, 20, 357-360.
241. Maillard, J.-Y., Beggs, T.S., Day, M.J., Hudson, R.A. & Russell, A.D. (1995c) The effects of biocides on the transduction of Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO by F116 bacteriophage. Letters in Applied Microbiology, 21, 215-218.
242. Maillard, J.-Y., Beggs, T.S., Day, M.J., Hudson, R.A. & Russell, A.D. (1996a) The effects of biocides on proteins of Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO bacteriophage F116. Journal of Applied Bacteriology, 80, 291-295.
243. Maillard, J.-Y., Beggs, T.S., Day, M.J., Hudson, R.A. & Russell, A.D. (1996b) Damage to Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1 bacteriophage F116 DNA by biocides. Journal of Applied Bacteriology, 80, 540-544.
244. Maillard, J.-Y., Messager, S. & Veillon, R. (1998) Antimicrobial efficacy of biocides tested on skin using an ex-vivo test. Journal of Hospital Infection, 40, 313-323.
245. Manabe, S. (1996) Removal of virus through novel membrane filtration method. Developments in Biological Standardization, 88, 81-90.
246. Manchester, M. Naniche, D. & Stehle, T. (2000) CD46 as a measles receptor: form follows function. Virology, 274, 5-10.
247. Mandel, B. (1971) Characterization of type 1 poliovirus by electrophoretic analysis. Virology, 44, 554-568.
248. Manns, A.B., Larson, E. & Fosarelli, P. (1990) Occurrence of infectious symptoms in children in day care homes. American Journal of Infectious Control, 18, 347-353.
249. Marx, A., Shay, D.K., Noel, J.S. et al. (1999) An outbreak of acute gastroenteritis in a geriatric long-term-care facility: combined application of epidemiological and molecular diagnostic methods. Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology, 20, 306-311.
250. Mathur, U., Bentley, D.W. & Hall, C.B. (1980) Concurrent respiratory syncytial virus and influenza A infections in the institutionalized elderly and chronically ill. Annals of Internal Medicine, 93, 49-52.
251. Mentel, R. & Schmidt, J. (1973) Investigations on rhinovirus inactivation by hydrogen peroxide. Acta Virologica, 17, 351-354.
252. Merianos, J.J. (1991) Quaternary ammonium antimicrobial compounds. In Disinfection, Sterilization and Preservation, 4th edn (ed. Block, S.S.), pp. 225-255. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger.
253. Messager, S., Goddard, P.A., Dettmar, P.W. & Maillard, J.-Y. (2001) Determination of the antibacterial efficacy of several antiseptics tested on skin using the 'ex-vivo' test. Journal of Medical Microbiology, 50, 284-292.
254. Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food (1970) Protocol of test for Approval of Disinfectants for Use Against Fowl Pest (Newcastle Disease Virus, Fowl Plague Virus). Weybridge, UK: MAFF, Central Veterinary Laboratory.
255. Minor, P.D. (2002) Eradication and cessation of programmes. British Medical Bulletin, 62, 213-224.
256. Moldenhauer, D. (1984). Quantitative evaluation of the effects of disinfectants against viruses in suspension experiments. Zentralblatt für Bakteriologie und Hygiene, I Abteilung Originale, B, 179, 544-554.
257. Montefiori, D.C., Robinson, W.E., Jr, Modliszewski, A. & Mitchell, W M. (1990) Effective inactivation of human immunodeficiency virus with chlorhexidine antiseptics containing detergents and alcohol. Journal of Hospital Infection, 15, 279-282.
258. Monto, A.S., Fendrick, A.M. & Sarnes, M.W. (2001) Respiratory illness caused by picornavirus infection: a review of clinical outcomes. Clinical Therapeutics, 23, 1615-1627.
259. Morrison, T.G. (2001) The three faces of paramyxovirus attachment proteins. Trends in Microbiology, 9, 103-105.
260. Morse, S.S. (1995) Factors in the emergence of infectious diseases. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 1, 7-16.
261. Mudd, J.B., Reavitt, R., Ongun, A. & McManus, T.T. (1969) Reaction of ozone with amino acids and proteins. Atmospheric Environment, 3, 669-681.
262. Murphy, F.A., Fauquet, C.M., Bishop, D.H.L. et al. (1995) Virus taxonomy: classification and nomenclature of viruses. Archives of Virology, Suppl. 10.
263. Murray, S.M., Freiman, J.S., Vickery, K., Lim, D., Cossart, Y.E. & Whiteley, R.K. (1991) Duck hepatitis B virus: a model to assess efficacy of disinfectants against hepadnavirus activity. Epidemiology and Infection, 106, 435-443.
264. Muscarella, L.F. (2001) Recommendations for preventing hepatitis C virus infection: Analysis of a Brooklyn endoscopy clinic's outbreak. Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology, 22, 669-669.
265. Naikoba, S. & Hayward, A. (2001) The effectiveness of interventions aimed at increasing handwashing in healthcare workers-a systematic review. Journal of Hospital Infection, 47, 173-180.
