NOx from lightning 1. Global distribution based on lightning physics

Journal of Geophysical Research Atmospheres

Volumn 102, Issue 5, 1997, Pages 5929-5941

  Price, Colin ^a,c   Penner, Joyce ^a,d   Prather, Michael ^b  

^a LAWRENCE LIVERMORE NATIONAL LABORATORY   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^c TEL AVIV UNIVERSITY   (Israel)

^d UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ATMOSPHERIC CHEMISTRY; LIGHTNING; NITROGEN OXIDES; PHOTOCHEMISTRY; STRATOSPHERE; TROPOSPHERE;

EID: 0031455432     PISSN: 01480227     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1029/96jd03504     Document Type: Article

References (105)

1. Barlow, J. S., G. W. Frey, and J. B. Newman, Very low frequency noise power from the lightning discharge, J. Franklin Inst., 258, 187-203, 1954.
2. Beasley, W. H., Positive cloud-to-ground lightning, J. Geophys. Res., 90, 6131-6138, 1985.
3. Berger, K., R. B. Anderson, and H. Kroninger, Parameters of lightning flashes, Electra, 80, 23-37, 1975.
4. Bhetanabhotla, M. N., B. A. Crowell, A. Coucouvinos, R. D. Hill, and R. G. Rinker, Simulation of trace species production by lightning and corona discharge in moist air, Atmos. Environ., 19, 1391-1397, 1985.
5. Borovsky, J. E., Lightning energetics: Estimates of energy dissipation in channels, channel radii, and channel-heating risetimes, J. Geophys. Res., 101, in press, 1996.
6. Borucki, W. J., and W. L. Chameides, Lightning: Estimates of the rates of energy dissipation and nitrogen fixation. Rev. Geophvs. Space. Phys., 22, 363-372, 1984.
7. x emissions by subsonic aircraft: A three-dimensional model study, J. Geophys. Res., 101, 1423-1428, 1996.
8. Brooks, C. E. P., The distribution of thunderstorms over the globe, Geophys. Mem. London, 3(24), 147-164, 1925.
9. Bruce, C. E. R., and R. H. Golde, The lightning discharge, J. Inst. Electr. Eng., 88, 487-520, 1941.
10. Chalmers, J. A., Atmospheric Electricity, Pergamon, Tarrytown, N. Y., 1967.
11. Chameides, W. L., Effect of variable energy input on nitrogen fixation in instantaneous linear discharges, Nature, 277, 123-125, 1979.
12. Chameides, W. L., and J. C. G. Walker, A photochemical theory of tropospheric ozone, J. Geophys. Res., 78, 8751-8760, 1973.
13. Chameides, W. L., The role of lightning in the chemistry of the atmosphere, in The Earth's Electrical Environment, pp. 70-77, Natl. Acad. Press, Washington, D. C., 1986.
14. x production in lightning, J. Atmos. Sci., 34, 143-149, 1977.
15. Connor, T. R., The 1967 APRA-AEC Joint Lightning Study at Los Alamos, vol. 1, LA-3754, Los Alamos Sci. Lab., Los Alamos, N. M., 1967.
16. Crutzen, P. J., The influence of nitrogen oxides on the atmospheric ozone content, Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 96, 320-327, 1970.
17. 2 in the chemistry of the troposphere and stratosphere, Ann. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci., 7, 443-472, 1979.
18. Crutzen, P. J., Atmospheric interactions - Homogeneous gas reactions of C, N, and S containing compounds, in The Major Biogeochemical Cycles and Their Interactions, edited by B. Bolin and R. B. Cook, pp. 67-114, John Wiley, New York, 1983.
19. Dawson, G. A., Nitrogen fixation by lightning, J. Atmos. Sci., 37, 174-178, 1980.
20. Drapcho, D. L., D. L. Sisterton, and R. Kumar, Nitrogen fixation by lightning activity in a thunderstorm, Atmos. Environ., 17, 729-734, 1983.
21. x emissions from aircraft on ozone in the upper troposphere over Europe and the North Atlantic, J. Geophys. Res., 101, 1401-1422, 1996.
22. 3, J. Geophys. Res., 96, 22,337-22,345, 1991.
23. Franzblau, E., and C. J. Popp, Nitrogen oxides produced from lightning, J. Geophys. Res., 94, 11,089-11,104, 1989.
24. Goldenbaum, G. C., and R. R. Dickerson, Nitric oxide production by lightning discharges, J. Geophys. Res., 98, 18,333-18,338, 1993.
25. Gosh, J. D., and S. R. Khastgir, Time-variation of return-stroke current in the cloud-to-ground lightning discharges, Indian J. Pure Appl. Phys., 10, 556-557, 1972.
