Dyslipidemias, atherosclerosis, and coronary heart disease

Koda-Kimble and Young's Applied Therapeutics: The Clinical Use of Drugs

Volumn , Issue , 2013, Pages 252-290

  Ito, Matthew K ^a  

^a OREGON HEALTH AND SCIENCE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84971324214     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: None     Document Type: Chapter

References (265)

1. NissenSEet al. Effect ofACATinhibitiononthe progression of coronary atherosclerosis [published correction appears in N Engl J Med. 2006;355:638]. N Engl J Med. 2006;354: 1253.
2. Schaefer EJ, et al. Lipoprotein apoprotein metabolism. J Lipid Res. 1978;19:667.
3. Kwiterovich PO Jr. The metabolic pathways of high-density lipoprotein, low-density lipoprotein,andtriglycerides: a current review. Am J Cardiol. 2000;86(12A):5L.
4. Barter PJ,Rye KA. Molecular mechanisms of reverse cholesterol transport. Curr Opin Lipidol. 1996;7:82.
5. Brewer HB Jr, Santamarina-Fofo S. New insights into the role of the adenosine triphosphate-binding cassette transporters in high-density lipoprotein metabolism and reverse cholesterol transport. Am J Cardiol. 2003;91(7A):3E.
6. Nissen SE, et al. Effect of torcetrapib on the progression of coronary atherosclerosis. N Engl J Med. 2007;356:1304.
7. Cannon CP, et al. Safety of anacetrapib in patients with or at high risk for coronary heart disease. N Engl J Med. 2010;363: 2406.
8. Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults. Executive Summary of the Third Report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on detection, evaluation, and treatment of high blood cholesterol in adults (Adult Treatment Panel III). JAMA. 2001;285:2486.
9. Hodis HN Mack WJ. Triglyceride-rich lipoproteins and the progression of coronary artery disease. Curr Opin Lipidol. 1995;6:209.
10. Schmitz G, et al. The role of HDL in reverse cholesterol transport and its disturbances in Tangier disease and HDL deficiency with xanthomas. Eur Heart J. 1990;11(Suppl E): 197.
11. Lambert G. Unravelling the functional significance of PCSK9. Curr Opin Lipidol. 2007;18:304.
12. Austin MA, et al. Low-density lipoprotein subclass patterns and risk of myocardial infarction. JAMA. 1988;260:1917.
13. Brown MS, Goldstein JL. A receptor-mediated pathway for cholesterol homeostasis. Science. 1986;232:34.
14. Goldstein JL, BrownMS. Familial hypercholesterolemia. In: Scriver CR et al, eds. The Metabolic Basis of Inherited Disease. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 1989:1215.
15. Hobbs HH, et al. Molecular genetics of the LDL receptor gene in familial hypercholesterolemia. Hum Mutat. 1992; 1:445.
16. Hobbs HH, et al. Deletion of the gene for the low-densitylipoprotein receptor in a majority of French Canadians with familial hypercholesterolemia. N Engl J Med. 1987;317:734.
17. MabuchiHet al. Development of coronary heart disease in familial hypercholesterolemia. Circulation. 1989;79:225.
18. Soria LF, et al. Association between a specific apolipoprotein Bmutation and familial defective apolipoprotein B-100. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1989;86:587.
19. Vega GL, Grundy SM. In vivo evidence for reduced binding of low-density lipoproteins to receptors as a cause of primary moderate hypercholesterolemia. J Clin Invest. 1986; 78:1410.
20. Innerarity TL, et al. Familial defective apolipoprotein B-100: a mutation of apolipoprotein B that causes hypercholesterolemia. J Lipid Res. 1990;31:1337.
21. Innerarity TL, et al. Familial defective apolipoprotein B-100: low-density lipoproteins with abnormal receptor binding. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1987;84:6919.
22. Mahley RW, Rall SC Jr. Type III hyperlipoproteinemia (dysbetalipoproteinemia): the role of apolipoprotein E in normal and abnormal lipoprotein metabolism. In: Scriver CR et al, eds. The Metabolic Basis of Inherited Disease. 6th ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 1991:1195.
23. Brewer HB Jr, et al. NIH conference. Type III hyperlipoproteinemia: diagnosis, molecular defects, pathology, and treatment. Ann Intern Med. 1983;98(5 Pt 1):623.
24. Kissebah AH, et al. Integrated regulation of very low density lipoprotein triglyceride and apolipoprotein-B kinetics in man: normolipemic subjects, familial hypertriglyceridemia, and familial combined hyperlipidemia. Metabolism. 1981;30:856.
25. Haffner SM, et al. Metabolism of apolipoprotein B in members of a family with accelerated atherosclerosis: influence of apolipoprotein E-3/E-2 pattern. Metabolism. 1992;41: 241.
26. Cortner JA, et al. Familial combined hyperlipidemia: use of stable isotopes to demonstrate overproduction of very lowdensity lipoprotein apolipoprotein B by the liver. J Inherit Metab Dis. 1991;14:915.
27. Austin MA, et al. Bimodality of plasma apolipoprotein B levels in familial combined hyperlipidemia. Atherosclerosis. 1992;92:67.
28. Sniderman A, Cianftone K. Substrate delivery as a determinant of hepatic apoB secretion. Arterioscler Thromb. 1993;13:629.
29. Sniderman AD. How,when, andwhy to use apolipoprotein B in clinical practice. Am J Cardiol. 2002;90(8A):48i.
30. Rifkind BM. High-density lipoprotein cholesterol and coronary artery disease: survey of the evidence. Am J Cardiol. 1990;66:3A.
31. Miller M, Kwiterovich PO Jr. Isolated low HDL-cholesterol as an important risk factor for coronary heart disease. Eur Heart J. 1990;11(Suppl H):9.
32. Genest JJ Jr, et al. Prevalence of familial lipoprotein disorders in patients with premature coronary artery disease. Circulation. 1992;85:2025.
33. Campeau L, et al. Aggressive cholesterol lowering delays saphenous vein graft atherosclerosis in women, the elderly, and patients with associated risk factors. NHLBI Post Coronary Artery Bypass Graft Clinical Trial. Post CABG Trial Investigators. Circulation. 1999;99:3241.
