The contribution of trees and grasses to productivity of an Australian tropical savanna

Biogeosciences

Volumn 13, Issue 8, 2016, Pages 2387-2403

  Moore, Caitlin E ^a   Beringer, Jason ^a,b   Evans, Bradley ^c   Hutley, Lindsay B ^d   McHugh, Ian ^a   Tapper, Nigel J ^a  

^a MONASH UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

^b UNIVERSITY OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA   (Australia)

^c UNIVERSITY OF SYDNEY   (Australia)

^d CHARLES DARWIN UNIVERSITY   (Australia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLE; CARBON DIOXIDE; CARBON FLUX; CARBON SINK; EDDY COVARIANCE; GRASS; NET ECOSYSTEM PRODUCTION; NET PRIMARY PRODUCTION; NUTRIENT UPTAKE; OVERSTORY; SAVANNA; SEASONALITY; TREE; TROPICAL ENVIRONMENT; UNDERSTORY;

AUSTRALIA;

POACEAE;

EID: 84966309542     PISSN: 17264170     EISSN: 17264189     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.5194/bg-13-2387-2016     Document Type: Article

References (107)

1. Allen, G., Vaughan, G., Bower, K. N., Williams, P. I., Crosier, J., Flynn, M., Connolly, P., Hamilton, J. F., Lee, J. D., Saxton, J. E., Watson, N. M., Gallagher, M., Coe, H., Allan, J., Choularton, T. W., and Lewis, A. C.: Aerosol and trace-gas measurements in the Darwin area during the wet season, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 113, D23303, doi:10.1029/2008JD011284, 2008.
2. Andrew, M. H. and Mott, J. J.: Annuals with transient seed banks: the population biology of indigenous Sorghum species of tropical north-west Australia, Aust. J. Ecol., 8, 265-276, 1983.
3. 2 flux measurements in nocturnal conditions: An analysis of the problem, Ecol. Appl., 18, 1368-1378, 2008.
4. 2 efflux, J. Geophys. Res., 96, 7271-7285, 1991.
5. Beer, C., Reichstein, M., Tomelleri, E., Ciais, P., Jung, M., Carvalhais, N., Rödenbeck, C., Arain, M. A., Baldocchi, D., Bonan, G. B., Bondeau, A., Cescatti, A., Lasslop, G., Lindroth, A., Lomas, M., Luyssaert, S., Margolis, H., Oleson, K. W., Roupsard, O., Veenendaal, E., Viovy, N., Williams, C., Woodward, F. I., and Papale, D.: Terrestrial gross carbon dioxide uptake: Global distribution and covariation with climate, Science, 329, 834-838, 2010.
6. Beringer, J., Hutley, L. B., Tapper, N. J., Coutts, A., Kerley, A., and O'Grady, A. P.: Fire impacts on surface heat, moisture and carbon fluxes from a tropical savanna in northern Australia, Int. J. Wildland Fire, 12, 333-340, 2003.
7. Beringer, J., Hutley, L. B., Tapper, N. J., and Cernusak, L. A.: Savanna fires and their impact on net ecosystem productivity in North Australia, Glob. Change Biol., 13, 990-1004, 2007.
8. Beringer, J., Hacker, J., Hutley, L. B., Leuning, R., Arndt, S. K., Amiri, R., Bannehr, L., Cernusak, L. A., Grover, S., Hensley, C., Hocking, D., Isaac, P., Jamali, H., Kanniah, K., Livesley, S., Neininger, B., Paw U, K. T., Sea, W., Straten, D., Tapper, N., Weinmann, R., Wood, S., and Zegelin, S.: Special - Savanna patterns of energy and carbon integrated across the landscape, B. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 92, 1467-1485, 2011a.
9. Beringer, J., Hutley, L. B., Hacker, J. M., Neininger, B., and Paw U, K. T.: Patterns and processes of carbon, water and energy cycles across northern Australian landscapes: From point to region, Agr. Forest Meteorol., 151, 1409-1416, 2011b.
10. Beringer, J., Hutley, L. B., Abramson, D., Arndt, S. K., Briggs, P., Bristow, M., Canadell, J. G., Cernusak, L. A., Eamus, D., Edwards, A. C., Evans, B. J., Fest, B., Goergen, K., Grover, S. P., Hacker, J., Haverd, V., Kanniah, K., Livesley, S. J., Lynch, A., Maier, S., Moore, C., Raupach, M., Russell-Smith, J., Scheiter, S., Tapper, N. J., and Uotila, P.: Fire in Australian savannas: From leaf to landscape, Glob. Change Biol., 21, 62-81, 2015.
