From sensing to emergent adaptations: Modelling the proximate architecture for decision-making

Ecological Modelling

Volumn 326, Issue , 2016, Pages 90-100

  Eliassen, Sigrunn ^a   Andersen, Bjørn Snorre ^a   Jørgensen, Christian ^b   Giske, Jarl ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF BERGEN   (Norway)

^b Uni Research and Hjort Centre for Marine Ecosystem Dynamics   (Norway)

Author keywords

Architecture; Community ecology; Evolutionary ecology; Heuristics; Individual based ecology

Indexed keywords

ANIMALS; ARCHITECTURE; BEHAVIORAL RESEARCH; ECOLOGY; GENETIC ALGORITHMS; NEUROLOGY;

ARCHITECTURAL STRUCTURE; ARCHITECTURE FRAMEWORKS; COMMUNITY ECOLOGY; EVOLUTIONARY ADAPTATION; EVOLUTIONARY ECOLOGY; HEURISTICS; INDIVIDUAL-BASED; METHODOLOGICAL FRAMEWORKS;

DECISION MAKING;

AGE DETERMINATION; BEHAVIORAL RESPONSE; COMMUNITY COMPOSITION; DECISION MAKING; DENSITY DEPENDENCE; ECOLOGICAL MODELING; EVOLUTIONARY THEORY; FREQUENCY DEPENDENCE; GENETIC ALGORITHM; HEURISTICS; INDIVIDUAL-BASED MODEL; NEUROLOGY; PERCEPTION; PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSE;

ANIMALIA;

EID: 84961136422     PISSN: 03043800     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2015.09.001     Document Type: Article

References (147)

