Fecal Transplants: What Is Being Transferred?

PLoS Biology

Volumn 14, Issue 7, 2016, Pages

  Bojanova, Diana P ^a   Bordenstein, Seth R ^a  

^a VANDERBILT UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARCHAEON; BIOLOGY; FECES; FUNGUS; HUMAN; METABOLITE; PROTIST; RECIPIENT; TRANSPLANTATION; VIRUS; ANIMAL; ENTEROCOLITIS, PSEUDOMEMBRANOUS; FECAL MICROBIOTA TRANSPLANTATION; GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT; INTESTINE FLORA; METABOLISM; MICROBIOLOGY;

FATTY ACID;

ANIMALS; ENTEROCOLITIS, PSEUDOMEMBRANOUS; FATTY ACIDS; FECAL MICROBIOTA TRANSPLANTATION; FECES; GASTROINTESTINAL MICROBIOME; GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT; HUMANS;

EID: 84982822142     PISSN: 15449173     EISSN: 15457885     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.1002503     Document Type: Article

References (102)

1. Kassam Z, Hundal R, Marshall JK, Lee CH, (2012) Fecal transplant via retention enema for refractory or recurrent Clostridium difficile infection. Archives of Internal Medicine172: 191–193. doi: 10.1001/archinte.172.2.19122271132
2. van Nood E, Vrieze A, Nieuwdorp M, Fuentes S, Zoetendal EG, et al. (2013) Duodenal infusion of donor feces for recurrent Clostridium difficile. N Engl J Med368: 407–415. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa120503723323867
3. Yoon SS, Brandt LJ, (2010) Treatment of refractory/recurrent C. difficile-associated disease by donated stool transplanted via colonoscopy: a case series of 12 patients. J Clin Gastroenterol44: 562–566. doi: 10.1097/MCG.0b013e3181dac03520463588
4. Aas J, Gessert CE, Bakken JS, (2003) Recurrent Clostridium difficile colitis: case series involving 18 patients treated with donor stool administered via a nasogastric tube. Clin Infect Dis36: 580–585. 12594638
5. Rao K, Young VB, (2015) Fecal microbiota transplantation for the management of Clostridium difficile infection. Infect Dis Clin North Am29: 109–122. doi: 10.1016/j.idc.2014.11.00925677705
6. Borody TJ, Khoruts A, (2012) Fecal microbiota transplantation and emerging applications. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol9: 88–96.
7. Vrieze A, Van Nood E, Holleman F, Salojarvi J, Kootte RS, et al. (2012) Transfer of intestinal microbiota from lean donors increases insulin sensitivity in individuals with metabolic syndrome. Gastroenterology143: 913–916.e917. doi: 10.1053/j.gastro.2012.06.03122728514
8. Borody TJ, Leis S, Campbell J, , al. e (2011) Fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) in multiple sclerosis (MS) [abstract]. Am J Gastroenterol106:S352.
9. Suskind DL, Brittnacher MJ, Wahbeh G, Shaffer ML, Hayden HS, et al. (2015) Fecal microbial transplant effect on clinical outcomes and fecal microbiome in active Crohn's disease. Inflamm Bowel Dis21: 556–563. doi: 10.1097/MIB.000000000000030725647155
10. Lawley TD, Clare S, Walker AW, Stares MD, Connor TR, et al. (2012) Targeted restoration of the intestinal microbiota with a simple, defined bacteriotherapy resolves relapsing Clostridium difficile disease in mice. PLoS Pathog8: e1002995. doi: 10.1371/journal.ppat.100299523133377
11. Petrof EO, Gloor GB, Vanner SJ, Weese SJ, Carter D, et al. (2013) Stool substitute transplant therapy for the eradication of Clostridium difficile infection: 'RePOOPulating' the gut. Microbiome1:3. doi: 10.1186/2049-2618-1-324467987
12. Li M, Liang P, Li Z, Wang Y, Zhang G, et al. (2015) Fecal microbiota transplantation and bacterial consortium transplantation have comparable effects on the re-establishment of mucosal barrier function in mice with intestinal dysbiosis. Front Microbiol6:692. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2015.0069226217323
13. Hamilton MJ, Weingarden AR, Unno T, Khoruts A, Sadowsky MJ, (2013) High-throughput DNA sequence analysis reveals stable engraftment of gut microbiota following transplantation of previously frozen fecal bacteria. Gut Microbes4: 125–135. doi: 10.4161/gmic.2357123333862
14. Hamilton MJ, Weingarden AR, Sadowsky MJ, Khoruts A, (2012) Standardized frozen preparation for transplantation of fecal microbiota for recurrent Clostridium difficile infection. Am J Gastroenterol107: 761–767. doi: 10.1038/ajg.2011.48222290405
15. Khanna S, Pardi DS, Kelly CR, Kraft CS, Dhere T, et al. (2016) A Novel Microbiome Therapeutic Increases Gut Microbial Diversity and Prevents Recurrent Clostridium difficile Infection. The Journal of Infectious Diseasesdoi: 10.1093/infdis/jiv766