11. Birch, H. F.: The effect of soil drying on humus decomposition and nitrogen availability, Plant Soil, 10, 9-31, 1958.
12. Blanken, P. D., Black, T. A., Neumann, H. H., Den Hartog, G., Yang, P. C., Nesic, Z., Staebler, R., Chen, W., and Novak, M. D.: Turbulent flux measurements above and below the overstory of a boreal aspen forest, Bound.-Lay. Meteorol., 89, 109-140, 1998.
13. Bond, W. J.: What limits trees in C4 grasslands and savannas?, Annu. Rev. Ecol. Evol. Syst., 39, 641-659, 2008.
14. Brooker, I.: EUCLID: Eucalypts of Australia, 3rd Edn., CSIRO Publishing, Collingwood, Victoria, 2006.
15. Burba, G.: Eddy Covariance Method for Scientific, Industrial, Agricultural and Regulatory Applications, LICOR Biosciences, Lincoln, NE, USA, 2013.
16. Cernusak, L. A., Hutley, L. B., Beringer, J., and Tapper, N. J.: Stem and leaf gas exchange and their responses to fire in a north Australian tropical savanna, Plant Cell Environ., 29, 632-646, 2006.
17. Chapin III, F. S., Woodwell, G. M., Randerson, J. T., Rastetter, E. B., Lovett, G. M., Baldocchi, D. D., Clark, D. A., Harmon, M. E., Schimel, D. S., Valentini, R., Wirth, C., Aber, J. D., Cole, J. J., Goulden, M. L., Harden, J. W., Heimann, M., Howarth, R. W., Matson, P. A., McGuire, A. D., Melillo, J. M., Mooney, H. A., Neff, J. C., Houghton, R. A., Pace, M. L., Ryan, M. G., Running, S. W., Sala, O. E., Schlesinger, W. H., and Schulze, E. D.: Reconciling carbon-cycle concepts, terminology, and methods, Ecosystems, 9, 1041-1050, 2006.
18. Chen, X., Eamus, D., and Hutley, L. B.: Seasonal patterns of soil carbon dioxide efflux from a wet-dry tropical savanna of northern Australia, Aust. J. Bot., 50, 43-51, 2002.
19. Chen, X., Hutley, L. B., and Eamus, D.: Carbon balance of a tropical savanna of northern Australia, Oecologia, 137, 405-416, 2003.
20. Cleverly, J., Boulain, N., Villalobos-Vega, R., Grant, N., Faux, R., Wood, C., Cook, P. G., Yu, Q., Leigh, A., and Eamus, D.: Dynamics of component carbon fluxes in a semi-arid Acacia woodland, central Australia, J. Geophys. Res.-Biogeo., 118, 1168-1185, 2013.
21. Cook, G. D. and Heerdegen, R. G.: Spatial variation in the duration of the rainy season in monsoonal Australia, Int. J. Climatol., 21, 1723-1732, 2001.
22. Cook, P. G., Hatton, T. J., Pidsley, D., Herczeg, A. L., Held, A., O'Grady, A., and Eamus, D.: Water balance of a tropical woodland ecosystem, Northern Australia: A combination of micro-meteorological, soil physical and groundwater chemical approaches, J. Hydrol., 210, 161-177, 1998.
23. Duff, G. A., Myers, B. A., Williams, R. J., Eamus, D., O'Grady, A., and Fordyce, I. R.: Seasonal patterns in soil moisture, vapour pressure deficit, tree canopy cover and pre-dawn water potential in a Northern Australian savanna, Aust. J. Bot., 45, 211-224, 1997.
24. Eamus, D.: Ecophysiological traits of deciduous and evergreen woody species in the seasonally dry tropics, Trends Ecol. Evol., 14, 11-16, 1999.
25. Eamus, D. and Prichard, H.: A cost-benefit analysis of leaves of four Australian savanna species, Tree Physiol., 18, 537-545, 1998.
26. Eamus, D., Hutley, L. B., and O'Grady, A. P.: Daily and seasonal patterns of carbon and water fluxes above a north Australian savanna, Tree Physiol., 21, 977-988, 2001.