34. Tabas I, et al. Subendothelial lipoprotein retention as the initiating process in atherosclerosis: update and therapeutic implications. Circulation. 2007;116:1832.
35. SteinbergDet al. Beyond cholesterol: modifications of lowdensity lipoprotein that increases its atherogenicity. N Engl J Med. 1989;320:915.
36. Davies MJ, et al. Atherosclerosis: inhibition or regression as therapeutic possibilities. Br Heart J. 1991;65:302.
37. Faggiotto A, et al. Studies of hypercholesterolemia in the nonhuman primate. I. Changes that lead to fatty streak formation. Arteriosclerosis. 1984;4:323.
38. Witztum JL, Steinberg D. Role of oxidized low-density lipoprotein in atherogenesis. J Clin Invest. 1991;88:1785.
39. Ross R, Agius L. The process of atherogenesis: cellular and molecular interaction: from experimental animal models to humans. Diabetologia. 1992;35(Suppl 2):S34.
40. Libby P. Current concepts of the pathogenesis of the acute coronary syndromes. Circulation. 2001;104:365.
41. Libby P, et al. Inflammation and atherosclerosis. Circulation. 2002;105:1135.
42. Henderson EL, et al. Death of smooth muscle cells and expression of mediators of apoptosis by T-lymphocytes in human abdominal aortic aneurysms. Circulation. 1999;99:96.
43. Sukhova GK, et al. Evidence for increased collagenolysis by interstitial collagenases-1 and -3 in vulnerable human atheromatous plaques. Circulation. 1999;99:2503.
44. Libby P. Molecular bases of the acute coronary syndromes. Circulation. 1995;91:2844.
45. Ridker PM. Inflammation, infection, and cardiovascular risk. Howgood is the clinical evidence? Circulation. 1998;97: 1671.
46. Ross R. Atherosclerosis: an inflammatory disease. N Engl J Med. 1999;340:115.
47. Libby P, Ridker PM. Novel inflammatory markers of coronary risk. Theory versus practice. Circulation. 1999;100: 1148.
48. Fuster V, et al. The pathogenesis of coronary artery disease and acute coronary syndromes (1). N Engl J Med. 1992;326: 242.
49. Brown BG, et al. Lipid lowering and plaque regression. New insights into prevention or plaque disruption and clinical events in coronary disease. Circulation. 1993;87:1781.
50. Neaton JD, et al. Serum cholesterol level and mortality findings for men screened in the Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial. Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial Research Group. Arch Intern Med. 1992;152:1490.
51. Jacobs D, et al. Report of the Conference on Low Blood Cholesterol: mortality associations. Circulation. 1992;86: 1046.
52. Castelli WP. Epidemiology of coronary heart disease: the Framingham study. Am J Med. 1984;76:4.
53. Gordon DJ, et al. High-density lipoprotein cholesterol and cardiovascular disease: four prospective American studies. Circulation. 1989;79:8.
54. Kagan A, et al. Epidemiologic studies of coronary heart disease and stroke in Japanese men living in Japan, Hawaii and California: demographic, physical, dietary and biochemical characteristics. J Chronic Dis. 1974;27:345.
55. Rosenberg L, et al. Myocardial infarction in women under years of age. JAMA. 1983;250:2801.
56. Rosenberg L, et al. Myocardial infarction and cigarette smoking in women younger than 50 years of age. JAMA. 1985;253:2965.
57. Castelli WP, et al. Cardiovascular risk factors in the elderly. Am J Cardiol. 1989;63:12H.
58. Thom TJ. Cardiovascular disease mortality among United Stateswomen. In: EakerEDet al, eds. Coronary Heart Disease inWomen. New York, NY: Haymarket Doyma; 1987;33.
59. Garg A, Grundy SM. Management of dyslipidemia in NIDDM. Diabetes Care. 1990;13:153.
60. Kannel WB. Lipids, diabetes, and coronary heart disease: insights from the Framingham Study. Am Heart J. 1985;110: 1100.
61. Kannel WB, Gordan T. Evaluation of cardiovascular risk in the elderly. The Framingham study. Bull N Y Acad Med. 1978;54:573.
62. Manolio TA, et al. Cholesterol and heart disease in older persons and women. Review of an NHLBI workshop. Ann Epidemiol. 1992;2:161.
63. Malenka DJ, Baron JA. Cholesterol and coronary heart disease: the importance of patient-specific attributable risk. Arch Intern Med. 1988;148:2247.
64. Grundy SM. Coronary plaque as a replacement for age as a risk factor in global risk assessment. Am J Cardiol. 2001; 88(2A):8E.
65. LaRosa JC, et al. The cholesterol facts: a summary of the evidence relating dietary fats, serum cholesterol, and coronary heart disease.Ajoint statement by the American Heart Association and the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. TheTask Force on Cholesterol Issues, American Heart Association. Circulation. 1990;81:1721.
66. Buchwald H, et al. Effect of partial ileal bypass surgery on mortality and morbidity from coronary heart disease in patients with hypercholesterolemia: report of the Programonthe Surgical Control of Hyperlipidemias (POSCH). N Engl J Med. 1990;323:946.
67. Blankenhorn DH, et al. Beneficial effects of combined colestipol-niacin therapy on coronary atherosclerosis and coronary venous bypass grafts [published correction appears in JAMA. 1988;259:2698]. JAMA. 1987;257:3233.
68. Brown G, et al. Regression of coronary artery disease as a result of intensive lipid-lowering therapy in men with high levels of apolipoprotein B. N Engl J Med. 1990;323:1289.
69. OrnishDet al. Can lifestyle changes reverse coronary heart disease? The Lifestyle Heart Trial. Lancet. 1990;336:129.
70. Watts GF, et al. Effects on coronary artery disease of lipid-lowering diet, or diet plus cholestyramine, in the St. Thomas' AtherosclerosisRegression Study (STARS). Lancet. 1992;339:563.
71. Kane JP, et al. Regression of coronary atherosclerosis during treatment of familial hypercholesterolemia with combined drug regimens. JAMA. 1990;264:3007.