16. Hevia A, Delgado S, Margolles A, Sánchez B, (2015) Application of density gradient for the isolation of the fecal microbial stool component and the potential use thereof. Scientific Reports5: 16807. doi: 10.1038/srep1680726581409
17. Rose C, Parker A, Jefferson B, Cartmell E, (2015) The Characterization of Feces and Urine: A Review of the Literature to Inform Advanced Treatment Technology. Crit Rev Environ Sci Technol45: 1827–1879. 26246784
18. Stephen AM, Cummings JH, (1980) The microbial contribution to human faecal mass. J Med Microbiol13: 45–56. 7359576
19. Dridi B, Henry M, El Khéchine A, Raoult D, Drancourt M, (2009) High Prevalence of Methanobrevibacter smithii and Methanosphaera stadtmanae Detected in the Human Gut Using an Improved DNA Detection Protocol. PLoS ONE4: e7063. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.000706319759898
20. Lurie-Weinberger MN, Gophna U, (2015) Archaea in and on the Human Body: Health Implications and Future Directions. PLOS Pathog11: e1004833. doi: 10.1371/journal.ppat.100483326066650
21. Chandel DS, Braileanu GT, Chen JH, Chen HH, Panigrahi P, (2011) Live colonocytes in newborn stool: surrogates for evaluation of gut physiology and disease pathogenesis. Pediatr Res70: 153–158. doi: 10.1038/pr.2011.37821544008
22. Fonti R, Latella G, Bises G, Magliocca F, Nobili F, et al. (1994) Human colonocytes in primary culture: a model to study epithelial growth, metabolism and differentiation. International Journal of Colorectal Disease9: 13–22. 8027618
23. Nair PP (2002) Isolated colonocytes. United States Patent US6335193.
24. Chehoud C, Dryga A, Hwang Y, Nagy-Szakal D, Hollister EB, et al. (2016) Transfer of Viral Communities between Human Individuals during Fecal Microbiota Transplantation. mBio7: e00322–00316. doi: 10.1128/mBio.00322-1627025251
25. Bihl F, Castelli D, Marincola F, Dodd RY, Brander C, (2007) Transfusion-transmitted infections. Journal of Translational Medicine5: 25–25. 17553144
26. Gabriel M, Silvio DP, David H, Michael A, Moshe D, et al. (1991) Transfusion Reactions Due to Bacterial Contamination of Blood and Blood Products. Reviews of Infectious Diseases13: 307–314. 2041964
27. Lee CH, Steiner T, Petrof EO, et al. (2016) Frozen vs fresh fecal microbiota transplantation and clinical resolution of diarrhea in patients with recurrent Clostridium difficile infection: A randomized clinical trial. JAMA315: 142–149. doi: 10.1001/jama.2015.1809826757463
28. Youngster I, Sauk J, Pindar C, Wilson RG, Kaplan JL, et al. (2014) Fecal Microbiota Transplant for Relapsing Clostridium difficile Infection Using a Frozen Inoculum From Unrelated Donors: A Randomized, Open-Label, Controlled Pilot Study. Clin Infect Dis58: 1515–1522. doi: 10.1093/cid/ciu13524762631
29. Sender R, Fuchs S, Milo R, (2016) Are We Really Vastly Outnumbered? Revisiting the Ratio of Bacterial to Host Cells in Humans. Cell164: 337–340. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2016.01.01326824647
30. Ben-Amor K, Heilig H, Smidt H, Vaughan EE, Abee T, et al. (2005) Genetic diversity of viable, injured, and dead fecal bacteria assessed by fluorescence-activated cell sorting and 16S rRNA gene analysis. Appl Environ Microbiol71: 4679–4689. 16085863
31. Satokari R, Mattila E, Kainulainen V, Arkkila PE, (2015) Simple faecal preparation and efficacy of frozen inoculum in faecal microbiota transplantation for recurrent Clostridium difficile infection—an observational cohort study. Aliment Pharmacol Ther41: 46–53. doi: 10.1111/apt.1300925355279
32. Rachmilewitz D, Katakura K, Karmeli F, Hayashi T, Reinus C, et al. (2004) Toll-like receptor 9 signaling mediates the anti-inflammatory effects of probiotics in murine experimental colitis. Gastroenterology126: 520–528. 14762789
33. Rachmilewitz D, Karmeli F, Takabayashi K, Hayashi T, Leider-Trejo L, et al. (2002) Immunostimulatory DNA ameliorates experimental and spontaneous murine colitis. Gastroenterology122: 1428–1441. 11984528
34. Gough E, Shaikh H, Manges AR, (2011) Systematic review of intestinal microbiota transplantation (fecal bacteriotherapy) for recurrent Clostridium difficile infection. Clin Infect Dis53: 994–1002. doi: 10.1093/cid/cir63222002980
35. Blekhman R, Goodrich JK, Huang K, Sun Q, Bukowski R, et al. (2015) Host genetic variation impacts microbiome composition across human body sites. Genome Biology16: 1–12.