27. Eamus, D., Chen, X., Kelley, G., and Hutley, L. B.: Root biomass and root fractal analyses of an open Eucalyptus forest in a savanna of north Australia, Aust. J. Bot., 50, 31-41, 2002.
28. Eamus, D., Cleverly, J., Boulain, N., Grant, N., Faux, R., and Villalobos-Vega, R.: Carbon and water fluxes in an arid-zone acacia savanna woodland: An analyses of seasonal patterns and responses to rainfall events, Agr. Forest Meteorol., 182-183, 225-238, 2013.
29. Falk, M., Paw U, K. T., Wharton, S., and Schroeder, M.: Is soil respiration a major contributor to the carbon budget within a Pacific Northwest old-growth forest?, Agr. Forest Meteorol., 135, 269-283, 2005.
30. Fox, I. D., Nelder, V. J., Wilson, G.W., and Bannik, P. J.: The vegetation of the Australian tropical savannas, Environmental Protection Agency, Brisbane, QLD, 2001.
31. Garbulsky, M. F., Peñuelas, J., Papale, D., Ardö, J., Goulden, M. L., Kiely, G., Richardson, A. D., Rotenberg, E., Veenendaal, E. M., and Filella, I.: Patterns and controls of the variability of radiation use efficiency and primary productivity across terrestrial ecosystems, Global Ecol. Biogeogr., 19, 253-267, 2010.
32. Goulden, M. L., Munger, J. W., Song-Miao, F., Daube, B. C., and Wofsy, S. C.: Measurements of carbon sequestration by long-term eddy covariance: methods and a critical evaluation of accuracy, Glob. Change Biol., 2, 169-182, 1996.
33. Grace, J., José, J. S., Meir, P., Miranda, H. S., and Montes, R. A.: Productivity and carbon fluxes of tropical savannas, J. Biogeogr., 33, 387-400, 2006.
34. Haverd, V., Raupach, M. R., Briggs, P. R., J. G. Canadell., Davis, S. J., Law, R. M., Meyer, C. P., Peters, G. P., Pickett-Heaps, C., and Sherman, B.: The Australian terrestrial carbon budget, Biogeosciences, 10, 851-869, doi:10.5194/bg-10-851-2013, 2013.a.
35. Haverd, V., Raupach, M. R., Briggs, P. R., Canadell, J. G., Isaac, P., Pickett-Heaps, C., Roxburgh, S. H., van Gorsel, E., Viscarra Rossel, R. A., and Wang, Z.: Multiple observation types reduce uncertainty in Australia's terrestrial carbon and water cycles, Biogeosciences, 10, 2011-2040, doi:10.5194/bg-10-2011-2013, 2013b.
36. Hoffmann, W. A., Geiger, E. L., Gotsch, S. G., Rossatto, D. R., Silva, L. C. R., Lau, O. L., Haridasan, M., and Franco, A. C.: Ecological thresholds at the savanna-forest boundary: How plant traits, resources and fire govern the distribution of tropical biomes, Ecol. Lett., 15, 759-768, 2012.
37. Hollinger, D. Y. and Richardson, A. D.: Uncertainty in eddy covariance measurements and its application to physiological models, Tree Physiol., 25, 873-885, 2005.
38. House, J. I. and Hall, D. O.: Productivity of Tropical Savannas and Grasslands, in: Terrestrial Global Productivity, edited by: Roy, J., Saugier, B. and Mooney, H. A., Academic Press, San Diego, 363-400, 2001.
39. Hutley, L. B. and Beringer, J.: Disturbance and climatic drivers of carbon dynamics of a northern Australian tropical savanna in: Ecosystem function in savannas edited by: Hill, M. J. and Hanan, N. P., CRC Press, Florida, 2010.
40. Hutley, L. B., O'Grady, A. P., and Eamus, D.: Evapotranspiration from eucalypt open-forest savanna of northern australia, Funct. Ecol., 14, 183-194, 2000.
41. Hutley, L. B., Leuning, R., Beringer, J., and Cleugh, H. A.: The utility of the eddy covariance techniques as a tool in carbon accounting: Tropical savanna as a case study, Aust. J. Bot. 53, 663-675, 2005.
42. Hutley, L. B., Beringer, J., Isaac, P. R., Hacker, J. M., and Cernusak, L. A.: A sub-continental scale living laboratory: Spatial patterns of savanna vegetation over a rainfall gradient in northern Australia, Agr. Forest Meteorol., 151, 1417-1428, 2011.