72. Duffield RGM, et al. Treatment of hyperlipidaemia retards progression of symptomatic femoral atherosclerosis. A randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 1983;2:639.
73. [No authors listed]. Effect of simvastatin on coronary atheroma: the Multicentre Anti-Atheroma Study (MAAS) [published correction appears in Lancet. 1994;344:762]. Lancet. 1994;344:633.
74. Waters D, et al. Effects of monotherapy with an HMGCoA reductase inhibitor on the progression of coronary atherosclerosis as assessed by serial quantitative arteriography. The Canadian Coronary Atherosclerosis Intervention Trial. Circulation. 1994;89:959.
75. Haskell WL, et al. Effects of intensive multiple risk factor reduction on coronary atherosclerosis and clinical cardiac events in men and women with coronary heart disease. The Stanford Coronary Risk Intervention Project (SCRIP). Circulation. 1994;89:975.
76. Furberg CD, et al. Pravastatin, lipids, and major coronary events. Am J Cardiol. 1994;73:1133.
77. Furberg CD, et al. Effect of lovastatin on early carotid atherosclerosis and cardiovascular events. Asymptomatic Carotid Artery Progression Study (ACAPS) Research Group. Circulation. 1994;90:1679.
78. Blankenhorn DH, et al. Coronary angiographic changes with lovastatin therapy. The Monitored Atherosclerosis Regression Study (MARS). Ann Intern Med. 1993;119: 969.
79. Pitt B, et al. Pravastatin limitation of atherosclerosis in the 3 coronary arteries (PLACI): reduction in atherosclerosis progression and clinical events. PLAC I investigation. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1995;26:1133.
80. Salonen R, et al. Kuopio Atherosclerosis Prevention Study (KAPS). A population-based primary prevention trial of the effect of LDL lowering on atherosclerotic progression in carotid and femoral arteries. Circulation. 1995;92:1758.
81. Jukema JW, et al. Effects of lipid lowering by pravastatin on progression and regression of coronary artery disease in symptomatic men with normal to moderately elevated serum cholesterol levels. The Regression Growth Evaluation Statin Study (REGRESS). Circulation. 1995;91:2528.
82. Herd JA, et al. Effects of fluvastatin on coronary atherosclerosis in patients with mild to moderate cholesterol elevations (Lipoprotein and Coronary Atherosclerosis Study [LCAS]). Am J Cardiol. 1997;80:278.
83. [No authors listed]. The effect of aggressive lowering of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels and lowdose anticoagulation on obstructive changes in saphenousvein coronary-artery bypass grafts. The Post Coronary Artery Bypass Graft Trial Investigators [published correction appears in N Engl J Med. 1997;337:1859]. N Engl J Med. 1997;336:153.
84. Thompson GR. What targets should lipid-modulating therapy achieve to optimise the prevention of coronary heart disease? Atherosclerosis. 1997;131:1.
85. Nissen SE, et al. Effect of very high-intensity statin therapy on regression of coronary atherosclerosis: the ASTEROID trial. JAMA. 2006;295:1556.
86. Takagi T, et al. Intravascular ultrasound analysis of reduction in progression of coronary narrowing by treatment with pravastatin. Am J Cardiol. 1997;79:1673.
87. [No authors listed]. Randomised trial of cholesterol lowering in 4444 patients with coronary heart disease. The Scandinavian Simvastatin Survival Study (4S). Lancet. 1994;344:1383.
88. [No authors listed]. Prevention of cardiovascular events and death with pravastatin in patients with coronary heart disease and a broad range of initial cholesterol levels. The Long-TermIntervention with Pravastatin in Ischaemic Disease (LIPID) Study Group. N Engl J Med. 1998;339:1349.
89. Sacks FM, et al. The effect of pravastatin on coronary events after myocardial infarction in patients with average cholesterol levels. Cholesterol and Recurrent Events Trial investigators. N Engl J Med. 1996;335:1001.
90. Heart Protection Study Collaborative Group. MRC/BHF Heart Protection Study of cholesterol lowering with simvastatin in 20,536 high-risk individuals: a randomised placebocontrolled trial. Lancet. 2002;360:7.
91. Shepherd J, et al. Pravastatin in elderly individuals at risk of vascular disease (PROSPER): a randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2002;360:1623.
92. LaRosa JC, et al. Intensive lipid lowering with atorvastatin in patients with stable coronary disease. N Engl J Med. 2005;352:1425.
93. Pedersen TR, et al. High-dose atorvastatin vs. usual-dose simvastatin for secondary prevention after myocardial infarction: the IDEAL study: a randomized controlled trial [published correction appears in JAMA. 2005;294:3092]. JAMA. 2005;294:2437.
94. ALLHAT Officers and Coordinators for the ALLHAT Collaborative Research Group. The Antihypertensive and Lipid-Lowering Treatment to Prevent Heart Attack Trial. Major outcomes in moderately hypercholesterolemic, hypertensive patients randomized to pravastatin vs usual care: The Antihypertensive and Lipid-Lowering Treatment to Prevent Heart Attack Trial (ALLHAT-LLT). JAMA. 2002;288:2998.
95. SchwartzGGet al. Effects of atorvastatin on early recurrent ischemic events in acute coronary syndromes.TheMIRACL study: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2001;285:1711.
96. Waters DD, et al. Effects of atorvastatin on stroke in patients with unstable angina or non-Q-wave myocardial infarction. A Myocardial Ischemia Reduction with Aggressive Cholesterol Lowering (MIRACL) substudy. Circulation. 2002;106:1690.
97. Pitt B, et al. Aggressive lipid-lowering therapy compared with angioplasty in stable coronary artery disease. Atorvastatin versus Revascularization Treatment Investigators. N Engl J Med. 1999;341:70.
98. Cannon CP, et al. Intensive versus moderate lipid lowering with statins after acute coronary syndromes [published correction appears in N Engl J Med. 2006;354:778]. N Engl J Med. 2004;350:1495.
99. [No authors listed]. The Lipid Research Clinics Coronary Primary Prevention Trial results. I: Reduction in incidence of coronary heart disease. JAMA. 1984;251:351.