266. Nuanualsuwan, S. & Cliver, D.O. (2002) Pretreatment to avoid positive RT-PCR results with inactivated viruses. Journal of Virological Methods, 104, 217-225.
267. O'Brien, R.T. & Newman, J. (1979) Structural and compositional changes associated with chlorine inactivation of polioviruses. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 38, 1034-1039.
268. Ojeh, C.K., Cusack, T.M. & Yolken, R.H. (1995) Evaluation of the effects of disinfectants on rotavirus RNA and infectivity by the polymerase chain reaction and cell-culture methods. Molecular Cell Probes, 9, 341-346.
269. Olivieri, V.P., Kruse, C.W, Hsu, Y.C., Griffiths, A.C. & Kawata, K. (1975) The comparative mode of action of chlorine, bromine, and iodine on f2 bacterial virus. In Disinfection-Water andWastewater (ed. Johnson, J.D.), pp. 145-162. Ann Arbor, MI: Ann Arbor Science.
270. Oppermann, H., Mueller, B., Takkinen, J., Klauditz, W., Schreier, E. & Ammon, A. (2001) An outbreak of viral gastroenteritis in a mother-and-child health clinic. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health, 203, 369-373.
271. Oxford, J.S., Potter, C.W., Malaren, C. & Hardy, W. (1971) Inactivation of influenza and other viruses by a mixture of virucidal compounds. Applied Microbiology, 21, 606-610.
272. Pancic, F., Carpenter, D.C. & Came, P.E., (1980) Role of infectious secretions in the transmission of rhinovirus. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 12, 467-471.
273. Papaevangelou, G.J. (1984) Global epidemiology of hepatitis A. In Hepatitis A (ed. Gerety, R.J.), p. 101. Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
274. Papageorgiou, G.T., Mocé-Llivina, L. & Jofre, J. (2001) New method for evaluation of virucidal activity of antiseptics and disinfectants. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 67, 5844-5848.
275. Park, J.B. & Park N.-H. (1989) Effect of chlorhexidine on the in vitro and in vivo herpes simplex virus infection. Oral Surgery, 67, 149-153.
276. Parisi, A.N. & Young, W.E. (1991) Sterilization with ethylene oxide and other gases. In Disinfection, Sterilization and Preservation, 4th edn (ed. Block, S.S.), pp. 580-595. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger.
277. Pass, R.F. & Hutto, S.C. (1986) Group daycare and cytomegalovirus infections of mothers and children. Reviews of Infectious Disease, 8, 599-605.
278. Pass, R.F., Hutto, S.C., Reynolds, D.W. & Polhill, R.B. (1984) Increased frequency of cytomegalovirus infection in children in group day care. Pediatrics, 74, 121-126.
279. Passagot, J., Crance J.M., Biziagos, E., Laveran, H., Agbalika, E & Deloince, R. (1987) Effect of glutaraldehyde on the antigenicity and infectivity of hepatitis A virus. Journal of Virological Methods, 16, 21-28.
280. Paunio, M., Peltola, H., Valle, M., Davidkin, I., Virtanen, M. & Heinonen, O.P. (1998) Explosive school-based measles outbreak-intense exposure may have resulted in high risk, even among revaccinees. American Journal of Epidemiology, 148, 1103-1110.
281. Peterson, D.A., Hurley, T.R., Hoff, J.C. & Wolfe, L.G. (1983) Effect of chlorine treatment on infectivity of hepatitis A virus. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 45, 223-227.
282. Philpott-Howard, J. & Casewell, M. (1995) Hospital Infection Control, pp 86-87. London: W.B. Saunders.
283. Pickering, L.K., Evans, D.G., Dupont, H.L. & Vollet, J.J. III (1981) Diarrhea caused by Shigella, rotavirus and Giardia in day-care centers. Journal of Pediatrics, 99, 51-56.
284. Pickering, L.K., Bartlett, A.V. & Woodward, W.E. (1986) Acute infectious diarrhea among children in day care: epidemiology and control. Reviews of Infectious Diseases, 8, 539-547.
285. Pintó, R.M., Abad, EX., Riera, J.M. & Bosch, A. (1991) The use of bacteriophages of Bacteroides fragilis as indicators of the efficiency of virucidal products. FEMS Microbiology Letters, 66, 61-65.
286. Piret, J., Lamontagne, J., Bestman-Smith, J. et al. (2000) In vitro and in vivo evaluations of sodium lauryl sulfate and dextran sulfate as microbicides against herpes simplex and human immunodeficiency viruses. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 38, 110-119.
287. Piret, J., Desormeaux, A. & Bergeron, M.G. (2002) Sodium lauryl sulfate, a microbicide effective against enveloped and nonenveloped viruses. Current Drug Targets, 3, 17-30.
288. Pittet, D. (2000) Improving compliance with hand hygiene in hospitals. Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology, 21, 381-386.
289. Pittet, D. (2001) Compliance with hand disinfection and its impact on hospital-acquired infections. Journal of Hospital Infection, 48 (SupplA), A-40.