43. Hutley, L. B., Evans, B. J., Beringer, J., Cook, G. D., Maier, S. W., and Razon, E.: Impacts of an extreme cyclone event on landscape-scale savanna fire, productivity and greenhouse gas emissions, Environ. Res. Lett., 8, 1-12, 2013.
44. Isbell, R. F.: The Australian Soil Classification, CSIRO Publishing, Collingwood, VIC, 1996.
45. 4 Balance of a Tropical Savanna Woodland of Northern Australia, Ecosystems, 14, 698-709, 2011.
46. Jones, D. A., Wang, W., and Fawcett, R.: High-quality spatial climate data-sets for Australia, Australian Meteorological and Oceanographic Journal, 58, 233-248, 2009.
47. Kaimal, J. C. and Finnigan, J. J.: Atmospheric boundary layer flows: their structure and measurement, Oxford University Press, New York, 1994.
48. Kanniah, K. D., Beringer, J., Hutley, L. B., Tapper, N. J., and Zhu, X.: Evaluation of Collections 4 and 5 of the MODIS Gross Primary Productivity product and algorithm improvement at a tropical savanna site in northern Australia, Remote Sens. Environ., 113, 1808-1822, 2009.
49. Kanniah, K. D., Beringer, J., and Hutley, L. B.: The comparative role of key environmental factors in determining savanna productivity and carbon fluxes: A review, with special reference to Northern Australia, Prog. Phys. Geog., 34, 459-490, 2010.
50. Kanniah, K. D., Beringer, J., and Hutley, L. B.: Environmental controls on the spatial variability of savanna productivity in the Northern Territory, Australia, Agr. Forest Meteorol., 151, 1429-1439, 2011.
51. Kanniah, K. D., Beringer, J., and Hutley, L.: Exploring the link between clouds, radiation, and canopy productivity of tropical savannas, Agr. Forest Meteorol., 182-183, 304-313, 2013.
52. Keith, H., Leuning, R., Jacobsen, K. L., Cleugh, H. A., van Gorsel, E., Raison, R. J., Medlyn, B. E., Winters, A., and Keitel, C.: Multiple measurements constrain estimates of net carbon exchange by a Eucalyptus forest, Agr. Forest Meteorol., 149, 535-558, 2009.
53. Kelley, G., O'Grady, A. P., Hutley, L. B., and Eamus, D.: A comparison of tree water use in two contiguous vegetation communities of the seasonally dry tropics of northern Australia: The importance of site water budget to tree hydraulics, Aust. J. Bot., 55, 700-708, doi:10.1071/BT07021, 2007.
54. Kljun, N., Calanca, P., Rotach, M. W., and Schmid, H. P.: A simple parameterisation for flux footprint predictions, Bound.-Lay. Meteorol., 112, 503-523, 2004.
55. Lamaud, E., Ogée, J., Brunet, Y., and Berbigier, P.: Validation of eddy flux measurements above the understorey of a pine forest, Agr. Forest Meteorol., 106, 187-203, 2001.
56. 2 and sensible and latent heat fluxes during a full year in a boreal pine forest trunk-space, Boreal Environ. Res., 10, 569-588, 2005.
57. 2 fluxes in a ponderosa pine forest, Agr. Forest Meteorol., 94, 171-188, 1999.
58. Lazarides, M., Hacker, J. B., and Andrew, M. H.: Taxonomy, cytology and ecology of indigenous Australian sorghums (Sorghum Moench: Andropogoneae: Poaceae), Aust. Syst. Bot., 4, 591-635, 1991.
59. Lehmann, C. E. R., Anderson, T. M., Sankaran, M., Higgins, S. I., Archibald, S., Hoffmann, W. A., Hanan, N. P., Williams, R. J., Fensham, R. J., Felfili, J., Hutley, L. B., Ratnam, J., San Jose, J., Montes, R., Franklin, D., Russell-Smith, J., Ryan, C. M., Durigan, G., Hiernaux, P., Haidar, R., Bowman, D. M. J. S., and Bond, W. J.: Savanna vegetation-fire-climate relationships differ among continents, Science, 343, 548-552, 2014.
60. Leuning, R., van Gorsel, E., Massman, W. J., and Isaac, P. R.: Reflections on the surface energy imbalance problem, Agr. Forest Meteorol., 156, 65-74, 2012.
61. 2 exchange in savanna soils of northern Australia, Agr. Forest Meteorol., 151, 1440-1452, 2011.