100. [No authors listed]. Influence of pravastatin and plasma lipids on clinical events in the West of Scotland Coronary Prevention Study (WOSCOPS). Circulation. 1998;97:1440.
101. Downs JR, et al. Primary prevention of acute coronary events with lovastatin in men and women with average cholesterol levels. Results of AFCAPS/TexCAPS. Air Force/Texas Coronary Atherosclerosis Prevention Study. JAMA. 1998;279:1615.
102. Sever PS, et al. Prevention of coronary and stroke events with atorvastatin in hypertensive patients who have average or lower-than-average cholesterol concentrations, in the Anglo-Scandinavian Cardiac Outcome Trial-Lipid Lowering Arm (ASCOT-LLA): a multicentre randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2003;361:1149.
103. Colhoun HM, et al. Primary prevention of cardiovascular disease with atorvastatin in type 2 diabetes in the Collaborative Atorvastatin Diabetes Study (CARDS): multicentre randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2004;364: 685.
104. Ridker PM, et al. Rosuvastatin to prevent vascular events in men and women with elevated C-reactive protein. N Engl J Med. 2008;359:2195.
105. Taylor F, et al. Statins for the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2011;(1): CD004816.
106. Crouse JR III, et al. Reductase inhibitor monotherapy and stroke prevention. Arch Intern Med. 1997;157:1305.
107. Smith SC Jr, et al. AHA/ACC guidelines for secondary prevention for patients with coronary and other atherosclerotic vascular disease: 2006 update: endorsed by the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute [published correction appears in Circulation. 2006;113:e847]. Circulation. 2006;113:2363.
108. Grundy SM, et al. Implications of recent clinical trials for the National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel III guidelines. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2004;24: e149.
109. Cholesterol Treatment Trialists' (CTT) Collaboration, et al. Efficacy and safety of more intensive lowering of LDL cholesterol: a meta-analysis of data from 170,000 participants in 26 randomised trials. Lancet. 2010;376:1670.
110. Ridker PM, et al. Measurement of C-reactive protein for the targeting of statin therapy in the primary prevention of acute coronary events. N Engl J Med. 2001;344:1959.
111. O'Keefe JH Jr, et al. Optimal low-density lipoprotein is 50 to mg/dl: lower is better and physiologically normal. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2004;43:2142.
112. Haffner SM, et al. Mortality from coronary heart disease in subjects with type 2 diabetes and in nondiabetic subjects with and without prior myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med. 1998;339:229.
113. [No authors listed]. The effect of intensive treatment of diabetes on the development and progression of long-term complications in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group. N Engl J Med. 1993;329:977.
114. [No authors listed]. Intensive blood-glucose control with sulphonylureas or insulin compared with conventional treatment and risk of complications in patients with type diabetes (UKPDS 33). UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) Group [published correction appears in Lancet. 1999;354:602]. Lancet. 1998;352:837.
115. ACCORDStudy Group, et al. Long-termeffects of intensive glucose lowering on cardiovascular outcomes. NEngl J Med. 2011;364:818.
116. Grundy SM. Primary prevention of coronary heart disease. Integrating risk assessment with intervention. Circulation. 1999;100:988.
117. Ridker PM, et al. Development and validation of improved algorithms for the assessment of global cardiovascular risk in women. The Reynolds Risk Score [published correction appears in JAMA. 2007;297:1433]. JAMA. 2007;297:611.
118. Frick MH, et al. Helsinki Heart Study: primary-prevention trial with gemfibrozil in middle-aged men with dyslipidemia. Safety of treatment, changes in risk factors, and incidence of coronary heart disease.NEngl JMed. 1987;317:1237.
119. Rubins HB, Robins SJ. Effect of reduction of plasma triglycerides with gemfibrozil on high-density-lipoproteincholesterol concentrations. J Intern Med. 1992;231:421.
120. [No authors listed]. Secondary prevention by raising HDL cholesterol and reducing triglycerides in patients with coronary heart disease. The Bezafibrate Infarction Prevention (BIP) study. Circulation. 2000;102:21.
121. Keech A, et al. Effects of long-term fenofibrate therapy on cardiovascular events in 9795 people with type 2 diabetes mellitus (the FIELD study): randomised controlled trial [published corrections appear in Lancet. 2006;368:1415; Lancet. 2006;368:1420]. Lancet. 2005;366:1849.
122. The ACCORD Study Group, et al. Effects of combination lipid therapy in type 2 diabetes mellitus [published correction appears in N Engl J Med. 2010;362:1748]. N Engl J Med. 2010;362:1563.
123. Canner PL, et al. Fifteen-year mortality in Coronary Drug Project patients: long-term benefit with niacin. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1986;8:1245.
124. Manninen V, et al. Joint effects of serum triglyceride and LDL cholesterol and HDL cholesterol concentrations on coronary heart disease risk in the Helsinki Heart Study: implications for treatment. Circulation. 1992;85:37.
125. Rubins HB, et al. Gemfibrozil for the secondary prevention of coronary heart disease in men with low levels of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol. Veterans Affairs High- Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol Intervention Trial Study Group. N Engl J Med. 1999;341:410.
126. JunMet al. Effects of fibrates on cardiovascular outcomes: a systematic reviewand meta-analysis. Lancet. 2010;375:1875.
127. Brown BG, et al. Simvastatin and niacin, antioxidant vitamins, or the combination for the prevention of coronary disease. N Engl J Med. 2001;345:1583.
128. Taylor AJ, et al. Arterial Biology for the Investigation of the Treatment Effects of Reducing Cholesterol (ARBITER) 2: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study of extendedrelease niacin on atherosclerosis progression in secondary prevention patients treated with statins [published corrections appear in Circulation. 2004;110:3615; Circulation. 2005;111:e446]. Circulation. 2004;110:3512.
129. Ito MK, et al. Statin-associated pleiotropy: possible beneficial effects beyond cholesterol reduction. Pharmacotherapy. 2006;26(7 Pt 2):85S.
130. VogelRAet al. Effect of a single high-fat meal on endothelial function in healthy subjects. Am J Cardiol. 1997;79:350.