290. Poli, G., Ponti, W., Micheletti, R. & Cantoni, C. (1978) Virucidal activity of some quaternary ammonium compounds. Drug Research, 28, 1672-1675.
291. Pollard, E.C. (1953) The Physics of Viruses. New York: Academic Press.
292. Potter, C.W. (2001) A history of influenza. Journal for Applied Microbiology, 91, 572-579.
293. Poznansky, M.C., Torkington, J., Turner, G. et al. (1994) Prevalence of HIV infection in patients attending an inner city accident and emergency department. British Medical Journal, 308, 636.
294. Prince, H.N., Prince, D.L. & Prince, R.N. (1991) Principles of viral control and transmission. In Disinfection, Sterilization and Preservation, 4th edn (ed. Block, S.S), pp. 411-444. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger.
295. Prince, D.L., Prince, H.N., Thraenhart, O., Muchmore, E., Bonder, E. & Pugh, J. (1993) Methodological approaches to disinfection of human hepatitis B virus. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 31, 3296-3304.
296. Pugh, J.C., Ijaz, M.K. & Suchmann, D.B. (1999) Use of surrogate models for testing efficacy of disinfectants against HBV. American Journal of Infection Control, 27, 375-376.
297. Quinn, L.Y. (1978) Polyconfiguration-model for the Aprotein of coliphage MS2. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, 83, 863-868.
298. Quinn, P.J. & Carter, M.E. (1999) Evaluation of viricidal activity. In Principles and Practice of Disinfection, Preservation and Sterilization, 3rd edn (eds Russell, A.D., Hugo, W.B. and Ayliffe, G.A.J.), pp 197-206. Oxford: Blackwell Science.
299. Rabkin, C.S., Telzak, E.E., Ho, M.S. et al.(1988) Outbreak of echovirus 11 infection in hospitalized neonates. Pediatric Infectious Diseases, 7, 186-190.
300. Racaniello, V.R. & Baltimore, D. (1981) Molecular cloning of poliovirus cDNA and determination of the complete nucleotide sequence of the viral genome. Biochemistry, 78, 4887-4891.
301. Rahn, R.O. & Landry, L.C. (1973) Ultraviolet irradiation of nucleic acid complexed with heavy atoms. 11. Phosphorescence and photodimerization of DNA complexed with Ag. Photochemistry and Photobiology, 18, 29-38.
302. 2++ on the sensitivity of phage and of transforming DNA to ultraviolet radiation. Photochemistry and Photobiology, 18, 39-41.
303. Raphael, R.A., Sattar, S.A. & Springthorpe, V.S. (1987) Lack of human rotavirus inactivation by residual chlorine in municipal drinking water systems. Revue Internationale de Science de l'Eau, 3, 67-69.
304. Resnick, L., Veren, K., Zaki Salahuddin, S., Tondreau, S. & Markham, P.D. (1986) Stability and inactivation of HTLV-III/LAV under clinical and laboratory environments. Journal of the American Medical Association, 255, 1887-1891.
305. Rey, J.F. (1999) Endoscopic disinfection-a worldwide problem. Journal of Clinical Gastroenterology, 28, 291-297.
306. Reybrouck, G. (1998) The testing of disinfectants. International Deterioration and Biodegradation 41, 269-272.
307. Richards, F.M. & Knowles, J.R. (1968) Glutaraldehyde as a protein cross-linking reagent. Journal of Molecular Biology, 37, 231-233.
308. Richards, G.P. (1999) Limitations of molecular biological techniques for assessing the virological safety of foods. Journal of Food Protection, 62, 691-697.
309. Riesser, V.W., Perrich, J.R., Silver, B.B. & McCammon, J.R. (1976) Possible mechanism of poliovirus inactivation by ozone. In Forum on Ozone Disinfection (eds Fochtman, E.G., Rice, R.G. & Browning, M.E.), pp. 186-192. Syracuse, NY: International Ozone Institute.
310. Roberts, C.G. (2000) Studies on the bioburden on medical devices and the importance of cleaning. In Disinfection, Sterilization and Antisepsis: Principles and Practice in Healthcare Facilities (ed. Rutala, W.A.), pp 63-69. Minneapolis: APIC.
311. Rodgers, F.G., Hufton, P., Kurzawska, E., Molloy, C. & Morgan, S. (1985) Morphological response of human rotavirus to ultra-violet radiation, heat and disinfectants. Journal of Medical Microbiology, 20, 123-130.
312. Roll, M., Norder, H., Magnius, L.O., Grillner, I. & Lindgren, V. (1995) Nosocomial spread of hepatitis B virus (HBV) in haemodialysis unit confirmed by HBV DNA sequencing. Journal of Hospital Infection, 30, 57-63.
313. Rosen, H.R. (2000) Primer on hepatitis C for hospital epidemiology. Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology, 21, 229-234.
314. Rubin, J. (1991) Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) disinfection and control. In Disinfection, Sterilization and Preservation, 4th edn (ed. Block, S.S.), pp. 472-481. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger.