1. Aksnes D.L., Utne A.C.W. A revised model of visual range in fish. Sarsia 1997, 82:137-147.
2. Andersen B.S. Effects of Genetic Complexity and Time Resolution in an Individual-based Model of Mesopelagic Fish with Hunger and Fear 2014, Department of Biology, University of Bergen, Bergen.
3. Ashley P.J., Sneddon L.U., McCrohan C.R. Nociception in fish: stimulus-response properties of receptors on the head of trout Oncorhynchus mykiss. Brain Res. 2007, 1166:47-54.
4. Ayala F.J., Campbell C.A. Frequency-dependent selection. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 1974, 5:115-138.
5. Balino B.M., Aksnes D.L. Winter distribution and migration of the sound-scattering layers, zooplankton and micronekton in Masfjorden, western Norway. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 1993, 102:35-50.
6. Barber I., Dingemanse N.J. Parasitism and the evolutionary ecology of animal personality. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B 2010, 365:4077-4088.
7. Barber I., Hoare D., Krause J. Effects of parasites on fish behaviour: a review and evolutionary perspective. Rev. Fish. Biol. Fish. 2000, 10:131-165.
8. Bell A.M. Future directions in behavioural syndromes research. Proc. R. Soc. B: Biol. Sci. 2007, 274:755-761.
9. Bell A.M., Sih A. Exposure to predation generates personality in threespined sticklebacks (Gasterosteus aculeatus). Ecol. Lett. 2007, 10:828-834.
10. Biro P.A., Stamps J.A. Are animal personality traits linked to life-history productivity?. Trends Ecol. Evol. 2008, 23:361-368.
11. Botkin D.B., Wallis J.R., Janak J.F. Some ecological consequences of a computer model of forest growth. J. Ecol. 1972, 60:849-872.
12. Brown E., Holmes P. Modelling a simple choice task: Stochastic dynamics of mutually inhibitory neural groups. Stoch. Dynam. 2001, 1:159-191.
13. Budaev S.V. Personality in the guppy (Poecilia reticulata): a correlational study of exploratory behavior and social tendency. J. Comp. Psychol. 1997, 111:399-411.
14. Burtsev M., Turchin P. Evolution of cooperative strategies from first principles. Nature 2006, 440:1041-1044.
15. Byrski A., Drezewski R., Siwik L., Kisiel-Dorohinicki M. Evolutionary multi-agent systems. Knowl. Eng. Rev. 2015, 30:171-186.
16. Cabanac M. Sensory pleasure. Q. Rev. Biol. 1979, 54:1-29.
17. Charnov E.L. Optimal foraging: the marginal value theorem. Theor. Popul. Biol. 1976, 9:129-136.
18. Clark C.W., Levy D.A. Diel vertical migrations by juvenile sockeye salmon and the antipredation window. Am. Nat. 1988, 131:271-290.
19. Clark C.W., Mangel M. Dynamic State Variable Models in Ecology 2000, Oxford University Press.
20. Crombach A., Hogeweg P. Chromosome rearrangements and the evolution of genome structuring and adaptability. Mol. Biol. Evol. 2007, 24:1130-1139.
21. Crombach A., Hogeweg P. Evolution of evolvability in gene regulatory networks. PLoS Comput. Biol. 2008, 4:e1000112.
22. Dawkins R. The Selfish Gene 1976, Oxford University Press.
23. de Boer F.K., Hogeweg P. Co-evolution and ecosystem based problem solving. Ecol. Inform. 2012, 9:47-58.
24. de Waal F.B.M. What is an animal emotion?. Year in Cognitive Neuroscience 2011, vol. 1224:191-206.
25. DeAngelis D.L., Cox D.K., Coutant C.C. Cannibalism and size dispersal in young-of-the-year largemouth bass - experiment and model. Ecol. Model. 1980, 8:133-148.
26. DeAngelis D.L., Grimm V. Individual-based models in ecology after four decades. F1000 Prime Rep. 2014, 6:39.
27. DeAngelis D.L., Mooij W.M. In praise of mechanistically rich models. Models in Ecosystem Science 2003, 63-82. Princeton University Press, Princeton. C.D. Canham, J.J. Cole, W.K. Lauenroth (Eds.).
28. DeAngelis D.L., Mooij W.M. Individual-based modeling of ecological and evolutionary processes. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 2005, 36:147-168.
29. Dieckmann U., Law R. The dynamical theory of coevolution: a derivation from stochastic ecological processes. J. Math. Biol. 1996, 34:579-612.
30. Dingemanse N.J., Kazem A.J.N., Reale D., Wright J. Behavioural reaction norms: animal personality meets individual plasticity. Trends Ecol. Evol. 2010, 25:81-89.
31. Dingemanse N.J., Reale D. Natural selection and animal personality. Behaviour 2005, 142:1159-1184.
