Impact of coupled NOx/aerosol aircraft emissions on ozone photochemistry and radiative forcing

Atmosphere

Volumn 6, Issue 6, 2015, Pages 751-782

  Pitari, Giovanni ^a   Iachetti, Daniela ^a   di Genova, Glauco ^a   de Luca, Natalia ^a   Søvde, Ole Amund ^b   Hodnebrog, Oivind ^b   Lee, David S ^c   Lim, Ling L ^c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF L'AQUILA   (Italy)

^b CENTER FOR INTERNATIONAL CLIMATE AND ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH OSLO CICERO   (Norway)

^c MANCHESTER METROPOLITAN UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Aviation emissions; Chemistry transport models; Ozone photochemistry; Radiative forcing from aviation NOx and aerosols; Soot cirrus particles; Sulphate and black carbon aerosols

Indexed keywords

AEROSOLS; ATMOSPHERIC RADIATION; CHEMICAL REACTIONS; CLOUDS; FIGHTER AIRCRAFT; FOG; NITROGEN OXIDES; OZONE; PHOTOCHEMICAL REACTIONS; RADIATIVE TRANSFER; SOOT; SULFUR COMPOUNDS;

BLACK CARBON AEROSOL; CHEMISTRY TRANSPORT MODEL; CIRRUS PARTICLES; GLOBAL CHEMISTRY TRANSPORT MODEL; HETEROGENEOUS CHEMICAL REACTION; HETEROGENEOUS CHEMISTRY; RADIATIVE FORCINGS; RADIATIVE TRANSFER CODES;

ATMOSPHERIC MOVEMENTS;

EID: 84973550451     PISSN: None     EISSN: 20734433     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3390/atmos6060751     Document Type: Article

References (90)

1. Sausen, R.; Isaksen, I.; Grewe, V.; Hauglustaine, D.; Lee, D.S.; Myhre, G.; Köhler, M.O.; Pitari, G.; Schumann, U.; Stordal, F.; Zerefos, C. Aviation radiative forcing in 2000: An update on IPCC (1999). Meteorol. Z. 2005, 14, 555-561
2. Lee, D.S.; Pitari, G.; Grewe, V.; Gierens, K.; Penner, J.; Petzold, A.; Prather, M.; Schumann, U.; Bais, A.; Berntsen, T.; et al. Transport impacts on atmosphere and climate: Aviation. Atmos. Environ. 2010, 44, 4678-4734
3. Köhler, M.O.; Rädel, G.; Dessens, O.; Shine, K.P.; Rogers, H.L.; Wild, O.; Pyle, J.A. Impact of perturbations to nitrogen oxide emissions from global aviation. J. Geophys. Res. 2008, 113, D11305
4. Hoor, P.; Borken-Kleefeld, J.; Caro, D.; Dessens, O.; Endresen, O.; Gauss, M.; Grewe, V.; Hauglustaine, D.; Isaksen, I.S.A.; Jöckel, P.; et al. The impact of traffic emissions on atmospheric ozone and OH: results from QUANTIFY. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 2009, 9, 3113-3136
5. Holmes, C.D.; Tang, Q.; Prather, M.J. Uncertainties in climate assessment for the case of aviation NO. P. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2011, 108, 10997-11002
6. Kraabøl, A.G.; Berntsen, T.K.; Sundet, J.K.; Stordal, F. Impacts of NOx emissions from subsonic aircraft in a global three-dimensional chemistry transport model including plume processes. J. Geophys. Res. 2002, 107, doi:10.1029/2001JD001019
7. x emissions. J. Geophys. Res. 2009, 114, D19302
8. Weisenstein, D.; Ko, M.; Dyominov, I.; Pitari, G.; Ricciardulli, L.; Visconti, G.; Bekki, S. The effects of sulfur emissions from HSCT aircraft: a 2-D model intercomparison. J. Geophys. Res. 1998, 103, 1527-1547
9. Pitari, G.; Mancini, E.; Bregman, A. Climate forcing of subsonic aviation: indirect role of sulfate particles via heterogeneous chemistry. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2002, 29, doi:10.1029/2002GL015705