315. Rusin, P., Maxwell, S. & Gerba, C. (2002) Comparative surface-to-hand and fingertip-to-mouth transfer efficiency of gram-positive bacteria, Gram-negative bacteria, and phage. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 93, 585-592.
316. Russell, A.D. (1994) Glutaraldehyde: current status and uses. Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology, 15, 724-735.
317. Russell, A.D. (1998) Microbial sensitivity and resistance to chemical and physical agents. In Topley & Wilson's Microbiology and Microbial Infections, 9th edn, vol. 2 (eds Balows, A. & Duerden, B.I.), pp. 149-184. London: Edward Arnold.
318. Russell, A.D. (2002) Antibiotic and biocide resistance in bacteria: comments and conclusion. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 92 (Suppl.), 171-173.
319. Russell, A.D. & Chopra, I. (1996) Understanding Antibacterial Action and Resistance, 2nd edn. London: Ellis Horwood.
320. Russell, A.D. & McDonnell, G. (2000) Concentration: a major factor in studying biocidal action. Journal of Hospital Infection, 44, 1-3.
321. Russell, A.D., Furr, J.R. & Maillard, J.-Y. (1997) Microbial susceptibility and resistance to biocides: an understanding. ASM News, 63, 481-487.
322. Rutala, W.A. (1990) Draft guidelines for the selection and use of disinfectants. American Journal of Infection Control, 18, 99-117.
323. Rutala, W.A. (1996) APIC guideline for the selection and use of disinfectants. American Journal of Infection Control, 24 (Suppl.), 313-342.
324. Rutala, W.A. & Cole, E.C. (1987) Ineffectiveness of hospital disinfectants against bacteria: a collaborative study. Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology, 8, 501-506.
325. Rutala, W.A. & Weber, D.J. (2000) Overview of the use of chemical germicides in healthcare. In Disinfection, Sterilization and Antisepsis: Principles and Practice in Healthcare Facilities (ed. Rutala, W.A), pp 1-15. Minneapolis: APIC.
326. Rutala, W.A. & Weber, D.J. (2001) Surface disinfection: should we do it? Journal of Hospital Infection, 48 (Suppl. A), 64-68.
327. Sagripanti, J.-L., Routson, L.B. & Lytle, C.D. (1993). Virus inactivation by copper or iron ions alone and in the presence of peroxide. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 59, 4374-4376.
328. Saitanu, K, & Lund, E. (1975) Inactivation of enterovirus by glutaraldehyde. Applied Microbiology, 29, 571-574.
329. Salk, J.E. & Gori, J.B. (1960) A review of theoretical, experimental and practical considerations in the use of formaldehyde for inactivation of poliovirus. Annals of New York Academy of Sciences, 83, 609-637.
330. Samadi, A.R., Huq, M.I. & Ahmed, Q.S. (1983) Detection of rotavirus in the handwashings of attendants of children with diarrhea. British Medical Journal, 286, 188.
331. Samuel, A.R. & Knowles, N.J. (2001) Foot-and-mouth disease virus: cause of the recent crisis for the UK livestock industry. Trends in Genetics, 17, 421-424.
332. Samuni, A., Aronovitch, J., Godinger, D., Chevion, M. & Czapski, G. (1983) On the cytotoxicity of vitamin C and metal ions. European Journal of Biochemistry, 137, 119-124.
333. Samuni, A., Chevion, M. & Czapski, G. (1984) Roles of copper and superoxide anion radicals in the radiation-induced inactivation of T7 bacteriophage. Radiation Research, 99, 562-572.
334. Sanchez-Tapias, F.M. (1999) Nosocomial transmission of hepatitis C virus. Journal of Hepatology, 31 (Suppl. 1), 107-112.
335. Sangar, D.V, Rowlands, D.J., Smale, C.J. & Brown, F. (1973) Reaction of glutaraldehyde with foot and mouth disease virus. Journal of Genetic Virology, 21, 399-406.
336. Sattar, S.A. (2000) Survival of micro-organisms on animate and inanimate surfaces and their disinfection. In Disinfection, Sterilization and Antisepsis: Principles and Practice in Healthcare Facilities (ed. Rutala, W.A), pp 195-205. Minneapolis: APIC.
337. Sattar, S.A. & Ansari, S.A. (2002) The fingerpad protocol to assess hygienic hand antiseptics against viruses. Journal of Virological Methods, 103, 171-181.
338. Sattar, S.A. & Ijaz, M.K. (1987) Spread of viral infections by aerosols. CRC Critical Reviews in Environmental Control, 17, 89-131.
339. Sattar, S.A. & Springthorpe, V.S. (1991) Survival and disinfectant inactivation of the human immunodeficiency virus: a critical review. Reviews in Infectious Diseases, 13, 430-447.
340. Sattar, S.A. & Springthorpe, V.S. (1996) Transmission of viral infection through animate and inanimate surfaces and infection control through chemical disinfection. In Modelling Disease Transmission and its Prevention by Disinfection (ed. Hurst, J.C.), pp 224-257. New York: Cambridge University Press.