62. Ma, S., Baldocchi, D. D., Xu, L., and Hehn, T.: Inter-annual variability in carbon dioxide exchange of an oak/grass savanna and open grassland in California, Agr. Forest Meteorol., 147, 157-171, 2007.
63. Ma, X., Huete, A., Yu, Q., Coupe, N. R., Davies, K., Broich, M., Ratana, P., Beringer, J., Hutley, L. B., Cleverly, J., Boulain, N., and Eamus, D.: Spatial patterns and temporal dynamics in savanna vegetation phenology across the north australian tropical transect, Remote Sens. Environ., 139, 97-115, 2013.
64. Mackey, B. G., Woinarski, J. C. Z., Nix, H., and Trail, B.: The Nature of Northern Australia: Its natural values, ecology and future prospects, ANU Electronic Press, Canberra, 2007.
65. McHugh, I., Beringer, J., and Cunningam, S.: A 3-year record of ecosystem-atmosphere carbon exchange from a "perfect" eucalypt woodland site: controls, corrections and uncertainties, Biogeosciences, in preparation, 2016.
66. Misson, L., Baldocchi, D. D., Black, T. A., Blanken, P. D., Brunet, Y., Curiel Yuste, J., Dorsey, J. R., Falk, M., Granier, A., Irvine, M. R., Jarosz, N., Lamaud, E., Launiainen, S., Law, B. E., Longdoz, B., Loustau, D., McKay, M., Paw U, K. T., Vesala, T., Vickers, D., Wilson, K. B., and Goldstein, A. H.: Partitioning forest carbon fluxes with overstory and understory eddy-covariance measurements: A synthesis based on FLUXNET data, Agr. Forest Meteorol., 144, 14-31, 2007.
67. Mistry, J.: Savannas, Prog. Phys. Geog., 25, 552-559, 2001.
68. Murphy, B. P., Russell-Smith, J., and Prior, L. D.: Frequent fires reduce tree growth in northern Australian savannas: Implications for tree demography and carbon sequestration, Glob. Change Biol., 16, 331-343, 2010.
69. Myers, B. A., Williams, R. J., Fordyce, I., Duff, G. A., and Eamus, D.: Does irrigation affect leaf phenology in deciduous and evergreen trees of the savannas of northern Australia?, Austral Ecol., 23, 329-339, 1998.
70. Nemani, R. R., Keeling, C. D., Hashimoto, H., Jolly, W. M., Piper, S. C., Tucker, C. J., Myneni, R. B., and Running, S.W.: Climate-driven increases in global terrestrial net primary production from 1982 to 1999, Science, 300, 1560-1563, 2003.
71. O'Grady, A. P., Eamus, D., and Hutley, L. B.: Transpiration increases during the dry season: Patterns of tree water use in eucalypt open-forests of northern Australia, Tree Physiol., 19, 591-597, 1999.
72. O'Grady, A. P., Chen, X., Eamus, D., and Hutley, L. B.: Composition, leaf area index and standing biomass of eucalypt open forests near Darwin in the Northern Territory, Australia, Aust. J. Bot., 48, 629-638, 2000.
73. Papale, D., Reichstein, M., Aubinet, M., Canfora, E., Bernhofer, C., Kutsch, W., Longdoz, B., Rambal, S., Valentini, R., Vesala, T., and Yakir, D.: Towards a standardized processing of Net Ecosystem Exchange measured with eddy covariance technique: algorithms and uncertainty estimation, Biogeosciences, 3, 571-583, doi:10.5194/bg-3-571-2006, 2006.
74. Prior, L. D., Eamus, D., and Duff, G. A.: Seasonal and diurnal patterns of carbon assimilation, stomatal conductance and leaf water potential in Eucalyptus tetrodonta saplings in a wet-dry savanna in northern australia, Aust. J. Bot., 45, 241-258, 1997.
75. Prior, L. D., Eamus, D., and Bowman, D. M. J. S.: Tree growth rates in north Australian savanna habitats: Seasonal patterns and correlations with leaf attributes, Aust. J. Bot., 52, 303-314, 2004.
76. Prior, L. D., Brook, B.W., Williams, R. J., Werner, P. A., Bradshaw, C. J. A., and Bowman, D. M. J. S.: Environmental and allometric drivers of tree growth rates in a north Australian savanna, Forest Ecol. Manag., 234, 164-180, 2006.
77. 2 efflux, Agr. Forest Meteorol., 123, 159-176, 2004.