10. Søvde, O.A.; Gauss, M.; Isaksen, I.S.A.; Pitari, G.; Marizy, C. Aircraft pollution-A futuristic view. Atmos. Chem Phys. 2007, 7, 3621-3632
11. Hendricks, J.; Kärcher, B.; Lohmann, U. Ponater, M. Do aircraft black carbon emissions affect cirrus clouds on the global scale? Geophys. Res. Lett. 2005, 32, L12814
12. Burkhardt, U.; Kärcher, B. Global radiative forcing from contrail cirrus. Nat. Clim. Chang. 2011, 1, 54-58
13. Meilinger, S.K.; Kärcher, B.; Peter, T. Suppression of chlorine activation on aviation-produced volatile particles. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 2002, 2, 307-312
14. Sander, S.P.; Friedl, R.R.; Barker, J.R.; Golden, D.M.; Kurylo, M.J.; Wine, P.H.; Abbatt, J.P.D.; Burkholder, J.B.; Kolb, C.E.; Moortgat, G.K.; et al. Chemical Kinetics and Photochemical Data for Use in Atmospheric Studies, Evaluation No. 17; Tech. Rep. 10-06; California Institute of Technology: Pasadena, CA, USA, 2011
15. Pueschel, R.F.; Hallett, J.; Strawa, A.W.; Howard, S.D.; Ferry, G.V.; Foster, T.; Arnott, W.P. Aerosol and cloud particles in tropical cirrus anvil: importance to radiation balance. J. Aerosol. Sci. 1997, 28, 1123-1136
16. Curtius, J.; Sierau, B.; Arnold, F.; Baumann, R.; Busen, R.; Schulte, P.; Schumann, U. First direct sulfuric acid detection in the exhaust plume of a jet aircraft in flight. Geophys. Res. Lett. 1998, 25, 923-926
17. Kärcher, B.; Meilinger, S.K. Perturbation of the aerosol layer by aviation-produced aerosols: A parameterization of plume processes. Geophys. Res. Lett. 1998, 25, 4465-4468
18. Fahey, D.W.; Keim, E.R.; Woodbridge, E.L.; Gao, R.S.; Boering, K.A.; Daube, B.C.; Wofsy, S.C.; Lohmann, R.P.; Hinsta, E.J.; Lowenstein, M. et al. In situ observations in aircraft exhaust plumes in the lower stratosphere at midlatitudes. J. Geophys. Res. 1995, 100, 3065-3074
19. Kärcher, B.; Lohmann, U. A parameterization of cirrus cloud formation: homogeneous freezing of supercooled aerosols. J. Geophys. Res. 2002, 107, doi:10.1029/2001JD000470
20. Gettelman, A.; Chen, C. The climate impact of aviation aerosols. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2013, 40, 1-5
21. Unger, N. Global climate impact of civil aviation for standard and desulfurized jet fuel. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2011, 38, L20803
22. Grewe, V.; Tsati, E.; Hoor, P. On the attribution of contributions of atmospheric trace gases to emissions in atmospheric model applications. Geosci. Model Dev. 2010, 3, 487-499
23. Gottschaldt, K.; Voigt, C.; Jöckel, P.; Righi, M.; Deckert, R.; Dietmüller, S. Global sensitivity of aviation NOx effects to the HNO3-forming channel of the HO2 + NO reaction. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 2013, 13, 3003-3025
24. Søvde, O.A.; Matthes, S.; Skowron, A.; Iachetti, D.; Lim, L.; Hodnebrog, Ø.; Di Genova, G.; Pitari, G.; Lee, D.S.; Myhre, G.; Isaksen, I.S.A. Aircraft emission mitigation by changing route altitude: A multi-model estimate of aircraft NOx emission impact on O3 photochemistry. Atmos. Environ. 2014, doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2014.06.049