341. Sattar, S.A. & Springthorpe, V.S. (2000) New methods for efficacy testing of disinfectants and antiseptics. In Disinfection, Sterilization and Antisepsis: Principles and Practice in Healthcare Facilities (ed. Rutala, W.A.), pp 173-186. Minneapolis: APIC.
342. Sattar, S.A. & Springthorpe, V.S. (2001) Methods of testing the virucidal activity of chemicals. In Disinfection, Sterilization, and Preservation, 5th edn (ed. Block, S.S.). pp. 1391-1412. London: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins.
343. Sattar, S.A., Lloyd-Evans, N., Springthorpe, VS. & Nair, R.C. (1986) Institutional outbreaks of rotavirus diarrhea: possible role of fomites and environmental surfaces as vehicles for virus transmission. Journal of Hygiene, 96, 277-289.
344. Sattar, S.A., Springthorpe, V.S., Karim, Y. & Loro, P. (1989) Chemical disinfection of non-porous inanimate surfaces experimentally contaminated with four human pathogenic viruses. Epidemiology and Infection, 102, 493-505.
345. Sattar, S.A., Jacobsen, H., Springthorpe, S., Cusack, T.M. & Rubino, J.R. (1993) Chemical disinfection to interrupt transfer of rhinovirus type 14 from environmental surfaces to hands. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 59, 1579-1585.
346. Sattar, S.A., Springthorpe, V.S., Conway, B. & Xu, Y. (1994) Inactivation of the human immunodeficiency virus: an update. Reviews in Medical Microbiology, 5, 139-150.
347. Sattar, S.A., Abebe, M., Jampani, H. & Newman, J. (2000) Activity of an alcohol based hand gel against human adeno-, rhino-, and rotaviruses using the fingerpad method. Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology, 21, 516-519.
348. Scheidler, A., Rokos, K., Reuter, T., Ebermann, R. & Pauli, G. (1998) Inactivation of viruses by beta-propiolactone in human cryo poor plasma and IgG concentrates. Biologicals, 26, 135-144.
349. Schliesser, T. (1979) Testing of chemical disinfectants for veterinary medicine. Hygiene und Medizin, 4, 51-56.
350. Schmaljohn, C.S., Hasty, S.E., Dalrymple, J.M. et al. (1985) Antigenic and genetic properties of viruses linked to hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome. Science, 227, 1041-1044.
351. Schnitzler, P., Schon, K. & Reichling, J. (2001) Antiviral activity of Australian tea tree oil and eucalyptus oil against herpes simplex virus in cell culture. Pharmazie, 56, 343-347.
352. Schubert, R. (1982) Zur Kompatibilität von Hautpflegecremes mit Hautdesinfektionspräparaten. Umweltmedizin, 3, 56-58.
353. Schürmann, W. & Eggers, H.J. (1983) Antiviral activity of an alcoholic hand disinfectant. Comparison of the in vitro suspension test with the in vivo experiments on hands, and on individual fingertips. Antiviral Research, 3, 25-41.
354. Schürmann, W. & Eggers, H.J. (1985) An experimental study of the epidemiology of enteroviruses: water and soap washing of poliovirus type 1-contanminated hand, its effectiveness and kinetics. Medical Microbiology and Immunology, 174, 221-236.
355. Scott, E.M. & Gorman, S.P. (1991) Sterilization with glutaraldehyde. In Disinfection, Preservation and Sterilization, 4th edn (ed. Block, S.S.), pp. 596-614. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger.
356. Selkon, J.B., Babb, J.R. & Morris, R. (1999) Evaluation of the antimicrobial activity of a new super-oxidized water, Sterilox®, for the disinfection of endoscope. Journal of Hospital Infection, 41, 59-70.
357. Shah, K.V. & Buscema, J. (1988) Genital warts, papillomaviruses and genital malignancies. Annual Reviews of Medicine, 39, 371-379.
358. Sharp, D.G. (1968) Multiplicity reaction of animal viruses. Progress in Medical Virology, 10, 64-109.
359. Sharp, D.G., Floyd, R. & Johnson, J.D. (1975) Nature of the surviving plaque-forming unit of reovirus in water containing bromine. Applied Microbiology, 29, 94-101.
360. Shin, G.A. & Sobsey, M.D. (1998) Reduction of Norwalk virus, poliovirus 1 and coliphage MS2 by monochloramine disinfection of water. Water Science and Technology, 38, 151-154.
361. Shirai, J., Kanno, T., Tsuchiya, Y., Mitsubayashi, S. & Seki, R. (2000) Effects of chlorine, iodine, and quaternary ammonium compound disinfectants on several exotic disease viruses. Journal of Veterinary Medical Science, 62, 85-92.
362. Siddiqui, Y.M., Ettayebi, M., Haddad, A.M. & Al-Ahdal, H.N. (1996) Effect of essential oils on the enveloped viruses: antiviral activity of oregano and clove oils on herpes simplex virus type 1 and Newcastle disease virus. Medical Science Research, 24, 185-186.