36. Goodrich JK, Waters JL, Poole AC, Sutter JL, Koren O, et al. (2014) Human genetics shape the gut microbiome. Cell159: 789–799. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2014.09.05325417156
37. Kassam Z, Lee CH, Yuan Y, Hunt RH, (2013) Fecal Microbiota Transplantation for Clostridium difficile Infection: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Am J Gastroenterol108: 500–508. doi: 10.1038/ajg.2013.5923511459
38. Moayyedi P, Surette MG, Kim PT, Libertucci J, Wolfe M, et al. (2015) Fecal Microbiota Transplantation Induces Remission in Patients With Active Ulcerative Colitis in a Randomized Controlled Trial. Gastroenterology149: 102–109.e106. doi: 10.1053/j.gastro.2015.04.00125857665
39. Reeves AE, Koenigsknecht MJ, Bergin IL, Young VB, (2012) Suppression of Clostridium difficile in the gastrointestinal tracts of germfree mice inoculated with a murine isolate from the family Lachnospiraceae. Infect Immun80: 3786–3794. doi: 10.1128/IAI.00647-1222890996
40. Gerding DN, Meyer T, Lee C, Cohen SH, Murthy UK, et al. (2015) Administration of spores of nontoxigenic Clostridium difficile strain M3 for prevention of recurrent C. difficile infection: a randomized clinical trial. Jama313: 1719–1727. doi: 10.1001/jama.2015.372525942722
41. Kim MS, Park EJ, Roh SW, Bae JW, (2011) Diversity and abundance of single-stranded DNA viruses in human feces. Appl Environ Microbiol77: 8062–8070. doi: 10.1128/AEM.06331-1121948823
42. Wigington CH, Sonderegger D, Brussaard CPD, Buchan A, Finke JF, et al. (2016) Re-examination of the relationship between marine virus and microbial cell abundances. Nature Microbiology1: 15024.
43. Reyes A, Semenkovich NP, Whiteson K, Rohwer F, Gordon JI, (2012) Going viral: next generation sequencing applied to human gut phage populations. Nat Rev Microbiol10: 607–617.
44. Reyes A, Haynes M, Hanson N, Angly FE, Heath AC, et al. (2010) Viruses in the faecal microbiota of monozygotic twins and their mothers. Nature466: 334–338. doi: 10.1038/nature0919920631792
45. Norman JM, Handley SA, Baldridge MT, Droit L, Liu CY, et al. (2015) Disease-specific alterations in the enteric virome in inflammatory bowel disease. Cell160: 447–460. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2015.01.00225619688
46. Dutilh BE, Cassman N, McNair K, Sanchez SE, Silva GG, et al. (2014) A highly abundant bacteriophage discovered in the unknown sequences of human faecal metagenomes. Nat Commun5: 4498. doi: 10.1038/ncomms549825058116
47. Sarker SA, Sultana S, Reuteler G, Moine D, Descombes P, et al. (2016) Oral Phage Therapy of Acute Bacterial Diarrhea With Two Coliphage Preparations: A Randomized Trial in Children From Bangladesh. EBioMedicine4: 124–137. doi: 10.1016/j.ebiom.2015.12.02326981577
48. Meader E, Mayer MJ, Steverding D, Carding SR, Narbad A, (2013) Evaluation of bacteriophage therapy to control Clostridium difficile and toxin production in an in vitro human colon model system. Anaerobe22: 25–30. doi: 10.1016/j.anaerobe.2013.05.00123685029
49. Nale JY, Spencer J, Hargreaves KR, Buckley AM, Trzepinski P, et al. (2015) Bacteriophage Combinations Significantly Reduce Clostridium difficile Growth In Vitro and Proliferation In Vivo. Antimicrob Agents Chemother60: 968–981. doi: 10.1128/AAC.01774-1526643348
50. Hargreaves KR, Clokie MRJ, (2014) Clostridium difficile phages: still difficult?Frontiers in Microbiology5(184): doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2014.00184