25. Pitari, G.; Mancini, E.; Rizi, V.; Shindell, D.T. Impact of future climate and emission changes on stratospheric aerosols and ozone. J. Atmos. Sci. 2002, 59, 414-440
26. Eyring, V.; Butchart, N.; Waugh, D.W.; Akiyoshi, H.; Austin, J.; Bekki, S.; Bodeker, G.E.; Boville, B.A.; Bruhl, C.; Chipperfield, M.P.; et al. Assessment of temperature, trace species, and ozone in chemistry-climate model simulation of the recent past. J. Geophys. Res. 2006, 99, D22308
27. Morgenstern, O.; Giorgetta, M.A.; Shibata, K.; Eyring, V.; Waugh, D.W.; Shepherd, T.G.; Akiyoshi, H.; Austin, J.; Baumgärtner, A.; Bekki, S.; et al. A review of CCMVal-2 models and simulations. J. Geophys. Res. 2010, 115, D00M02
28. Pitari, G.; Aquila, V.; Kravitz, B.; Robock, A.; Watanabe, S.; Cionni, I.; De Luca, N.; Di Genova, G.; Mancini, E.; Tilmes, S. Stratospheric Ozone Response to Sulfate Geoengineering: Results from the Geoengineering Model Intercomparison Project (GeoMIP). J. Geophys. Res. 2014, 119, 2629-2653
29. Minschwaner, K.; Salawitch, R.J.; McElroy, M.B. Absorption of Solar Radiation by O2: Implications for O3 and Lifetimes of N2O, CFCl3, and CF2Cl2. J. Geophys. Res. 1993, 98, 543-561
30. Rayner, N.A.; Parker, D.E.; Horton, E.B.; Folland, C.K.; Alexander, L.V.; Rowell, D.P.; Kent, E.C.; Kaplan, A. Global analyses of sea surface temperature, sea ice, and night marine air temperature since the late nineteenth century. J. Geophys. Res. 2003, 108, doi:10.1029/2002JD002670
31. Pitari, G.; Rizi, V.; Ricciardulli, L.; Visconti, G. High-Speed civil transport impact: The role of Sulfate, Nitric acid Trihydrate and ice aerosols studied with a two-dimensional model including aerosol physics. J. Geophys. Res. 1993, 98, doi:10.1029/93JD02600
32. Brunner, D.; Staehelin, J.; Rogers, H.L.; Köhler, M.O.; Pyle, J.A.; Hauglustaine, D.; Jourdain, L.; Berntsen, T.K.; Gauss, M.; Isaksen, I.S.A.; Meijer, E.; et al. An evaluation of the performance of chemistry transport models-Part 2: Detailed comparison with two selected campaigns. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 2005, 5, 107-129
33. Chou, M.-D.; Suarez, M.J.; Liang, X.-Z.; Yan M.M.-H. A Thermal Infrared Radiation Parameterization for Atmospheric Studies; NASA Goddard Space Flight Center: Greenbelt, MD, USA, 2001; p. 55
34. Søvde, O.A.; Prather, M.J.; Isaksen, I.S.A.; Berntsen, T.K.; Stordal, F.; Zhu, X.; Holmes, C.D.; Hsu, J. The chemical transport model Oslo CTM3. Geosci. Model Dev. 2012, 5, 1441-1469
35. Prather, M.J.; Zhu, X.; Strahan, S.E.; Steenrod, S.D.; Rodriguez, J.M. Quantifying errors in trace species transport modeling. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2008, 105, 19617-19621
36. Holtslag, A.A.M.; DeBruijn, E.I.F.; Pan, H.L. A high resolution air mass transformation model for short-range weather forecasting. Mon. Wea. Rev. 1990, 118, 1561-1575
37. Berntsen, T. and Isaksen, I.S.A. A global 3-D chemical transport model for the troposphere, Model description and CO and Ozone results. J. Geophys. Res. 1997, 102, 21239-21280
38. Berglen, T.F.; Berntsen, T.K.; Isaksen, I.S.A.; Sundet, J.K. A global model of the coupled sulfur/oxidant chemistry in the troposphere: The sulfur cycle. J. Geophys. Res. 2004, 109, D19310