363. Sidwell, R.W., Westbrook, L., Dixon, G.J. & Happich, W.F. (1970) Potentially infectious agents associated with shearling bedpads. I. Effect of laundering with detergentdisinfectant combinations on polio and vaccinia viruses. Applied Microbiology, 19, 53-59.
364. Simmons, B., Bryant, J., Neiman, K., Spencer, L. & Arheart, K. (1990) The role of handwashing in prevention of endemic intensive-care unit infections. Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology, 11, 589-594.
365. Skidmore, S.J., Gully, P.R., Middleton, J.D., Hassam, Z.A. & Singal, G.M. (1985). An outbreak of hepatitis A on a hospital ward. Journal of Medical Virology, 17, 175-177.
366. Slavin, G. (1973) A reproducible surface contamination method for disinfectant tests. British Veterinary Journal, 129, 13-18.
367. Smith, C.A. & Pepose, J.S. (1999) Disinfection of tonometers and contact lenses in the office setting: are current techniques adequate? American Journal of Ophthalmology, 127, 77-84.
368. Sobsey, M.D., Fuji, T. & Shields, P.A. (1988) Inactivation of hepatitis-A virus and model viruses in water by free chlorine and monochloramine. Water Science and Technology, 20, 385-391.
369. Sobsey, M.D., Fuji, T. & Hall, R.M. (1991a) Inactivation of cell-associated and dispersed hepatitis A virus in water. Journal of the American Water Works Association, 83, 64-67.
370. Sobsey, M.D., Oldham,C.E. & McCall, D.E. (1991b) Comparative inactivation of hepatitis A virus and other enteroviruses in water by iodine. Water Science and Technology, 24, 331-337.
371. Sporkenbach, J., Wiegers, K.J. & Dernick, R. (1981) The virus inactivating efficacy of peracids and peracidous disinfectants. Zentralblatt für Bakteriologie, Mikrobiologie und Hygiene (Orig. B), 173, 425-439.
372. Soule, H., Duc, D.L., Mallaret, M.R., et al. (1998) Virus survival in hospital environment: an overview of the virucide activity of disinfectants used in liquid form. Annales de Biologie Clinique, 56, 693-703.
373. Springthorpe, V.S. & Sattar, S.A. (1990) Chemical disinfection of virus-contaminated surfaces. Critical Reviews in Environmental Control, 20, 169-229.
374. Springthorpe, V.S., Grenier, J.L., Lloyd-Evans, N. & Sattar, S.A. (1986) Chemical disinfection of human rotaviruses: efficacy of commercially available products in suspension tests. Journal of Hygiene, 97, 139-161.
375. Springthorpe, S., Sander, M., Nolan, K. & Sattar, S.A. (2001) Comparison of static and dynamic disinfection models for bacteria and viruses in water of varying quality. Water Science and Technology, 43, 147-154.
376. Sprossig, M. (1975) Peracetic acid and resistant microorganisms. In Resistance of Micro-organisms of Disinfectants, 2nd International Symposium (ed. Kedzia, W.B.), pp. 89-91. Warsaw: Polish Academy of Sciences.
377. Sproul, O.J., Pfister, R.M. & Kim, C.K. (1982) The mecha nism of ozone inactivation of water borne viruses. Water Science Technology, 14, 303-314.
378. Steinmann, J. (2001) Some principles of virucidal testing. Journal of Hospital Infection, 48 (SupplA), A-15.
379. Steinmann, J., Nehrkorn, R., Meyer, A. and Becker, K. (1995) Two in vivo protocols for testing virucidal efficacy of handwashing and hand disinfection. Zentralblatt für Hygiene und Umweltmedizin, 196, 425-436.
380. Stoler, M.H. (1996) A brief synopsis of the role of human papillomaviruses in cervical carcinogenesis. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 175, 1091-1098.
381. Storch, G., McFarland, L.M., Kelso, K., Heilman, C.J. & Caraway, C.T. (1979) Viral hepatitis associated with daycare centers. Journal of the American Medical Association, 242, 1514-1518.
382. Storey, M.V. & Ashbolt, N.J. (2001) Persistence of two model enteric viruses (B40-8 and MS-2 bacteriophages) in water distribution pipe biofilms. Water Science and Technology, 43, 133-138.
383. Sykes, G. (1965) Disinfection and Sterilization, pp. 291-308. London: Chapman & Hall.
384. Tam, J.S. (2002) Influenza A (H5N1) in Hong Kong: an overview. Vaccine, 20 (Suppl.), 77-81.
385. Tang, J.X., Janmey, P.A., Lyubartsev, A. & Nordenskiold, L. (2002) Metal ion-induced lateral aggregation of filamentous viruses fd and M13. Biophysical Journal, 83, 566-581.
386. Taylor, G.R. & Butler, M. (1982) A comparison of the virucidal properties of chlorine, chlorine dioxide, bromine chloride and iodine. Journal of Hygiene, Cambridge, 89, 321-328.