26. Griffing, G. W., Ozone and oxides of nitrogen production during thunderstorms, J. Geophys. Res., 82, 943-950, 1977.
27. Haagen-Smit, A. J., Air conservation: With discovery of the sources and chemical reactions of pollutants, the stage is set for conservation, Science, 128, 869-879, 1958.
28. Hepburn, F., Atmospheric waveforms with very-low frequency components below 1 kc/s known as slow tails, J. Atmos. Terr. Phys., 10, 266-287, 1957.
29. Hill, R. D., Channel heating in return stroke lightning, J. Geophys. Res., 76, 637-645, 1971.
30. Hill, R. D., R. G. Rinker, and H. D. Wilson, Atmospheric nitrogen fixation by lightning, J. Atmos. Sci., 37, 179-192, 1980.
31. Holmes, C. R., M. Brook, P. Krehbeil, and R. McCrory, On the power spectrum and mechanism of thunder, J. Geophys. Res., 76, 2106-2115, 1971.
32. Houghton, J. T., G. J. Jenkins, and J. J. Ephraums (Eds.), Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change: The IPCC Scientific Assessment, Cambridge Univ. Press, New York, 1995.
33. Jacob, D. J., J. A. Logan, G. M. Gardner, R. M. Yevich, C. M. Spivakovsky, S. C. Wofsy, S. Sillman, and M. J. Prather, Factors regulating ozone over the United States and its export to the global atmosphere, J. Geophys. Res., 98, 14,817-14,826, 1993.
34. Jacobson, E. A., and E. P. Krider, Electrostatic field changes produced by Florida lightning, J. Atmos. Sci., 33, 103-114, 1976.
35. Johnston, H., Reduction of stratospheric ozone by nitrogen oxide catalysis from supersonic transport exhaust, Science, 173, 517-522, 1971.
36. Jorgensen, D. P., and M. A. LeMone, Vertical velocity characteristics of oceanic convection, J. Atmos. Sci., 46, 621-640, 1989.
37. Kitagawa, N., and M. Brook, A comparison of intracloud and cloud-to-ground lightning discharges, J. Geophys. Res., 65, 1189-1201, 1960.
38. Kotaki, M., and C. Katoh, The global distribution of thunderstorm activity observed by the Ionospheric Sounding Satellite (ISS-b), J. Atmos. Terr. Phys., 45, 833-847, 1983.
39. x in the troposphere, FAA Tech. Rep., FAA-EE-82-4, 76 pp., Inst. for Def. Anal., Alexandria, Va., 1981.
40. Krehbiel, P. R., The electrical structure of thunderstorms, in The Earth's Electrical Environment, pp. 90-113, Natl. Acad. Press, Washington, D. C., 1986.
41. Krider, E. P., G. A. Dawson, and M. A. Uman, Peak power and energy dissipation in a single-stroke lightning flash, J. Geophys. Res., 73, 3335-3339, 1968.
42. Kroening, J. L., and E. P. Ney, Atmospheric ozone, J. Geophys. Res., 67, 1867-1875, 1962.
43. Lacis, A. A., D. J. Wuebbles, and J. A. Logan, Radiative forcing of climate by changes in the vertical distribution of ozone, J. Geophys. Res., 95, 9971-9981, 1990.
44. Lawrence, M. G., W. L. Chameides, P. S. Kasibhatla, H. Levy II, and W. Moxim, Lightning and atmospheric chemistry: The rate of atmospheric NO production, in Handbook of Atmospheric Electrodynamics, vol. 1, edited by H. Volland, pp. 189-202, CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fla., 1995.
45. 3 production in a laboratory discharge: Atmospheric implications, Geophys. Res. Lett., 8, 357-360, 1981.
46. Levy, H., II, Normal atmosphere: Large radical and formaldehyde concentrations predicted, Science, 173, 141-143, 1971.
47. Liaw, Y. P., D. L. Sisterton, and N. L. Miller, Comparison of field, laboratory and theoretical estimates of global nitrogen fixation by lightning, J. Geophys. Res., 95, 22,489-22,494, 1990.
48. Lin, X., M. Trainer, and S. C. Liu, On the nonlinearity of the tropospheric ozone production, J. Geophys. Res., 93, 15,879-15,888, 1988.
49. 3 budgets in the equatorial Pacific, J. Geophys. Res., 88, 1360-1368, 1983.
50. Livingston, J. M., and E. P. Krider, Electric fields produced by Florida lightning, J. Geophys. Res., 83, 385-401, 1978.
51. Logan, J. A., M. J. Prather, S. C. Wofsy, and M. B. McElroy, Tropospheric chemistry: A global perspective, J. Geophys. Res., 86, 7210-7254, 1981.