32. Dingemanse N.J., Wolf M. Between-individual differences in behavioural plasticity within populations: causes and consequences. Anim. Behav. 2013, 85:1031-1039.
33. Doyle J.C., Csete M. Architecture, constraints, and behavior. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2011, 108:15624-15630.
34. Draghi J.A., Whitlock M.C. Phenotypic plasticity facilitates mutational variance, genetic variance, and evolvability along the major axis of environmental variation. Evolution 2012, 66:2891-2902.
35. Duarte A., Weissing F.J., Pen I., Keller L. An evolutionary perspective on self-organized division of labor in social insects. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 2011, 42:91-110.
36. Dukas R., Kamil A.C. The cost of limited attention in blue jays. Behav. Ecol. 2000, 11:502-506.
37. Dunlop E.S., Heino M., Dieckmann U. Eco-genetic modeling of contemporary life-history evolution. Ecol. Appl. 2009, 19:1815-1834.
38. Eliassen S., Jørgensen C., Giske J. Co-existence of learners and stayers maintains the advantage of social foraging. Evol. Ecol. Res. 2006, 8:1311-1324.
39. Emlen J.M. Role of time and energy in food preference. Am. Nat. 1966, 100:611-617.
40. Enquist M., Arak A. Symmetry, beauty and evolution. Nature 1994, 372:169-172.
41. Euler L. Recherches générales sur la mortalité: la multiplication du genre humain. Mem. Acad. Sci. Berlin 1760, 16:144-164.
42. Evans M.R., Grimm V., Johst K., Knuuttila T., de Langhe R., Lessells C.M., Merz M., O'Malley M.A., Orzack S.H., Weisberg M., Wilkinson D.J., Wolkenhauer O., Benton T.G. Do simple models lead to generality in ecology?. Trends Ecol. Evol. 2013, 28:578-583.
43. Evans M.R., Norris K.J., Benton T.G. Predictive ecology: systems approaches Introduction. Philos. Trans. R Soc. B 2012, 367:163-169.
44. Evers E., de Vries H., Spruijt B.M., Sterck E.H.M. The EMO-Model: an agent-based model of primate Social behavior regulated by two emotional dimensions, anxiety-FEAR and satisfaction-LIKE. PLoS ONE 2014, 9:25.
45. Evers E., de Vries H., Spruijt B.M., Sterck E.H.M. Emotional bookkeeping and high partner selectivity are necessary for the emergence of partner-specific reciprocal affiliation in an agent-based model of primate groups. PLoS ONE 2015, 10:e0118921.
46. Fawcett T.W., Fallenstein B., Higginson A.D., Houston A.I., Mallpress D.E.W., Trimmer P.C., McNamara J.M., Modelling Anim Decisions, G. The evolution of decision rules in complex environments. Trends Cogn. Sci. 2014, 18:153-161.
47. Fawcett T.W., Hamblin S., Giraldeau L.-A. Exposing the behavioral gambit: the evolution of learning and decision rules. Behav. Ecol. 2012, 24:2-11.
48. Fawcett T.W., Marshall J.A.R., Higginson A.D. The evolution of mechanisms underlying behaviour. Curr. Zool. 2015, 61:221-225.
49. Fiksen O.The adaptive timing of diapause - a search for evolutionarily robust strategies in Calanus finmarchicus. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 2000, 57:1825-1833.
50. Fiksen Ø., Giske J. Vertical distribution and population dynamics of copepods by dynamic optimization. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 1995, 52:483-503.
51. Fisher R.A. The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection 1930, Clarendon Press, Oxford.
52. Fretwell S.D., Lucas H.L. On territorial behaviour and other factors influencing habitat distribution in birds. Acta Biotheor. 1970, 19:16-36.
53. Geritz S.A.H., Kisdi E., Meszena G., Metz J.A.J. Evolutionarily singular strategies and the adaptive growth and branching of the evolutionary tree. Evol. Ecol. 1998, 12:35-57.
54. Gigerenzer G. Fast and frugal heuristics: the tools of bounded rationality. Blackwell Handbook of Judgment and Decision Making 2004, 62-88. Blackwell, Oxford. D.J. Koehler, N. Harvey (Eds.).
55. Giske J., Aksnes D.L., Fiksen Ø. Visual predators, environmental variables and zooplankton mortality risk. Vie Milieu 1994, 44:1-9.
56. Giske J., Eliassen S., Fiksen Ø., Jakobsen P.J., Aksnes D.L., Jørgensen C., Mangel M. Effects of the emotion system on adaptive behaviour. Am. Nat. 2013, 182:689-703.
57. Giske J., Eliassen S., Fiksen Ø., Jakobsen P.J., Aksnes D.L., Mangel M., Jørgensen C. The emotion system promotes diversity and evolvability. Proc. R. Soc. B 2014, 281:20141096.