39. Søvde, O.A.; Gauss, M.; Smyshlyaev, S.P.; Isaksen, I.S.A. Evaluation of the chemical transport model Oslo CTM2 with focus on Arctic winter ozone depletion. J. Geophys. Res. 2008, 113, D09304
40. Hesstvedt, E.; Hov, O.; Isaksen, I.S.A. Quasi steady-state approximation in air pollution modelling: Comparison of two numerical schemes for oxidant prediction. Int. J. Chem. Kin. 1978, X, 971-994
41. Søvde, O.A.; Hoyle, C.R.; Myhre, G.; Isaksen, I.S.A. The HNO3 forming branch of the HO2 + NO reaction: preindustrial-to-present trends in atmospheric species and radiative forcings. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 2011, 11, 8929-8943
42. Prather, M.J. Numerical advection by conservation of second-order moments. J. Geophys. Res. 1986, 91, 6671-6681
43. Price, C.; Penner, J.; Prather, M. NOx from lightning 1. Global distribution based on lightning physics. J. Geophys. Res. 1997, 102, 5929-5941
44. Berntsen, T.K. and Isaksen, I.S.A. Effects of lightning and convection on changes in upper tropospheric ozone due to NOx emissions from aircraft. Tellus 1999, 51B, 766-788
45. Ott, L.E.; Pickering, K.E.; Stenchikov, G.L.; Allen, D.J.; De Caria, A.J.; Ridley, B.; Lin, R.-F.; Lang, S.; Tao, W.K. Production of lightning NOx and its vertical distribution calculated from three-dimensional cloud-scale chemical transport model simulations. J. Geophys. Res. 2010, 115, D04301
46. Pickering, K.E.; Wang, Y.S.; Tao, W.K.; Price, C.; Muller, J.F. Vertical distributions of lightning NOx for use in regional and global chemical transport models. J. Geophys. Res. 1998, 103, 31203-31216
47. Lee, D.S.; Owen, B.; Fichter, C.; Lim, L.L.; Dimitriu, D. Allocation of International Aviation Emissions from Scheduled Air Traffic-Present Day and Historical (Report 2 of 3); Final Report to the UK Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs(DEFRA) Global Atmosphere Division; Manchester Metropolitan University: Manchester, UK, 2005
48. Lee, D.S.; Fahey, D.W.; Forster, P.M.; Newton, P.J.; Wit, R.C.N.; Lim, L.L.; Owen, B.; Sausen, R. Aviation and global climate change in the 21st century. Atmos. Environ. 2009, 43, 3520-3537
49. Owen, B.; Lee, D.S.; Lim, L.L. Flying into the future: Aviation emissions scenarios to 2050. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2010, 44, 2255-2260
50. ICAO. International Civil Aviation Organization, 2013. Available online: http://www.icao.int/ environmental-protection/Pages/modelling-and-databases.aspx (accessed on 29 May 2015)
51. ICAO/CAEP. International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)/Committee on Aviation Environmental Protection (CAEP), Agenda Item 4: Modeling and Databases Task Force (MODTF) goals assessment results. In Proceedings of the ICAO/CAEP Working Paper, Steering Group Meeting, Salvador, Brazil, 22-26 June 2009
52. Simos, D. PIANO User's Guide Version 5.0; Lissys Limited: Loughborough, UK, 2008. Available online: www.piano.aero (accessed on 29 May 2015)
53. Eyers, C.J.; Norman, P.; Middel, J.; Plohr, M.; Michot, S.; Atkinson, K.; Christou, R.A. AERO2k Global Aviation Emissions Inventories for 2002 and 2025; QINETIQ/04/01113; QINETIQ Ltd.: Hampshire, UK, December 2004. Available online: http://aero-net.info/fileadmin/aeronet_files/ links/documents/AERO2K_Global_Aviation_Emissions_Inventories_for_2002_and_2025.pdf (accessed on 29 May 2015)