131. O'Driscoll G, et al. Simvastatin, an HMG-coenzyme reductase inhibitor, improves endothelial function within 1 month. Circulation. 1997;95:1126.
132. Gould KL, et al. Short-term cholesterol lowering decreases size and severity of perfusion abnormalities by positron emission tomography after dipyridamole in patients with coronary artery disease. A potential noninvasive marker of healing coronary endothelium. Circulation. 1994;89:1530.
133. BallerDet al. Improvement in coronary flowreserve determined by positron emission tomography after 6 months of cholesterol-lowering therapy in patients with early stages of coronary atherosclerosis. Circulation. 1999;99:2871.
134. Treasure CB, et al. Beneficial effects of cholesterol-lowering therapy on coronary endothelium in patients with coronary artery disease. N Engl J Med. 1995;332:481.
135. Anderson TJ, et al. The effect of cholesterol-lowering and antioxidant therapy on endothelium-dependent coronary vasomotion. N Engl J Med. 1995;332:488.
136. AndrewsTCet al. Effect of cholesterol reductiononmyocardial ischemia in patients with coronary disease. Circulation. 1997;95:324.
137. van Boven AJ, et al. Reduction of transient myocardial ischemia with pravastatin in addition to the conventional treatment in patients with angina pectoris. REGRESS Study Group. Circulation. 1996;94:1503.
138. Ridker PM. Clinical application of C-reactive protein for cardiovascular disease detection and prevention. Circulation. 2003;107:363.
139. Ridker PM, et al. Inflammation, pravastatin, and the risk of coronary events after myocardial infarction in patients with average cholesterol levels. Cholesterol and Recurrent Events (CARE) Investigators. Circulation. 1998;98:839.
140. PearsonTAet al. Markers of inflammation and cardiovascular disease. Application to clinical and public health practice. A statement for healthcare professionals from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2003;107:499.
141. Greenland P, et al. 2010 ACCF/AHA guideline for assessment of cardiovascular risk in 141 adults: a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2010;56:e50.
142. Pekkanen J, et al. Ten-year mortality from cardiovascular disease in relation to cholesterol level among men with and without preexisting cardiovascular disease. N Engl J Med. 1990;322:1700.
143. Criqui MH, et al. Mortality over a period of 10 years in patients with peripheral arterial disease. N Engl J Med. 1992;326:381.
144. Salonen JT, Salonen R. Ultrasonographically assessed carotid morphology and the risk of coronary heart disease. Arterioscler Thromb. 1991;11:1245.
145. Katan MB, et al. Should a low-fat, high-carbohydrate diet be recommended for everyone? Beyond low-fat diets. N Engl J Med. 1997;337:563.
146. Leaf A. Dietary prevention of coronary heart disease. The 5 Lyon Diet Heart Study. Circulation. 1999;99:733.
147. de Lorgeril M, et al. Mediterranean diet, traditional risk factors, and the rate of cardiovascular complications after myocardial infarction. Final report of the Lyon Diet Heart Study. Circulation. 1999;99:779.
148. Caggiula AW, et al. The Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial (MRFIT). IV: Intervention on blood lipids. Prev Med. 1981;10:443.
149. Ramsay LE, et al. Dietary reduction of serum cholesterol concentration: time to think again. BMJ. 1991;303:953.
150. BoydNFet al. Quantitative changes in dietary fat intake and serum cholesterol in women: results from a randomized, controlled trial. Am J Clin Nutr. 1990;52:470.
151. Wood PD, et al. Changes in plasma lipids and lipoproteins in overweight men during weight loss through dieting as compared with exercise. N Engl J Med. 1988;319:1173.
152. [Noauthors listed]. Executivesummaryof the clinical guidelinesonthe identification, evaluation,andtreatment ofoverweight and obesity in adults. Arch InternMed. 1998;158:1855.
153. Gepner AD, et al. Effects of smoking and smoking cessation on lipids and lipoproteins: outcomes from a randomized clinical trial. Am Heart J. 2011;161:145.
154. Wood PD, et al. The effects of plasma lipoproteins of a prudentweight- reducing diet, with or without exercise, in overweight men and women. N Engl J Med. 1991;325:461.
155. Danesh J, et al. Lipoprotein (a) and coronary heart disease: meta-analysis of prospective studies. Circulation. 2000;102:1082.
156. Bloch S, Couderc R. Apolipoprotein B and LDL cholesterol: which parameter(s) should be included in the assessment of cardiovascular risk [in French]? Ann Biol Clin (Paris). 1998;56:539.
157. Malinow MR, et al. Homocyst(e)ine, diet, and cardiovascular diseases: a statement for healthcare professionals from the Nutrition Committee, American Heart Association. Circulation. 1999;99:178.
158. Crandall MA, Corson MA. Use of biomarkers to develop treatment strategies for atherosclerosis. Curr Treat Options Cardiovasc Med. 2008;10:304.
159. [No authors listed]. The Lipid Research Clinics Coronary Primary Prevention Trial results. II: The relationship of reduction in incidence of coronary heart disease to cholesterol lowering. JAMA. 1984;251:365.
160. Bays HE, et al. Ezetimibe Study Group. Effectiveness and tolerability of ezetimibe in patients with primary hypercholesterolemia: pooled analysis of two phase II studies [published correction appears in Clin Ther. 2001;23:1601]. Clin Ther. 2001;23:1209.
161. McKenney JM, et al. A comparison of the efficacy and toxic effects of sustained- vs. immediate-release niacin in hypercholesterolemic patients. JAMA. 1994;271:672.
162. Superko HR, et al. Effectiveness of low-dose colestipol therapy in patients with moderate hypercholesterolemia. Am J Cardiol. 1992;70:135.
163. Einarsson K, et al. Bile acid sequestrants: mechanisms of action on bile acid and cholesterol metabolism. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 1991;40(Suppl 1):S53.
164. Ito MK, Morreale AP. Acceptability of cholestyramine and colestipol formulations in three common vehicles. Clin Pharm. 1991;10:138.
165. Davidson MH, et al. Ezetimibe coadministered with simvastatin in patients with primary hypercholesterolemia. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2002;40:2125.