52. Lyons, W. A., Characteristics of luminous structures in the stratosphere above thunderstorms as imaged by low-light video, Geophys. Res. Lett., 21, 875-878, 1994.
53. x and numerical simulations of its redistribution by deep convection, in Preprints of Conference on Atmospheric Chemistry, pp. 193-198, Am. Meteorol. Soc., Boston, Mass., 1994.
54. Mackerras, D., and M. Darveniza, Latitudinal variation of lightning occurrence characteristics, J. Geophys. Res., 99, 10,813-10,822, 1994.
55. Macky, W. A., Some investigations on the deformation and breaking of water drops in strong electric fields, Proc. R. Soc. London A, 133, 565-587, 1931.
56. Malan, D. J., Physics of Lightning, 176 pp., Eng. Univ. Press, London, 1963.
57. Marriott, W., Brontometer records at West Norwood, June 4, 1908, Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 34, 210-212, 1908.
58. Murphy, D. M., and D. W. Fahey, An estimate of the flux of stratospheric reactive nitrogen and ozone into the troposphere, J. Geophys. Res., 99, 5325-5332, 1994.
59. Noxon, J. F., Atmospheric nitrogen fixation by lightning, Geophys. Res. Lett., 3, 463-465, 1976.
60. 2, J. Geophys. Res., 83, 3051-3057, 1978.
61. Ogawa, T., The lightning current, in Handbook of Atmospherics, vol. 1, edited by H. Volland, pp. 23-63, CRC Press, Fla., 1982.
62. Ogawa, T., and M. Brook, The mechanism of the intracloud lightning discharge, J. Geophys. Res., 69, 514-519, 1964.
63. Oladipo, E. O., and M. E. Mornu, Characteristics of thunderstorms in Zaria, Nigeria, Weather, 40, 316-322, 1985.
64. Orville, R. E., A high-speed time-resolved spectroscopic study of the lightning return stroke, III, A time-dependent model, J. Atmos. Sci., 25, 852-856, 1968.
65. Orville, R. E., Peak-current variations of lightning return strokes as a function of latitude, Nature, 342, 149-151, 1990.
66. Orville, R. E., Lightning ground flash density in the contiguous United States - 1989, Mon. Weather Rev., 119, 573-577, 1991a.
67. Orville, R. E., Calibration of a magnetic direction finding network using measured triggered lightning return stroke peak currents, J. Geophys. Res., 96, 17,135-17,142, 1991b.
68. Orville, R. E., Cloud-to-ground lightning flash characteristics in the contiguous United States: 1989-1991, J. Geophys. Res., 99, 10,833-10,841, 1994.
69. Orville, R. E., and R. W. Henderson, Global distribution of midnight lightning: September 1977 to August 1978, Mon. Weather Rev., 114, 2640-2653, 1986.
70. Orville, R. E., and D. W. Spencer, Global lightning flash frequency, Mon. Weather Rev., 107, 934-943, 1979.
71. Petersen, W. A., and S. A. Rutledge, Some characteristics of cloud-to-ground lightning in tropical northern Australia, J. Geophys. Res., 97, 11,553-11,560, 1992.
72. Peyrous, R., and R.-M. Lapeyre, Gaseous products created by electrical discharges in the atmosphere and condensation nuclei resulting H form gaseous phase reactions, Atmos. Environ., 16, 959-968, 1982.
73. Pierce, E. T., Latitudinal variation of lightning parameters, J. Appl. Meteorol., 9, 194-195, 1970.
74. Prather, M. J., and J. A. Logan, Combustion's impact on the global atmosphere, in 25th International Symposium on Combustion, pp. 1513-1527, Combust. Inst., Pittsburgh, Penn., 1994.
75. Prentice, S. A., and D. Mackerras, The ratio of cloud to cloud-ground lightning flashes in thunderstorms, J. Appl. Meteorol., 16, 545-550, 1977.
76. Price, C., Global lightning activity and climate change, Ph.D. thesis, Columbia Univ., New York, 1993.
77. Price, C., and D. Rind, A simple lightning parameterization for calculating global lightning distributions, J. Geophys. Res., 97, 9919-9933, 1992a.
78. Price, C., and D. Rind, Simulating global lightning frequencies using observed satellite cloud data, Proc. Int. Conf. Atmos. Electr., 9, 327-330, 1992b.
79. Price, C., and D. Rind, What determines the cloud-to-ground fraction in thunderstorms?, Geophys. Res. Lett., 20, 463-466, 1993.