54. Barrett, S.; Prather, M.; Penner, J.; Selkirk H.; Balasubramanian, S.; Dopelheuer, A.; Fleming, G.; Gupta, M.; Halthore, R.; Hileman, J.; et al.; Guidance on the use of AEDT Gridded Aircraft Emissions in Atmospheric Models, Version 2.0; Technical Note LAE-2010-008-N; US Federal Aviation Administration: Washington, DC, USA, August 2010. Available online: http://lae.mit.edu/uploads/LAE_report_series/2010/LAE-2010-008-N.pdf (accessed on 29 May 2015)
55. Penner, J.E.; Hegg, D.; Andreae, M.; Leaitch, D.; Pitari, G.; Annegarn, H.; Murphy, D.; Nganga, J.; Barrie, L.; Feichter, H. Aerosols and Indirect Cloud Effects, IPCC Third assessment report. In IPCC Climate Change 2001; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 2001; pp. 289-348
56. Koch, D.; Schulz, M.; Kinne, S.; Schuster, G.; Bond, T.C.; Clarke, A.; Fahey, D.W.; Freitag, S.; McNaughton, C.; Spackman, J.R.; et al. Evaluation of black carbon estimations in global aerosol models. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 2009, 9, 9001-9026
57. Bond, T.C.; Doherty, S.J.; Fahey, D.W.; Forster, P.M.; Berntsen, T.; DeAngelo, B.J.; Flanner, M.G.; Ghan, S.; Kärcher, B.; Koch, D.; et al. Bounding the role of black carbon in the climate system: A scientific assessment. J. Geophys. Res. 2013, 118, 5380-5552
58. Flanner, M.G. Arctic climate sensitivity to local black carbon. J. Geophys. Res. 2013, 118, 1840-1851
59. Yue, G.K.; Poole, L.R.; Wang, P.H.; Chiou, E.W. Stratospheric aerosol acidity, density, and refractive index deduced from SAGE-II and NMC temperature data. J. Geophys. Res. 1994, 99, 3727-3738
60. Schwarz, J.P.; Gao, R.S.; Fahey, D.W.; Thomson, D.S.; Watts, L.A.; Wilson, J.C.; Reeves, J.M.; Darbeheshti, M.; Baumgardner, D.G.; Kok, G.L.; et al. Single-particle measurements of mid latitude black carbon and light-scattering aerosols from the boundary layer to the lower stratosphere. J. Geophys. Res. 2006, 111, D16207
61. Koch, D.; Schulz, M.; Kinne, S.; Schuster, G.; Bond, T.C.; Clarke, A.; Fahey, D.W.; Freitag, S.; McNaughton, C.; Spackman, J.R.; et al. Corrigendum to "Evaluation of black carbon estimations in global aerosol models" published in Atmos. Chem. Phys., 9, 9001-9026, 2009. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 2010, 10, 79-81
62. Mishchenko, M.I.; Travis, L.D.; Lacis, A.A. Scattering, Absorption, and Emission of Light by Small Particles, Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 2002
63. Kinne, S.; Lohmann, U.; Ghan, S.; Easter, R.; Chin, M.; Ginoux, P.; Takemura, T.; Tegen, I.; Koch, D.; Herzog, M.; et al. Monthly averages of aerosol properties: A global comparison among models, satellite data, and AERONET ground data. J. Geophys. Res. 2003, 108, doi:10.1029/2001JD001253
64. Kinne, S.; Schulz, M.; Textor, C.; Guibert, S.; Balkanski, Y.; Bauer, S.; Berntsen, T.; Berglen, T.; Boucher, O.; Chin, M.; et al. An AeroCom initial assessment-Optical properties in aerosol component modules of global models. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 2006, 6, 1815-1834