166. Sudhop T, et al. Inhibition of intestinal cholesterol absorption by ezetimibe in humans. Circulation. 2002;106:1943.
167. Kastelein JJP, et al. Simvastatin with or without ezetimibe in familial hypercholesterolemia [published correction appears in N Engl J Med. 2008;358:1977]. N Engl J Med. 2008;358:1431.
168. Smilde TJ, et al. Effect of aggressive versus conventional lipid lowering on atherosclerosis progression in familial hypercholesterolaemia (ASAP): a prospective, randomised, double-blind trial. Lancet. 2001;357:577.
169. de Sauvage Nolting PRW, et al. Regression of carotid and femoral artery intima-media thickness in familial hypercholesterolemia. Arch Intern Med. 2003;163:1837.
170. Avellone G, et al. Efficacy and safety of long-term ezetimibe/ simvastatin treatment in patients with familial hypercholesterolemia. Int Angiol. 2010;29:514.
171. Rossebø AB, et al. Intensive lipid lowering with simvastatin and ezetimibe in aortic stenosis.NEngl JMed. 2008;359:1343.
172. [No authors listed]. Clofibrate and niacin in coronary heart disease. JAMA. 1975;231:360.
173. Drood JM, et al. Nicotinic acid for the treatment of hyperlipoproteinemia. J Clin Pharmacol. 1991;31:641.
174. Carlson LA, et al. Pronounced lowering of serum levels of lipoprotein Lp(a) in hyperlipidemic subjects treated with nicotinic acid. J Intern Med. 1989;226:271.
175. Grundy SM, et al. Influence of nicotinic acid on metabolism of cholesterol and triglycerides in man. J Lipid Res. 1981; 22:24.
176. Sakai T, et al. Niacin, but not gemfibrozil, selectively increases LP-A1, a cardioprotective subfraction of HDL, in patients with low HDL cholesterol. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2001;21:1783.
177. Jin FY, et al. Niacin decreases removal of high-density lipoprotein apolipoprotein A-I but not cholesterol ester by Hep G2 cells: implication for reverse cholesterol transport. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 1997;17:2020.
178. PiephoRW.The pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of agents proven to raise high-density lipoprotein cholesterol. Am J Cardiol. 2000;86(12A):35L.
179. Henkin Y, et al. Niacin revisited: clinical observations on an important but underutilized drug. Am J Med. 1991;91: 239.
180. Paolini JF, et al. Effects of laropiprant on nicotinic acidinduced flushing in patients with dyslipidemia. AmJ Cardiol. 2008;101:625.
181. KnoppRHet al. Contrasting effects of unmodified and timerelease forms of niacin on lipoproteins in hyperlipidemic subjects: clues to mechanism of action of niacin. Metabolism. 1985;34:642.
182. Wilkin JK, et al. Aspirin blocks nicotinic acid-induced flushing. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1982;31:478.
183. Rader JI, et al. Hepatic toxicity of unmodified and timerelease preparations of niacin. Am J Med. 1992;92:77.
184. Hunninghake DB, et al. Efficacy and safety of pravastatin in patients with primary hypercholesterolemia. II: Once-daily versus twice-daily dosing. Atherosclerosis. 1990;85:219.
185. JonesPet al.Comparative dose efficacy study of atorvastatin versus simvastatin, pravastatin, lovastatin, and fluvastatin in patients with hypercholesterolemia (the CURVES Study) [published correction appears in Am J Cardiol. 1998;82:128]. Am J Cardiol. 1998;81:582.
186. Grundy SM, et al. Guide to primary prevention of cardiovascular diseases. A statement for health care professionals from the Task Force on Risk Reduction. American Heart Association Science Advisory and Coordinating Committee. Circulation. 1997;95:2329.
187. Grundy SM, et al. Influence of combined therapy with mevinolin and interruption of bile-acid reabsorption on low-density lipoproteins in heterozygous familial hypercholesterolemia. Ann Intern Med. 1985;103:339.
188. GinsbergHNet al. Suppression of apolipoprotein B production during treatment of cholesteryl ester storage disease with lovastatin: implications for regulation of apolipoprotein B synthesis. J Clin Invest. 1987;80:1692.
189. Arad Y, et al. Effects of lovastatin therapy on very lowdensity lipoprotein triglyceride metabolism in subjects with combined hyperlipidemia: evidence for reduced assembly and secretion of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins. Metabolism. 1992;41:487.
190. Hunninghake DB, et al. Efficacy and safety of pravastatin in patients with primary hypercholesterolemia. I: A doseresponse study. Atherosclerosis. 1990;85:81.
191. Dujovne CA, et al. Expanded Clinical Evaluation of Lovastatin (EXCEL) study results. IV: Additional perspectives on the tolerability of lovastatin. Am J Med. 1991;91(1B):25S.
192. McKenney JM, et al. Final conclusions and recommendations of the National Lipid Association Statin Safety Assessment Task Force. Am J Cardiol. 2006;97(8A):89C.
193. Law MR, Rudnicka AR. Statin safety: a systematic review. Am J Cardiol. 2006;97(8A):52C.
194. Athyros VG, et al. Safety and efficacy of long-term statin treatment for cardiovascular events in patients with coronary heart disease and abnormal liver tests in the Greek Atorvastatin and Coronary Heart Disease Evaluation (GREACE) Study: a post-hoc analysis. Lancet. 2010;376:1916.
195. Backes JM, et al. Effects of once weekly rosuvastatin among patients with a prior statin intolerance. Am J Cardiol. 2007;100:554.
196. Ito MK. Effects of extensive and poor gastrointestinal metabolism on the pharmacodynamics of pravastatin. J Clin Pharmacol. 1998;38:331.
197. SEARCHCollaborative Group, et al. SLCO1B1 variants and statin-induced myopathy-a genomewide study. N Engl J Med. 2008;359:789.
198. Gupta A, Thompson PD. The relationship of vitamin D deficiency to statin myopathy. Atherosclerosis. 2011;215:23.
199. [No authors listed]. Dietary supplementation with omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and vitamin E after myocardial infarction: results of the GISSI-Prevenzione trial. Gruppo Italiano per lo Studio della Sopravvivenza nell'Infarto miocardico [published corrections appear in Lancet. 2007;369: 106; Lancet. 2001;357:642]. Lancet. 1999;354:447.