387. Teare, E.L., Cookson, B., French, G.L. et al. (1999) UK handwashing initiative. Journal of Hospital Infection, 43, 1-3.
388. Tenno, K.M., Fujioka, R. & Loh, P.C. (1979) The mechanisms of poliovirus inactivation by hypochlorous acid. In Proceedings of the 3rd Conference on Water Chlorination: Environmental Impact and Health Effects (eds Jolley, R., Brungs, W.A. & Cumming, R.B.), pp. 665-675. Ann Arbor, Michigan: Ann Arbor Science.
389. Thraenhart, O. (1991) Measures for disinfection and control of viral hepatitis. In Disinfection, Preservation and Sterilization, 4th edn (ed. Block, S.S.), pp. 445-471. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger.
390. Thraenhart, O. & Kuwert, E. (1975) Virucidal activity of the disinfectant 'Gigasept' against different enveloped and non-enveloped RNA-and DNA-viruses pathogenic for man. I. Investigation in the suspension test. Zentralblatt für Bakteriologie und Hygiene, I. Abteilung (Originale B), 161, 209-232.
391. Thraenhart, O., Dermietzel, R., Kuwert, E. & Scheiermann, N. (1977) Morphological alteration and disintegration of Dane particles after exposure with 'Gigasept': a first methodological attempt for the evaluation of the virucidal efficacy of a chemical disinfectant against hepatitis virus B. Zentralblatt für Bakteriologie, Parasitenkunde, Infektionskrankheinten und Hygiene. I. Abteilung Originale, Reike, 164, 1-21.
392. Thraenhart, O., Kuwert, E.K., Dermietzel, R., Kuwert, E., Scheiermann, N. & Wendt, F. (1978) Influence of different disinfection conditions on the structure of the hepatitis B virus (Dane particle) as evaluated in the morphological alteration and disintegration test (MADT). Zentralblatt für Bakteriologie, Parasitenkunde, Infektionskrankheinten und Hygiene. I. Abteilung Originale, Reike, 242, 299-314.
393. Thurman, R.B. & Gerba, C.P. (1988) Molecular mechanisms of viral inactivation by water disinfectants. Advances in Applied Microbiology, 33, 75-105.
394. Thurman, R.B. & Gerba, C.P. (1989) The molecular mechanisms of copper and silver ion disinfection of bacteria and viruses. Critical Reviews of Environmental Control, 18, 295-315.
395. Tree, J.A., Adams, M.R. & Lees, D.N. (1997) Virus inactivation during disinfection of wastewater by chlorination and UV irradiation and the efficacy of F+ bacteriophage as a viral indicator. Water Science and Technology, 35, 227-232.
396. Turner, F.J. (1983) Hydrogen peroxide and other oxidant disinfectants. In Disinfection, Sterilization and Preservation, (ed. Block, S.S.), pp. 240-250. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger.
397. Tyler, R. & Ayliffe, G.A.J. (1987) A surface test for virucidal activity: preliminary study with herpesvirus. Journal of Hospital Infection, 9, 22-29.
398. Tyler, R., Ayliffe, G.A.J. & Bradley, C.R. (1990) Virucidal activity of disinfectants. Journal of Hospital Infection, 15, 339-345.
399. US Food & Drug Administration (1994) Tentative Final Monograph for Health-Care Antiseptic Products, June 1994. Washington, DC: US FDA.
400. Valenti, W.M., Hall, C.B., Douglas, R.G., Menegus, M.A. & Pincus, P.H. (1980a) Nosocomial viral infections: I. Epidemiology and significance. Infection Control, 1, 33-37.
401. Valenti, WM., Betts, R.F., Hall, C.B., Hruska, J.E & Douglas, R.G. (1980b) Nosocomial viral infections: II. Guidelines for prevention and control of respiratory viruses, herpesviruses, and hepatitis viruses. Infection Control, 1, 165-178.
402. Van Engelenburg, F.A.C., Terpstra, F.G., Shuitemaker, H. & Moore, W.R. (2002) The virucidal spectrum of a high concentration alcohol mixture. Journal of Hospital Infection, 51, 121-125.
403. Vickery, K., Deva, A.K., Zou, J., Kumaradeva, P., Bissett, L. & Cossart, Y.E. (1999) Inactivation of duck hepatitis B virus by hydrogen peroxide gas plasma sterilization system: a laboratory and 'in use' testing. Journal of Hospital Infection, 41, 317-322.
404. Vrisjen, R., Rombaut, B. & Boeye, A. (1983) pH dependent aggregation and electrofocusing of poliovirus. Journal of Genetic Virology, 64, 2339-2342.
405. Walter, J.K., Werz, W. & Berthold, W. (1996) Process scale considerations in evaluation studies and scale up. Developments in Biological Standardization, 88, 99-108.
406. Ward, R.L., Knowlton, D. & Pierce, M.J. (1984) Efficiency of human rotavirus propagation in cell culture. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 19, 748-753.