65. Danilin, M.Y.; Fahey, D.W.; Schumann, U.; Prather, M.J.; Penner, J.E.; Ko, M.K.W.; Weisenstein, D.K.; Jackman, C.H.; Pitari, G.; Koeler, I.; et al. Aviation fuel tracer simulation: Model intercomparison and implications. Geophys. Res. Lett. 1998, 25, 3947-3950
66. Pitari, G.; Iachetti, D.; Mancini, E.; Montanaro, V.; De Luca, N.; Marizy, C.; Dessens, O.; Rogers, H.; Pyle, J.; Grewe, V.; et al. Radiative forcing from particle emissions by future supersonic aircraft, Atmos. Chem. Phys. 2008, 8, 4069-4084
67. Thomason, L.; Poole, L.; Deshler, T. A global climatology of stratospheric aerosol surface area density deduced from stratospheric aerosol and gas experiment II measurements: 1984-1994. J. Geophys. Res. 1997, 102, 8967-8976
68. Hendricks, J.; Kärcher, B.; Lohmann, U. Effects of ice nuclei on cirrus clouds in a global climate model, J. Geophys. Res. 2011, 116, D18206
69. Lohmann, U.; Kärcher, B. First interactive simulations of cirrus a clouds formed by homogeneous freezing in the ECHAM GCM. J. Geophys. Res. 2002, 107, doi:10.1029/2001JD000767
70. Rogers, H.; Teyssedre, H.; Pitari, G.; Grewe, V.; Van Velthoven, P.; Sundet, J. Model intercomparison of the transport of aircraft-like emissions from sub-and supersonic aircraft. Meteorol. Z. 2002, 11, 151-159
71. Spivakovsky, C.M.; Logan, J.A.; Montzka, S.A.; Balkanski, Y.J.; Foreman-Fowler, M.; Jones, D.B.J.; Horowitz, L.W.; Fusco, A.C.; Brenninkmeijer, C.A.M.; Prather, M.J.; et al. Three-dimensional climatological distribution of tropospheric OH: Update and evaluation. J. Geophys. Res. 2000, 105, 8931-8980
72. Gauss, M.; Myhre, G.; Isaksen, I.S.A.; Grewe, V.; Pitari, G.; Wild, O.; Collins, W.J.; Dentener, F.J.; Ellingsen, K.; Gohar, L.K.; et al. Radiative forcing since preindustrial times due to ozone change in the troposphere and the lower stratosphere, Atmos. Chem. Phys. 2006, 6, 575-599
73. Toon, O.B.; McKay, C.P.; Ackerman, T.P.; Santhanam, K. Rapid calculation of radiative heating rates and photodissociation rates in inhomogeneous multiple scattering atmospheres, J. Geophys. Res. 1989, 94, 16287-16301
74. Ramanathan, V.; Dickinson, R.E. The role of stratospheric ozone in the zonal and seasonal radiative energy balance of the earth-troposphere system. J. Atmos. Sci. 1979, 36, 1084-1104
75. Chipperfield, M.P.; Liang, Q.; Abraham, L.; Bekki, S.; Braesicke, P.; Dhomse, S.; Di Genova, G.; Fleming, E.L.; Hardiman, S.; Iachetti D.; et al. Multi-model estimates of atmospheric lifetimes of long-lived Ozone-Depleting Substances: Present and future. J. Geophys. Res. 2014, 119, 2555-2573
76. Randles, C.A.; Kinne, S.; Myhre, G.; Schulz, M.; Stier, P.; Fischer, J.; Doppler, L.; Highwood, E.; Ryder, C.; Harris, B.; et al. Intercomparison of shortwave radiative transfer schemes in global aerosol modeling: Results from the AeroCom Radiative Transfer Code Experiment. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 2013, 13, 2347-2379
77. Myhre, G.; Shine, K.; Readel, G.; Gauss, M.; Isaksen, I.; Tang, Q.; Prather, M.; Williams, J.; van Velthoven, P.; Dessens, O.; et al. Radiative forcing due to changes in ozone and methane caused by the transport sector, Atmos. Environ. 2011, 45, 387-394