58. Giske J., Mangel M., Jakobsen P., Huse G., Wilcox C., Strand E. Explicit trade-off rules in proximate adaptive agents. Evol. Ecol. Res. 2003, 5:835-865.
59. Giske J., Rosland R., Berntsen J., Fiksen Ø. Ideal free distribution of copepods under predation risk. Ecol. Model. 1997, 95:45-59.
60. Goldstein D.G., Gigerenzer G. The beauty of simple models: themes in recognition heuristic research. Judgm. Decis. Mak. 2011, 6:392-395.
61. Goodson M.S., Giske J., Rosland R. Growth and ovarian development of Maurolicus muelleri during spring. Mar. Biol. 1995, 124:185-195.
62. Gosling S.D. From mice to men: what can we learn about personality from animal research?. Psychol. Bull. 2001, 127:45-86.
63. Grimm V. Ten years of individual-based modelling in ecology: what have we learned and what could we learn in the future?. Ecol. Model. 1999, 115:129-148.
64. Grimm V., Railsback S. Individual-based Modeling and Ecology 2005, Princeton University Press, Princeton.
65. Guilford T., Dawkins M.S. Search images not proven - a reappraisal of recent evidence. Anim. Behav. 1987, 35:1838-1845.
66. Hamblin S. On the practical usage of genetic algorithms in ecology and evolution. Methods Ecol. Evol. 2013, 4:184-194.
67. Heller R., Milinski M. Optimal foraging of sticklebacks on swarming prey. Anim. Behav. 1979, 27:1127-1141.
68. Higginson A.D., Fawcett T.W., Houston A.I. Evolution of a flexible rule for foraging that copes with environmental variation. Curr. Zool. 2015, 61:303-312.
69. Hogeweg P. From population dynamics to ecoinformatics: ecosystems as multilevel information processing systems. Ecol. Inform. 2007, 2:103-111.
70. Holland J.H. Adaptation in Natural and Artificial Systems 1975, University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, Michigan.
71. Houston A.I. Evolutionary models of metabolism, behaviour and personality. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B 2010, 365:3969-3975.
72. Houston A.I., McNamara J.M. Models of Adaptive Behaviour: An Approach Based on State 1999, Cambridge University Press.
73. Houston A.I., McNamara J.M., Hutchinson J.M.C. General results concerning the trade-off between gaining energy and avoiding predation. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B 1993, 341:375-397.
74. Hugie D.M., Dill L.M. Fish and game - a game-theoretic approach to habitat selection by predators and prey. J. Fish. Biol. 1994, 45:151-169.
75. Huse G., Giske J. Ecology in Mare Pentium: an individual-based spatio-temporal model for fish with adapted behaviour. Fish. Res. 1998, 37:163-178.
76. Huston M., DeAngelis D., Post W. New computer-models unify ecological theory - computer-simulations show that many ecological patterns can be explained by interactions among individual organisms. Bioscience 1988, 38:682-691.
77. Hutchinson J.M.C., Gigerenzer G. Simple heuristics and rules of thumb: where psychologists and behavioural biologists might meet. Behav. Process. 2005, 69:97-124.
78. Izard C.E. The many meanings/aspects of emotion: definitions, functions, activation, and regulation. Emot. Rev. 2010, 2:363-370.
79. Kaartvedt S., Torgersen T., Klevjer T.A., Røstad A., Devine J.A. Behavior of individual mesopelagic fish in acoustic scattering layers of Norwegian fjords. Mar. Ecol.: Prog. Ser. 2008, 360:201-209.
80. Kirschner M.W., Gerhart J.C. The Plausibility of Life 2005, 314. Yale University Press, New Haven.
81. Lande R. Natural selection and random genetic drift in phenotypic evolution. Evolution 1976, 30:314-334.
82. Langton C.G. Studying artificial life with cellular automata. Physica D 1986, 22:120-149.
83. LeDoux J. The Emotional Brain: The Mysterious Underpinnings of Emotional Life 1998, Simon and Schuster.
84. LeDoux J. Rethinking the emotional brain. Neuron 2012, 73:653-676.
85. LeDoux J.E. Emotion circuits in the brain. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 2000, 23:155-184.
86. Leknes S., Tracey I. Science & society - a common neurobiology for pain and pleasure. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 2008, 9:314-320.
87. Lewis D. Gene-environment interaction - a relationship between dominance, heterosis, phenotypic stability and variability. Heredity 1954, 8:333-356.
88. Lima S.L., Bednekoff P.A. Back to the basics of antipredatory vigilance: can nonvigilant animals detect attack?. Anim. Behav. 1999, 58:537-543.