407. Ward, R.L., Bernstein, D.I., Young, E.C., Sherwood, J.R., Knowlton, D.R. & Schiff, G.M. (1986) Human rotavirus studies in volunteers: determination of infectious dose and serological response to infection. Journal of Infectious Diseases, 154, 871-880.
408. Wallbank, A.M., Drulak, M., Poffenroth, L., Barnes, C., Kay, C. & Lebtag, I. (1978) Wescodyne: lack of activity against poliovirus in the presence of organic matter. Health Laboratory Science, 15, 133-137.
409. Walsh, B., Blakemore, P.H. and Drabu, Y.J. (1987) The effect of handcream on the antibacterial activity of chlorhexidine gluconate. Journal of Hospital Infection, 9, 30-33.
410. Walsh, S.E., Maillard, J.-Y. & Russell, A.D. (1999a) ortho-Phthalaldehyde: A possible alternative to glutaraldehyde for high-level disinfection. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 86, 1039-1046.
411. Walsh, S.E., Maillard, J.-Y., Simons, C. & Russell, A.D. (1999b) Studies on the mechanisms of the antibacterial action of Ortho-phthalaldehyde. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 87, 702-710.
412. Ward, R.L., Bernstein, D.I., Knowlton, D.R. et al. (1991) Prevention of surface to human transmission of rotaviruses by treatment with a disinfectant spray. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 29, 1991-1996.
413. Wathen, M.W. (2002) Non-nucleoside inhibitors of herpesviruses. Reviews in Medical Microbiology, 12, 167-178.
414. Weber, D.J., Barbee, S.L., Sobsey, M.D. & Rutala, W.A. (1999) The effect of blood on the antiviral activity of sodium hypochlorite, a phenolic, and a quaternary ammonium compound. Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology, 20, 821-827.
415. Welliver, R.C. & McLaughlin, S. (1984) Unique epidemiology of nosocomial infection in a children's hospital. American Journal of Diseases of Children, 138, 131-135.
416. Wendt, C. (2001) Hand hygiene-comparison of international recommendations. Journal of Hospital Infection, 48 (SupplA), A-23.
417. Wenzel, R.P., Deal, E.C. & Hendley, J.O. (1977) Hospitalacquired viral respiratory illness on a pediatric ward. Pediatrics, 60, 367-371.
418. Westwood, J.C.N. & Sattar, S.A. (1976) The minimal infection dose. In Viruses in Water (eds Berg, G. et al.), pp. 61-69. Washington, DC: American Public Health Association.
419. Wickramanayake, G.B. (1991) Disinfection and sterilization by ozone. In Disinfection, Preservation and Sterilization, 4th edn (ed. Block, S.S.), pp. 182-190. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger.
420. Williams, F.P. (1985) Membrane-associated viral complexes observed in stools and cell cultures. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 50, 523-526.
421. Wolff, H.H., Schmitt, J., Rahaus, M. & König, A. (2001) Hepatitis A virus: a test method for virucidal activity. Journal of Hospital Infection, 48 (SupplA), A-18.
422. Wood, A. & Payne, D. (1998) The action of three antiseptics/disinfectants against enveloped and non-enveloped viruses. Journal of Hospital Infection, 38, 283-295.
423. World Health Organization (WHO) (1993) Laboratory Biosafety Manual, 2nd edn, Chapter 9. Geneva: WHO.
424. Wouters, M., Miller, A.O.A. & Fenwick, M.L. (1973) Distortion of poliovirus particles by fixation with formaldehyde. Journal of General Virology, 18, 211-214.
425. Wright, H. (1970) Inactivation of vesicular stomatitis virus by disinfectants. Applied Microbiology, 19, 96-98.
426. Wutzler, P. & Sauerbrei, A. (2000) Virucidal efficacy of a combination of 0.2% peracetic acid and 80% (v/v) ethanol (PAA-ethanol) as a potential hand disinfectant. Journal of Hospital Infection, 46, 304-308.
427. Wutzler, P., Sauerbrei, A., Klocking, R. et al. (2000) Virucidal and chlamydicidal activities of eye drops with povidone-iodine liposome complex. Ophthalmic Research, 32, 118-125.
428. Xu, P., Janex, M.L., Savoye, P., Cockx, A. & Lazarova, V. (2002) Wastewater disinfection by ozone: main parameters for process design. Water Research, 36, 1043-1055.
429. Young, D.C. & Sharp, D.G. (1985) Virion conformational forms and the complex inactivation kinetics of echovirus by chlorine in water. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 49, 359-364.
430. Yousef, G.E., Mann, G.F., Smith, D.G. et al. (1988). Chronic enterovirus infection in patients with postviral fatigue syndrome. Lancet, i, 146-150.
431. Zaragoza, M., Salles, M. Gomez, J., Bayas, J.M. & Trilla, A. (1999) Handwashing with soap or alcoholic solutions? A randomized clinical trial of its effectiveness. American Journal of Infection Control, 27, 258-261.