51. McCallin S, Alam Sarker S, Barretto C, Sultana S, Berger B, et al. (2013) Safety analysis of a Russian phage cocktail: from metagenomic analysis to oral application in healthy human subjects. Virology443: 187–196. doi: 10.1016/j.virol.2013.05.02223755967
52. Spellberg B, Guidos R, Gilbert D, Bradley J, Boucher HW, et al. (2008) The epidemic of antibiotic-resistant infections: a call to action for the medical community from the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Clin Infect Dis46: 155–164. doi: 10.1086/52489118171244
53. Hill DA, Hoffmann C, Abt MC, Du Y, Kobuley D, et al. (2010) Metagenomic analyses reveal antibiotic-induced temporal and spatial changes in intestinal microbiota with associated alterations in immune cell homeostasis. Mucosal Immunol3: 148–158. doi: 10.1038/mi.2009.13219940845
54. Dethlefsen L, Huse S, Sogin ML, Relman DA, (2008) The pervasive effects of an antibiotic on the human gut microbiota, as revealed by deep 16S rRNA sequencing. PLoS Biol6: e280. doi: 10.1371/journal.pbio.006028019018661
55. Labrie SJ, Samson JE, Moineau S, (2010) Bacteriophage resistance mechanisms. Nat Rev Microbiol8: 317–327. doi: 10.1038/nrmicro231520348932
56. Hyman P, Abedon ST, (2010) Bacteriophage host range and bacterial resistance. Adv Appl Microbiol70: 217–248. doi: 10.1016/S0065-2164(10)70007-120359459
57. Gaci N, Borrel G, Tottey W, O’Toole PW, Brugère J, (2014) Archaea and the human gut: New beginning of an old story. World J Gastroenterol20: 16062–16078. doi: 10.3748/wjg.v20.i43.1606225473158
58. Stewart JA, Chadwick VS, Murray A, (2006) Carriage, quantification, and predominance of methanogens and sulfate-reducing bacteria in faecal samples. Lett Appl Microbiol43: 58–63. 16834722
59. Weaver GA, Krause JA, Miller TL, Wolin MJ, (1986) Incidence of methanogenic bacteria in a sigmoidoscopy population: an association of methanogenic bacteria and diverticulosis. Gut27: 698–704. 3721294
60. Jhangi Sushrut, G R, Glanz Bonnie, Cook Sandra, Nejad Parham, Ward Doyle, Li Ning, Gerber Georg, Bry Lynn, Weiner Howard, (2014) Increased Archaea Species and Changes with Therapy in Gut Microbiome of Multiple Sclerosis Subjects. Neurology82(10): S24.001.
61. Schulze J, Sonnenborn U, (2009) Yeasts in the gut: from commensals to infectious agents. Dtsch Arztebl Int106: 837–842. doi: 10.3238/arztebl.2009.083720062581
62. Wang ZK, Yang YS, Stefka AT, Sun G, Peng LH, (2014) Review article: fungal microbiota and digestive diseases. Aliment Pharmacol Ther39: 751–766. doi: 10.1111/apt.1266524612332
63. Ott SJ, Kuhbacher T, Musfeldt M, Rosenstiel P, Hellmig S, et al. (2008) Fungi and inflammatory bowel diseases: Alterations of composition and diversity. Scand J Gastroenterol43: 831–841. doi: 10.1080/0036552080193543418584522
64. Rosenbach A, Dignard D, Pierce JV, Whiteway M, Kumamoto CA, (2010) Adaptations of Candida albicans for growth in the mammalian intestinal tract. Eukaryot Cell9: 1075–1086. doi: 10.1128/EC.00034-1020435697
65. White SJ, Rosenbach A, Lephart P, Nguyen D, Benjamin A, et al. (2007) Self-Regulation of Candida albicans Population Size during GI Colonization. PLoS Pathog3: e184. 18069889
66. Albac S, Schmitz A, Lopez-Alayon C, d'Enfert C, Sautour M, et al. (2016) Candida albicans is able to use M cells as a portal of entry across the intestinal barrier in vitro. Cell Microbiol18: 195–210. doi: 10.1111/cmi.1249526242223