200. Yokoyama M, et al. Effects of eicosapentaenoic acid on major coronary events in hypercholesterolaemic patients (JELIS): a randomised open-label, blinded endpoint analysis [published correction appears in Lancet. 2007;370:220]. Lancet. 2007;369:1090.
201. Rauch B, et al. OMEGA, a randomized, placebo-controlled trial to test the effect of highly purified omega-3 fatty acids on top of modern guideline-adjusted therapy after myocardial infarction. Circulation. 2010;122:2152.
202. Zargar A, Ito MK. Long chain omega-3 dietary supplements: a reviewof the National Library of Medicine Herbal Supplement Da ase. Metab Syndr Relat Disord. 2011. http:// www.liebertonline.com/doi/abs/10.1089/met.2011.0004? journalCode=met. Accessed May 26, 2011.
203. ItoMKet al.Managementof familialhypercholesterolemias in adult patients: recommendations from the National Lipid Association Expert Panel on Familial Hypercholesterolemia. J Clin Lipidol. 2011;5(3 Suppl):S38.
204. Grundy SM, et al. The place of HDL in cholesterol management. A perspective from the National Cholesterol Education Program [published correction appears in Arch Intern Med. 1989;149:940]. Arch Intern Med. 1989;149:505.
205. Ballantyne CM, et al. Effect of ezetimibe coadministered with atorvastatin in 628 patients with primary hypercholesterolemia: a prospective, randomized, double-blind trial. Circulation. 2003;107:2409.
206. Brown BG, et al. Moderate dose, three-drug therapy with niacin, lovastatin, and colestipol to reduce lowdensity lipoprotein cholesterol>100mg/dL in patients with hyperlipidemia and coronary artery disease. Am J Cardiol. 1997;80:111.
207. Zhao XQ, et al. Effects of prolonged intensive lipid-lowering therapy on the characteristics of carotid atherosclerotic plaques in vivo by MRI: a case-control study. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2001;21:1623.
208. Grundy SM, et al. When to start cholesterol-lowering therapy in patients with coronary heart disease. A statement for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association Task Force on Risk Reduction. Circulation. 1997;95:1683.
209. Tobert JA, et al. Clinical experience with lovastatin. Am J Cardiol. 1990;65:23F.
210. Brunzell JD, et al. Lipoprotein management in patients with cardiometabolic risk: consensus conference report from the American Diabetes Association and the American College of Cardiology Foundation. Diabetes Care. 2008;31:811.
211. [No authors listed]. NIH Consensus conference. Triglyceride, high-density lipoprotein, and coronary heart disease. NIH Consensus Development Panel on Triglyceride, High- Density Lipoprotein, and Coronary Heart Disease. JAMA. 1993;269:505.
212. Klatsky AL, et al. Alcohol and mortality: a ten-year Kaiser- Permanente experience. Ann Intern Med. 1981;95:139.
213. Assmann G, Schulte H. Triglycerides and atherosclerosis: results from the Prospective Cardiovascular Munster Study. In: Gotto AM Jr, Paoletti R, eds. Atherosclerosis Reviews. Vol. New York, NY: Raven; 1991:51.
214. Grundy SM, Vega GL. Two different views of the relationship of hypertriglyceridemia to coronary heart disease. Implications for treatment. Arch Intern Med. 1992;152:28.
215. Reardon MF, et al. Lipoprotein predictors of the severity of coronary artery disease in men and women. Circulation. 1985;71:881.
216. Steiner G, et al. The association of increased levels of intermediate-density lipoproteins with smoking and with coronary heart disease. Circulation. 1987;75:124.
217. Grundy SM. Small LDL, atherogenic dyslipidemia, and the metabolic syndrome. Circulation. 1997;95:1.
218. Grundy SM. Hypertriglyceridemia, atherogenic dyslipidemia, and the metabolic syndrome. Am J Cardiol. 1998;81(4A):18B.
219. Austin MA, et al. Hypertriglyceridemia as a cardiovascular risk factor. Am J Cardiol. 1998;81(4A):7B.
220. Brunzell JD, et al. Plasma lipoproteins in familial combined hyperlipidemia and monogenic familial hypertriglyceridemia. J Lipid Res. 1983;24:147.
221. Lamarche B, et al. Small, dense low-density lipoprotein particles as a predictor of the risk of ischemic heart disease in men. Prospective results from the Québec Cardiovascular Study. Circulation. 1997;95:69.
222. GinsbergHN. Insulin resistance and cardiovascular disease. J Clin Invest. 2000;106:453.
223. Sato R, et al. Sterol regulatory element-binding protein negatively regulates microsomal triglyceride transfer protein gene transcription. J Biol Chem. 1999;274:24714.
224. Grundy SM, et al. Approach to lipoprotein management in 2001 National Cholesterol Guidelines. Am J Cardiol. 2002;90(8A):11i.
225. MarmotM, Brunner E. Alcohol and cardiovascular disease: 7 the status of the U-shaped curve. BMJ. 1991;303:565.
226. Beaglehole R, Jackson R. Alcohol, cardiovascular diseases and all causes of death: a review of the epidemiological evidence. Drug Alcohol Rev. 1992;11:275.
227. Miller M, et al. Effect of gemfibrozil in men with primary isolated lowhigh-density lipoprotein cholesterol: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study. Am J Med. 1993;94:7.
228. Brown WV, et al. Effects of fenofibrate on plasma lipids. Double-blind, multicenter study in patients with type IIA or IIB hyperlipidemia. Arteriosclerosis. 1986;6:670.
229. Fujioka S, et al. Contribution of intra-abdominal fat accumulation to the impairment of glucose and lipid metabolism in human obesity. Metabolism. 1987;36:54.
230. Barakat HA, et al. Influence of obesity, impaired glucose tolerance, andNIDDMon LDL structure and composition. Possible linkbetweenhyperinsulinemiaandatherosclerosis. Diabetes. 1990;39:1527.