78. Reichstein, M., Falge, E., Baldocchi, D., Papale, D., Aubinet, M., Berbigier, P., Bernhofer, C., Buchmann, N., Gilmanov, T., Granier, A., Grünwald, T., Havránková, K., Ilvesniemi, H., Janous, D., Knohl, A., Laurila, T., Lohila, A., Loustau, D., Matteucci, G., Meyers, T., Miglietta, F., Ourcival, J. M., Pumpanen, J., Rambal, S., Rotenberg, E., Sanz, M., Tenhunen, J., Seufert, G., Vaccari, F., Vesala, T., Yakir, D., and Valentini, R.: On the separation of net ecosystem exchange into assimilation and ecosystem respiration: Review and improved algorithm, Glob. Change Biol., 11, 1424-1439, 2005.
79. Richards, A. E., Dathe, J., and Cook, G. D.: Fire interacts with season to influence soil respiration in tropical savannas, Soil Biol. Biochem., 53, 90-98, 2012.
80. Roderick, M. L., Farquhar, G. D., Berry, S. L., and Noble, I. R.: On the direct effect of clouds and atmospheric particles on the productivity and structure of vegetation, Oecologia, 129, 21-30, 2001.
81. Russell-Smith, J. and Yates, C. P.: Australian savanna fire regimes: context, scales, patchiness, Fire Ecology, 3, 48-63, 2007.
82. Ryu, Y., Baldocchi, D. D., Kobayashi, H., Van Ingen, C., Li, J., Black, T. A., Beringer, J., Van Gorsel, E., Knohl, A., Law, B. E., and Roupsard, O.: Integration of MODIS land and atmosphere products with a coupled-process model to estimate gross primary productivity and evapotranspiration from 1 km to global scales, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 25, GB4017, doi:10.1029/2011GB004053, 2011.
83. Sankaran, M., Ratnam, J., and Hanan, N. P.: Tree-grass coexistence in savannas revisited - Insights from an examination of assumptions and mechanisms invoked in existing models, Ecol. Lett., 7, 480-490, 2004.
84. Sankaran, M., Hanan, N. P., Scholes, R. J., Ratnam, J., Augustine, D. J., Cade, B. S., Gignoux, J., Higgins, S. I., Le Roux, X., Ludwig, F., Ardo, J., Banyikwa, F., Bronn, A., Bucini, G., Caylor, K. K., Coughenour, M. B., Diouf, A., Ekaya, W., Feral, C. J., February, E. C., Frost, P. G. H., Hiernaux, P., Hrabar, H., Metzger, K. L., Prins, H. H. T., Ringrose, S., Sea, W., Tews, J., Worden, J., and Zambatis, N.: Determinants of woody cover in African savannas, Nature, 438, 846-849, 2005.
85. Sarimento, G.: Biodiversity and Water Relations in Tropical Savannas, in: Biodiversity and Savanna Ecosystem Processes, edited by: Solbrig, O. T., Medina, E., and Silva, J. F., Springer, Germany, 1996.
86. Saugier, B., Roy, J., and Mooney, H. A.: Estimations of Global Terrestrial Productivity: Converging toward a Single Number?, in: Terrestrial Global Productivity, edited by: Roy, J., Saugier, B., and Mooney, H. A., Academic Press, San Diego, 543-557, 2001.
87. Scheiter, S. and Higgins, S. I.: Impacts of climate change on the vegetation of Africa: An adaptive dynamic vegetation modelling approach, Glob. Change Biol., 15, 2224-2246, 2009.
88. Scheiter, S., Higgins, S. I., Beringer, J., and Hutley, L. B.: Climate change and long-term fire management impacts on Australian savannas, New Phytol., 205, 1211-1226, 2015.
89. Scholes, R. J. and Archer, S. R.: Tree-grass interactions in Savannas, Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst., 28, 517-544, 1997.
90. Setterfield, S. A. and Williams, R. J.: Patterns of flowering and seed production in Eucalyptus miniata and E. tetrodonta in a tropical Savanna Woodland, Northern Australia, Aust. J. Bot., 44, 107-122, 1996.
91. Shackleton, S. E., Shackleton, C. M., Netshiluvhi, T. R., Geach, B. S., Ballance, A., and Fairbanks, D. H. K.: Use patterns and value of savanna resources in three rural villages in South Africa, Econ. Bot., 56, 130-146, 2002.