67. Ksiadzyna D, Semianow-Wejchert J, Nawrot U, Wlodarczyk K, Paradowski L, (2009) Serum concentration of interleukin 10, anti-mannan Candida antibodies and the fungal colonization of the gastrointestinal tract in patients with ulcerative colitis. Adv Med Sci54: 170–176. doi: 10.2478/v10039-009-0023-619758974
68. Standaert-Vitse A, Sendid B, Joossens M, Francois N, Vandewalle-El Khoury P, et al. (2009) Candida albicans colonization and ASCA in familial Crohn's disease. Am J Gastroenterol104: 1745–1753. doi: 10.1038/ajg.2009.22519471251
69. Nair P, Lagerholm S, Dutta S, Shami S, Davis K, et al. (2003) Coprocytobiology: on the nature of cellular elements from stools in the pathophysiology of colonic disease. J Clin Gastroenterol36: S84–93; discussion S94-86. 12702972
70. Maynard CL, (2012) Reciprocal Interactions of the Intestinal Microbiota and Immune System. 489: 231–241. doi: 10.1038/nature1155122972296
71. Magnusson M, Magnusson KE, Sundqvist T, Denneberg T, (1991) Impaired intestinal barrier function measured by differently sized polyethylene glycols in patients with chronic renal failure. Gut32: 754–759. 1855681
72. Vaziri ND, Zhao YY, Pahl MV, (2015) Altered intestinal microbial flora and impaired epithelial barrier structure and function in CKD: the nature, mechanisms, consequences and potential treatment. Nephrol Dial Transplant31: 737–746. doi: 10.1093/ndt/gfv09525883197
73. Yui S, Nakamura T, Sato T, Nemoto Y, Mizutani T, et al. (2012) Functional engraftment of colon epithelium expanded in vitro from a single adult Lgr5(+) stem cell. Nat Med18: 618–623. doi: 10.1038/nm.269522406745
74. Jung P, Sato T, Merlos-Suarez A, Barriga FM, Iglesias M, et al. (2011) Isolation and in vitro expansion of human colonic stem cells. Nat Med17: 1225–1227. doi: 10.1038/nm.247021892181
75. Mantis NJ, Rol N, Corthésy B, (2011) Secretory IgA's Complex Roles in Immunity and Mucosal Homeostasis in the Gut. Mucosal immunology4: 603–611. doi: 10.1038/mi.2011.4121975936
76. Dallas SD, Rolfe RD, (1998) Binding of Clostridium difficile toxin A to human milk secretory component. Journal of Medical Microbiology47: 879–888. 9788811
77. Olson A, Diebel LN, Liberati DM, (2013) Effect of host defenses on Clostridium difficile toxin-induced intestinal barrier injury. J Trauma Acute Care Surg74: 983–989; discussion 989–990. doi: 10.1097/TA.0b013e318285847723511135
78. Maslowski KM, Vieira AT, Ng A, Kranich J, Sierro F, et al. (2009) Regulation of inflammatory responses by gut microbiota and chemoattractant receptor GPR43. Nature461: 1282–1286. doi: 10.1038/nature0853019865172
79. Arpaia N, Campbell C, Fan X, Dikiy S, van der Veeken J, et al. (2013) Metabolites produced by commensal bacteria promote peripheral regulatory T-cell generation. Nature504: 451–455. doi: 10.1038/nature1272624226773
80. Furusawa Y, Obata Y, Fukuda S, Endo TA, Nakato G, et al. (2013) Commensal microbe-derived butyrate induces the differentiation of colonic regulatory T cells. Nature504: 446–450. doi: 10.1038/nature1272124226770
81. Sonnenburg ED, Smits SA, Tikhonov M, Higginbottom SK, Wingreen NS, et al. (2016) Diet-induced extinctions in the gut microbiota compound over generations. Nature529: 212–215. doi: 10.1038/nature1650426762459
82. Sonnenburg ED, Sonnenburg JL, (2014) Starving our microbial self: the deleterious consequences of a diet deficient in microbiota-accessible carbohydrates. Cell Metab20: 779–786. doi: 10.1016/j.cmet.2014.07.00325156449
83. Horner KL, LeBoeuf RC, McFarland LV, Elmer GW, (2000) Dietary fiber affects the onset of Clostridium difficile disease in hamsters. Nutrition Research20: 1103–1112.