231. Bierman EL. George Lyman Duff Memorial Lecture. Atherogenesis in diabetes. Arterioscler Thromb. 1992;12:647.
232. DeFronzo RA, Ferrannini E. Insulin resistance. A multifaceted syndrome responsible for NIDDM, obesity, hypertension, dyslipidemia, and atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. Diabetes Care. 1991;14:173.
233. American Diabetes Association. Screening for type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2000;23(Suppl 1):S20.
234. Chobanian AV, et al. The Seventh Report of the Joint National Committee on prevention, detection, evaluation, and treatment of high blood pressure. The JNC 7 Report [published correction appears in JAMA. 2003;290:197]. JAMA. 2003;289:2560.
235. Reaven GM. Insulin resistance and compensatory hyperinsulinemia: role in hypertension, dyslipidemia, and coronary heart disease. Am Heart J. 1991;121(4 Pt 2):1283.
236. Reaven GM. Banting lecture 1988. Role of insulin resistance in human disease. Diabetes. 1988;37:1595.
237. Steinberg D, et al. Alcohol and atherosclerosis. Ann Intern Med. 1991;114:967.
238. Gingsburg HN. Hypertriglyceridemia: new insights and new approaches to pharmacologic therapy. Am J Cardiol. 2001;87:1174.
239. Stein EA, et al. Efficacy and tolerability of low-dose simvastatin and niacin, alone and in combination, in patients with combined hyperlipidemia: a prospective trial. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol Ther. 1996;1:107.
240. ElamMBet al. Effect of niacin on lipid and lipoprotein levels and glycemic control in patients with diabetes and peripheral arterial disease. The ADMIT study: a randomized trial. Arterial Disease Multiple Intervention Trial. JAMA. 2000;284:1263.
241. Canner PL, et al. Benefits of niacin by glycemic status in patients with healed myocardial infarction (from the Coronary Drug Project). Am J Cardiol. 2005;95:254.
242. Hunninghake DB, Peters JR. Effect of fibric acid derivatives on blood lipid and lipoprotein levels. Am J Med. 1987;83(5B):44.
243. MänttäriMet al. Effect of gemfibrozil on the concentration and composition of serum lipoproteins: a controlled study with special reference to initial triglyceride levels. Atherosclerosis. 1990;81:11.
244. Vega GL, Grundy SM. Comparison of lovastatin and gemfibrozil in normolipidemic patients with hypoalphalipoproteinemia. JAMA. 1989;262:3148.
245. Manninen V, et al. Relation between baseline lipid and lipoprotein values and the incidence of coronary heart disease in the Helsinki Heart Study. AmJ Cardiol. 1989;63:42H.
246. American Diabetic Association. Management of dyslipidemia in adults with diabetes. Diabetes Care. 1998;21:160.
247. Grundy SM, et al. Diabetes and cardiovascular disease. A statement for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association [published correction appears in Circulation. 2000;101:1629]. Circulation. 1999;100:1134.
248. Berger J, Moller DE. The mechanisms of action of PPARs. Annu Rev Med. 2002;53:409.
249. Grundy SM, Vega GL. Fibric acids: effects on lipids and lipoprotein metabolism. Am J Med. 1987;83(5B):9.
250. Pierce LR, et al. Myopathy and rhabdomyolysis associated with lovastatin-gemfibrozil combination therapy. JAMA. 1990;264:71.
251. Prueksaritanont T, et al. Mechanistic studies on metabolic interactions between gemfibrozil and statins. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2002;301:1042.
252. DavidsonMHet al. Safety considerations with fibrate therapy. Am J Cardiol. 2007;99(6A):3C.
253. [No authors listed]. W.H.O. cooperative trial on primary prevention of ischaemic heart disease using clofibrate to lower serumcholesterol: mortality follow-up. Report of the Committee of Principal Investigators. Lancet. 1980;2:379.
254. [No authors listed]. A co-operative trial in the primary prevention of ischaemic heart disease using clofibrate. Report from the Committee of Principal Investigators. Br Heart J. 1978;40:1069.
255. [No authors listed]. Effect of fenofibrate on progression of coronary-artery disease in type 2 diabetes: the Diabetes Atherosclerosis Intervention Study, a randomised study [published correction appears in Lancet. 2001;357:1890]. Lancet. 2001;357:905.
256. GottoAMet al.Relationbetweenbaselineandon-treatment lipid parameters and first acute major coronary events in the Air Force/Texas Coronary Atherosclerosis Prevention Study (AFCAPS/TexCAPS). Circulation. 2000;101:477.
257. Parthasarathy S, et al. Probucol inhibits oxidative modification of low-density lipoprotein. J Clin Invest. 1986;77:641.
258. KitaTet al. Probucol prevents the progression of atherosclerosis inWatanabe heritablehyperlipidemic rabbit,ananimal model for familial hypercholesterolemia. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1987;84:5928.
259. Parums DV, et al. Serum antibodies to oxidized low-density lipoprotein and ceroid in chronic periaortitis. Arch Pathol Lab Med. 1990;114:383.
260. Salonen JT, et al. Autoantibody against oxidised LDL and progression of carotid atherosclerosis. Lancet. 1992;339:883.
261. Stampfer MJ, et al. Vitamin E consumption and the risk of coronary disease in women. N Engl J Med. 1993; 328:1444.
262. Rapola JM, et al. Effect of vitaminEand beta-carotene on the incidence of angina pectoris: a randomized, double-blind, controlled trial [published correction appears in JAMA. 1998;279:1528]. JAMA. 1996;275:693.
263. StephensNGet al.Randomised controlled trial of vitaminE in patients with coronary disease: Cambridge Heart Antioxidant Study (CHAOS). Lancet. 1996;347:781.
264. Virtamo J, et al. Effect of vitamin E and beta carotene on the incidence of primary nonfatal myocardial infarction and fatal coronary heart disease. Arch Intern Med. 1998;158: 668.
265. Yusuf S, et al. Vitamin E supplementation and cardiovascular events in high-risk patients. The Heart Outcomes Prevention Evaluation Study Investigators. N Engl J Med. 2000;342:154.