80. x from lightning, 2, Constraints from the global atmospheric electric circuit, J. Geophys. Res., this issue.
81. Ramanathan, V., and R. E. Dickinson, The role of stratospheric ozone in the zonal and seasonal radiative energy balance of the Earth-troposphere system, J. Atmos. Sci., 36, 1084-1104, 1979.
82. Rossow, W. B., and R. A. Schiffer, ISCCP cloud data products, Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 72, 2-20, 1991.
83. Rutledge, S. A., E. R. Williams, and T. D. Keenan, The Down Under Doppler and Electricity Experiment (DUNDEE): Overview and preliminary results, Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 73, 3-16, 1992.
84. Saunders, C. P. R., Thunderstorm electrification laboratory experiments and charging mechanisms, J. Geophys. Res., 99, 10,773-10,780, 1994.
85. Santman, D., and E. Wescott, Observations of upper atmosphere optical flashes recorded from an aircraft, Geophys. Res. Lett., 20, 2857-2860, 1993.
86. Shackford, C. R., Radar indications of a precipitation-lightning relationship in New England thunderstorms, J. Meteorol., 17, 15-19, 1960.
87. Simpson, G. C., and F. J. Scrase, The distribution of electricity in thunderclouds, Proc. R. Soc. London A, 161, 309-352, 1937.
88. Sisterton, D. L., and Y. P. Liaw, An evaluation of lightning and corona discharge on thunderstorm air and precipitation chemistry, J. Atmos. Chem., 10, 83-96, 1990.
89. Standler, R. B., and W. P. Winn, Effects of coronae on electric fields beneath thunderstorms, Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 105, 285-302, 1979.
90. Stordal, F., Model simulations of global tropospheric ozone, in Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion: 1994, chap. 7, WMO Rep. 37, World Meteorol. Organ., Geneva, 1995.
91. Takahashi, T., Near absence of lightning in torrential rainfall producing Micronesian thunderstorms, Geophys. Res. Lett., 17, 2381-2384, 1990.
92. Tuck, A. F., Production of nitrogen oxides by lightning, Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 102, 749-755, 1976.
93. Turman, B. N., Analysis of lightning data from the DMSP satellite, J. Geophys. Res., 83, 5019-5024, 1978.
94. Turman, B. N., and B. C. Edgar, Global lightning distributions at dawn and dusk, J. Geophys. Res., 87, 1191-1206, 1982.
95. Tzur, I., and R. G. Roble, The interaction of a dipolar thunderstorm with its global electrical environment, J. Geophys. Res., 90, 5989-5999, 1985.
96. Uman, M. A., The Lightning Discharge, Academic, San Diego, Calif., 1987.
97. Uman, M. A., and E. P. Krider, Natural and artificially initiated lightning, Science, 246, 457-464, 1989.
98. Uman, M. A., and R. E. Voshall, Time interval between lightning strokes and the initiation of dart leaders, J. Geophys. Res., 73, 497-506, 1968.
99. Williams, E. R., Thunderstorm electrification: Precipitation versus convection, Ph.D. thesis, MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1981.
100. Williams, E. R., Large-scale charge separation in thunderclouds, J. Geophys, Res., 90, 6013-6025, 1985.
101. Williams, E. R., and S. J. Heckman, The local diurnal variation of cloud electrification and the global diurnal variation of negative charge on the Earth, J. Geophys. Res., 98, 5221-5234, 1993.
102. Wilson, C. T. R., Investigations on lightning discharges and on the electric field of thunderstorms, Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London A, 221, 73-115, 1920.
103. Winn, W. P., G. W. Schwede, and C. B. Moore, Measurement of electric fields in thunderstorms, J. Geophys. Res., 79, 1761-1767, 1974.
104. Yos, J. M., Transport properties of nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen, and air at 30,000°K, Avco Corp. Tech. Memo., RAD-TM-63-7, Wilmington, Del., 1963.
105. Zel'dovich, Y. B., and Y. P. Raizer, Physics of Shock Waves and High-Temperature Hydrodynamic Phenomena, 445 pp., Academic, San Diego, Calif., 1966.