84. Nicolucci AC, Reimer RA, (2016) Prebiotics as a modulator of gut microbiota in paediatric obesity. Pediatr Obesdoi: 10.1111/ijpo.12140
85. Nicolucci AC, Hume MP, Reimer RA, (2015) Effect of Prebiotic Fiber Intake on Adiposity and Inflammation in Overweight and Obese Children: Assessing the Role of the Gut Microbiota. Canadian Journal of Diabetes39: S43.
86. Machiels K, Joossens M, Sabino J, De Preter V, Arijs I, et al. (2014) A decrease of the butyrate-producing species Roseburia hominis and Faecalibacterium prausnitzii defines dysbiosis in patients with ulcerative colitis. Gut63: 1275–1283. doi: 10.1136/gutjnl-2013-30483324021287
87. Sokol H, Seksik P, Furet JP, Firmesse O, Nion-Larmurier I, et al. (2009) Low counts of Faecalibacterium prausnitzii in colitis microbiota. Inflamm Bowel Dis15: 1183–1189. doi: 10.1002/ibd.2090319235886
88. Weir TL, Manter DK, Sheflin AM, Barnett BA, Heuberger AL, et al. (2013) Stool microbiome and metabolome differences between colorectal cancer patients and healthy adults. PLoS ONE8: e70803. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.007080323940645
89. Vernia P, Marcheggiano A, Caprilli R, Frieri G, Corrao G, et al. (1995) Short-chain fatty acid topical treatment in distal ulcerative colitis. Aliment Pharmacol Ther9: 309–313. 7654893
90. Scheppach W, Sommer H, Kirchner T, Paganelli GM, Bartram P, et al. (1992) Effect of butyrate enemas on the colonic mucosa in distal ulcerative colitis. Gastroenterology103: 51–56. 1612357
91. Harig JM, Soergel KH, Komorowski RA, Wood CM, (1989) Treatment of diversion colitis with short-chain-fatty acid irrigation. N Engl J Med320: 23–28. 2909876
92. Breuer RI, Soergel KH, Lashner BA, Christ ML, Hanauer SB, et al. (1997) Short chain fatty acid rectal irrigation for left-sided ulcerative colitis: a randomised, placebo controlled trial. Gut40: 485–491. 9176076
93. Patz J, Jacobsohn WZ, Gottschalk-Sabag S, Zeides S, Braverman DZ, (1996) Treatment of refractory distal ulcerative colitis with short chain fatty acid enemas. Am J Gastroenterol91: 731–734. 8677939
94. Vieira EL, Leonel AJ, Sad AP, Beltrao NR, Costa TF, et al. (2012) Oral administration of sodium butyrate attenuates inflammation and mucosal lesion in experimental acute ulcerative colitis. J Nutr Biochem23: 430–436. doi: 10.1016/j.jnutbio.2011.01.00721658926
95. Haghikia A, Jorg S, Duscha A, Berg J, Manzel A, et al. (2015) Dietary Fatty Acids Directly Impact Central Nervous System Autoimmunity via the Small Intestine. Immunity43: 817–829. doi: 10.1016/j.immuni.2015.09.00726488817
96. Fröhlich EE, Mayerhofer R, Holzer P, (2015) Reevaluating the hype: four bacterial metabolites under scrutiny. European Journal of Microbiology & Immunology5: 1–13.
97. Tremaroli V, Backhed F, (2012) Functional interactions between the gut microbiota and host metabolism. Nature489: 242–249. doi: 10.1038/nature1155222972297
98. Lupton JR, (2004) Microbial degradation products influence colon cancer risk: the butyrate controversy. J Nutr134: 479–482. 14747692
99. Donia MS, Fischbach MA, (2015) Small Molecules from the Human Microbiota. Science349(6246): 1254766(1–10). doi: 10.1126/science.125476626206939
100. Ridaura VK, Faith JJ, Rey FE, Cheng J, Duncan AE, et al. (2013) Gut microbiota from twins discordant for obesity modulate metabolism in mice. Science341(6150): doi: 10.1126/science.1241214
101. Kohl KD, Stengel A, Dearing MD, (2015) Inoculation of tannin-degrading bacteria into novel hosts increases performance on tannin-rich diets. Environmental Microbiologydoi: 10.1111/1462-2920.12841
102. den Besten G, van Eunen K, Groen AK, Venema K, Reijngoud DJ, et al. (2013) The role of short-chain fatty acids in the interplay between diet, gut microbiota, and host energy metabolism. J Lipid Res54: 2325–2340. doi: 10.1194/jlr.R03601223821742