78. Myhre, G.; Stordal, F. Role of spatial and temporal variations in the computation of radiative forcing and GWP, J. Geophys. Res. 1997, 102, 11181-11200
79. Stamnes, K.; Tsay, S.C.; Wiscombe, W.; Jayaweera, K. Numerically stable algorithm for discrete-ordinate-method radiative-transfer in multiple-scattering and emitting layered media. Appl. Opt. 1988, 27, 2502-2509
80. Forster, P.; Ramaswamy, V.; Artaxo, P.; Berntsen, T.; Betts, R.; Fahey, D.; Haywood, J.; Lean, J.; Lowe, D.; Myhre, G.; et al. Changes in Atmospheric Constituents and in Radiative Forcing. In Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK; New York, NY, USA, 2007; pp. 130-234
81. IPCC/TEAP. Special report on safeguarding the ozone layer and the global climate system, 2005: Issues related to hydrofluorocarbons and perfluorocarbons. In Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change; Metz, B., Kuijpers, L., Solomon, S., Andersen, S.O., Davidson, O., Pons, J., de Jager, D., Kestin, T., Manning, M., Meyer, L., Eds.; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 2005; pp. 1-488
82. IPCC. Climate change 2013. Chapter 6. In The Physical Science Basis; Stocker, T.F., Qin, D., Plattner, G.-K., Tignor, M.M.B., Allen, S.K., Boschung, J., Nauels, A., Xia, Y., Bex, V., Midgley, P.M., Eds.; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 2013; pp. 465-570
83. Lamarque, J.F.; Bond, T.C.; Eyring, V.; Granier, C.; Heil, A.; Klimont, Z.; Lee, D.; Liousse, C.; Mieville, A.; Owen, B.; et al. Historical (1850-2000) gridded anthropogenic and biomass burning emissions of reactive gases and aerosols: methodology and application. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 2010, 10, 7017-7039
84. Wild, O.; Prather, M.J.; Akimoto, H. Indirect long-term radiative cooling from NOx emissions. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2001, 28, 1719-1722
85. IPCC. Aviation and the global atmosphere. In Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change; Penner, J.E., Lister, D.H., Griggs, D.J., Dokken, D.J., McFarland, M., Eds.; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 1999; pp. 1-373
86. Myhre, G.; Shindell, D.; Bréon, F.-M.; Collins, W.; Fuglestvedt, J.; Huang, J.; Koch, D.; Lamarque, J.-F.; Lee, D.; Mendoza, B.; et al. Anthropogenic and natural radiative forcing. In Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK; New York, NY, USA, 2013; pp. 659-740
87. Myhre, G.; Nielsen, J.S.; Gulstad, L.; Shine, K.P.; Rognerud, B.; Isaksen, I.S.A. Radiative forcing due to stratospheric water vapour from CH4 oxidation. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2007, 34, L01807
88. Zhou, C.; Penner, J.E. Aircraft soot indirect effect on large-scale cirrus clouds: Is the indirect forcing by aircraft soot positive or negative? J. Geophys. Res. 2014, doi:10.1002/2014JD021914
89. Wilcox, L.J.; Shine, K.P.; Hoskins, B.J. Radiative forcing due to aviation water vapour emissions. Atmos. Environ. 2012, 63, 1-13
90. Unger, N.; Zhao, Y.; Dang, H. Mid-21st century chemical forcing of climate by the civil aviation section. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2013, 40, 641-645