92. Spangler, R. E.: Taxonomy of Sarga, Sorghum and Vacoparis (Poaceae: Andropogoneae), Aust. Syst. Bot., 16, 279-299, 2003.
93. Staben, G. W. and Evans, K. G.: Estimates of tree canopy loss as a result of Cyclone Monica, in the Magela Creek catchment northern Australia, Austral Ecol., 33, 562-569, 2008.
94. Stoy, P. C., Mauder, M., Foken, T., Marcolla, B., Boegh, E., Ibrom, A., Arain, M. A., Arneth, A., Aurela, M., Bernhofer, C., Cescatti, A., Dellwik, E., Duce, P., Gianelle, D., van Gorsel, E., Kiely, G., Knohl, A., Margolis, H., McCaughey, H., Merbold, L., Montagnani, L., Papale, D., Reichstein, M., Saunders, M., Serrano-Ortiz, P., Sottocornola, M., Spano, D., Vaccari, F., and Varlagin, A.: A data-driven analysis of energy balance closure across FLUXNET research sites: The role of landscape scale heterogeneity, Agr. Forest Meteorol., 171-172, 137-152, 2013.
95. van der Werf, G. R., Randerson, J. T., Giglio, L., Collatz, G. J., Mu, M., Kasibhatla, P. S., Morton, D. C., DeFries, R. S., Jin, Y., and van Leeuwen, T. T.: Global fire emissions and the contribution of deforestation, savanna, forest, agricultural, and peat fires (1997-2009), Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10, 11707-11735, doi:10.5194/acp-10-11707-2010, 2010.
96. 2, Agr. Forest Meteorol., 149, 1919-1930, 2009.
97. Watkinson, A. R. and Powell, J. C.: The life history and population structure of Cycas armstrongii in monsoonal northern Australia, Oecologia, 111, 341-349, 1997.
98. Webb, E. K., Pearman, G. I., and Leuning, R.: Correction of flux measurements for density effects due to heat and water vapour transfer, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 106, 85-100, 1980.
99. Werner, P. A.: Growth of juvenile and sapling trees differs with both fire season and understorey type: Trade-offs and transitions out of the fire trap in an Australian savanna, Austral Ecol., 37, 644-657, 2012.
100. Werner, P. A. and Franklin, D. C.: Resprouting and mortality of juvenile eucalypts in an Australian savanna: Impacts of fire season and annual sorghum, Aust. J. Bot., 58, 619-628, 2010.
101. Werner, P. A. and Prior, L. D.: Tree-piping termites and growth and survival of host trees in savanna woodland of north Australia, J. Trop. Ecol., 23, 611-622, 2007.
102. Werner, P. A. and Prior, L. D.: Demography and growth of subadult savanna trees: Interactions of life history, size, fire season, and grassy understory, Ecol. Monog., 83, 67-93, 2013.
103. Werner, P. A., Cowie, I. D., and Cusack, J. S.: Juvenile tree growth and demography in response to feral water buffalo in savannas of northern Australia: An experimental field study in Kakadu National Park, Aust. J. Bot., 54, 283-296, 2006.
104. Whitley, R. J., Macinnis-Ng, C. M. O., Hutley, L. B., Beringer, J., Zeppel, M., Williams, M., Taylor, D., and Eamus, D.: Is productivity of mesic savannas light limited or water limited? Results of a simulation study, Glob. Change Biol., 17, 3130-3149, 2011.
105. Williams, M., Rastetter, E. B., Fernandes, D. N., Goulden, M. L., Wofsy, S. C., Shaver, G. R., Melillo, J. M., Munger, J.W., Fan, S. M., and Nadelhoffer, K. J.: Modelling the soil-plant-atmosphere continuum in a Quercus-acer stand at Harvard forest: The regulation of stomatal conductance by light, nitrogen and soil/plant hydraulic properties, Plant, Cell Environment, 19, 911-927, 1996.
106. Williams, R. J., Myers, B. A., Muller, W. J., Duff, G. A., and Eamus, D.: Leaf phenology of woody species in a North Australian tropical savanna, Ecology, 78, 2542-2558, 1997.
107. Williams, R. J., Hutley, L. B., Cook, G. D., Russell-Smith, J., Edwards, A., and Chen, X.: Assessing the carbon sequestration potential of mesic savannas in the Northern Territory, Australia: Approaches, uncertainties and potential impacts of fire, Funct. Plant Biol., 31, 415-422, 2004.