89. Lotka A.J. Relation between birth rates and death rates. Science 1907, 26:21-22.
90. Lotka A.J. Elements of Physical Biology 1925, 460. Williams & Wilkins Company, Baltimore.
91. Lynch M., Walsh B. Genetics and Analysis of Quantitative Traits 1998, Sinauer, Sunderland, MA.
92. MacArthur R.H., Pianka E.R. On optimal use of a patchy environment. Am. Nat. 1966, 100:603-609.
93. Macnab R.M., Koshland D.E. Gradient-sensing mechanism in bacterial chemostaxis. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 1972, 69:2509-2512.
94. Mangel M., Clark C.W. Towards a unified foraging theory. Ecology 1986, 67:1127-1138.
95. Mangel M., Stamps J. Trade-offs between growth and mortality and the maintenance of individual variation in growth. Evol. Ecol. Res. 2001, 3:583-593.
96. Maynard Smith J., Price G.R. The logic of animal conflict. Nature 1973, 246:15-18.
97. McCrae R.R., Costa P.T., Ostendorf F., Angleitner A., Hrebickova M., Avia M.D., Sanz J., Sanchez-Bernardos M.L., Kusdil M.E., Woodfield R., Saunders P.R., Smith P.B. Nature over nurture: temperament, personality, and life span development. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 2000, 78:173-186.
98. McNamara J.M., Houston A.I. The common currency for behavioral decisions. Am. Nat. 1986, 127:358-378.
99. McNamara J.M., Houston A.I. Evolutionarily stable levels of vigilance as a function of group size. Anim. Behav. 1992, 43:641-658.
100. McNamara J.M., Houston A.I. Integrating function and mechanism. Trends Ecol. Evol. 2009, 24:670-675.
101. Mendl M., Burman O.H.P., Parker R.M.A., Paul E.S. Cognitive bias as an indicator of animal emotion and welfare: emerging evidence and underlying mechanisms. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 2009, 118:161-181.
102. Metz J.A.J., Nisbet R.M., Geritz S.A.H. How should we define fitness for general ecological scenarios?. Trends Ecol. Evol. 1992, 7:198-202.
103. Milinski M. The patch choice model - no alternative to balancing. Am. Nat. 1985, 125:317-320.
104. Milinski M., Heller R. Influence of a predator on optimal foraging behavior of sticklebacks (Gasterosteus aculeatus L.). Nature 1978, 275:642-644.
105. Miller S.M., Ngo T.T., van Swinderen B. Attentional switching in humans and flies: rivalry in large and miniature brains. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 2012, 5:188.
106. Moczek A.P., Sultan S., Foster S., Ledon-Rettig C., Dworkin I., Nijhout H.F., Abouheif E., Pfennig D.W. The role of developmental plasticity in evolutionary innovation. Proc. R. Soc. B 2011, 278:2705-2713.
107. Murdoch W.W. Population stability and life history phenomena. Am Nat 1966, 100:5-11.
108. Myers S., Bottolo L., Freeman C., McVean G., Donnelly P. A fine-scale map of recombination rates and hotspots across the human genome. Science 2005, 310:321-324.
109. Newell A., Simon H.A. The logic theory machine - a complex information processing system. IEEE Trans. Inf. Theory 1956, 2:61-79.
110. Nilsson G.E. The cost of a brain. Nat. Hist. 2000, 108:66-73.
111. Otto S.P., Day T. A Biologist's Guide to Mathematical Modeling in Ecology and Evolution 2007, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.
112. Panksepp J. Affective consciousness: core emotional feelings in animals and humans. Conscious. Cogn. 2005, 14:30-80.
113. Paredis J. Coevolutionary computation. Artif. Life 1995, 2:355-375.
114. Purser J., Radford A.N. Acoustic noise induces attention shifts and reduces foraging performance in three-spined sticklebacks (Gasterosteus aculeatus). PLoS ONE 2011, 6:e17478.
115. Railsback S.F., Lytinen S.L., Jackson S.K. Agent-based simulation platforms: Review and development recommendations. Simul. Trans. Soc. Model. Simul. Int. 2006, 82:609-623.
116. Railsback S.F., Harvey B.C. Trait-mediated trophic interactions: is foraging theory keeping up?. Trends Ecol. Evol. 2013, 28:119-125.
117. Ray T.S. An evolutionary approach to synthetic biology: Zen and the art of creating life. Artif. Life 1994, 1:179-209.
118. Reale D., Garant D., Humphries M.M., Bergeron P., Careau V., Montiglio P.O. Personality and the emergence of the pace-of-life syndrome concept at the population level. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B 2010, 365:4051-4063.
119. Roff D.A. Evolution of Life Histories: Theory and Analysis 1992, Springer.
120. Rosland R., Giske J. A dynamic model for the life history of Maurolicus muelleri, a pelagic planktivorous fish. Fish. Oceanogr. 1997, 6:19-34.
121. Ruxton G.D., Beauchamp G. The application of genetic algorithms in behavioural ecology, illustrated with a model of anti-predator vigilance. J. Theor. Biol. 2008, 250:435-448.
122. Shugart H.H., West D.C. Development of an Appalachian deciduous forest succession model and its application to assessment of impact of Chestnut blight. J. Environ. Manage. 1977, 5:161-179.
123. Shugart H.H., West D.C. Forest succession models. Bioscience 1980, 30:308-313.
124. Sih A., Bell A.M., Johnson J.C., Ziemba R.E. Behavioral syndromes: an integrative overview. Q. Rev. Biol. 2004, 79:241-277.
125. Sklar E. Software review: NetLogo, a multi-agent simulation environment. Artif. Life 2007, 13:303-311.
126. Staby A., Srisomwong J., Rosland R. Variation in DVM behaviour of juvenile and adult pearlside (Maurolicus muelleri) linked to feeding strategies and related predation risk. Fish. Oceanogr. 2013, 22:90-101.
127. Stamps J.A. Growth-mortality tradeoffs and 'personality traits' in animals. Ecol. Lett. 2007, 10:355-363.
128. Stearns S.C. The Evolution of Life Histories 1992, Oxford University Press Oxford.
129. Stillman R.A., Railsback S.F., Giske J., Berger U., Grimm V. Making predictions in a changing world: the benefits of individual-based ecology. Bioscience 2015, 65:140-150.
130. Stock J.B., Ninfa A.J., Stock A.M. Protein-phosphorylation and regulation of adaptive responses in bacteria. Microbiol. Rev. 1989, 53:450-490.
131. Sumida B.H., Houston A.I., McNamara J.M., Hamilton W.D. Genetic algorithms and evolution. J. Theor. Biol. 1990, 147:59-84.
132. Tetko I.V., Livingstone D.J., Luik A.I. Neural network studies.1. Comparison of overfitting and overtraining. J. Chem. Inf. Comput. Sci. 1995, 35:826-833.
133. Tinbergen N. On aims and methods of ethology. Z. Tierpsychol. 1963, 20:410-433.
134. Tombu M.N., Asplund C.L., Dux P.E., Godwin D., Martin J.W., Marois R. A unified attentional bottleneck in the human brain. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2011, 108:13426-13431.
135. Torgersen T., Kaartvedt S., Melle W., Knutsen T. Large scale distribution of acoustical scattering layers at the Norwegian continental shelf and the eastern Norwegian Sea. Sarsia 1997, 82:87-96.
136. van der Post D.J., Semmann D. Local orientation and the evolution of foraging: changes in decision making can eliminate evolutionary trade-offs. PLoS Comput. Biol. 2011, 7:e1002186.
137. van der Post D.J., Semmann D. Patch depletion, niche structuring and the evolution of co-operative foraging. BMC Evol. Biol. 2011, 11:335.
138. van der Post D.J., Verbrugge R., Hemelrijk C.K. The evolution of different forms of sociality: behavioral mechanisms and eco-evolutionary feedback. PLoS ONE 2015, 10:e0117027.
139. van Oers K., de Jong G., van Noordwijk A.J., Kempenaers B., Drent P.J. Contribution of genetics to the study of animal personalities: a review of case studies. Behaviour 2005, 142:1185-1206.
140. von Neumann J. Theory of Self-reproducing Automata 1966, University of Illinois Press, Urbana.
141. Wagner A. The Origins of Evolutionary Innovations 2011, 253. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
142. Wainwright P.C., Alfaro M.E., Bolnick D.I., Hulsey C.D. Many-to-one mapping of form to function: a general principle in organismal design?. Integr. Comp. Biol. 2005, 45:256-262.
143. Werner E.E., Gilliam J.F. The ontogenetic niche and species interactions in size structured populations. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 1984, 15:393-425.
144. Williams G.C. Natural selection costs of reproduction and a refinement of lacks principle. Am. Nat. 1966, 100:687-690.
145. Wood A.J., Ackland G.J. Evolving the selfish herd: emergence of distinct aggregating strategies in an individual-based model. Proc. R. Soc. B 2007, 274:1637-1642.
146. Yoshimura J., Clark C.W. Individual adaptations in stochastic environments. Evol. Ecol. 1991, 5:173-192.
147. Yoshimura J., Jansen V.A.A. Evolution and population dynamics in stochastic environments. Res. Popul. Ecol. 1996, 38:165-182.