Beetle and plant arrow poisons of the Ju|’hoan and Hai||om San peoples of Namibia (Insecta, Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae; Plantae, Anacardiaceae, Apocynaceae, Burseraceae)

ZooKeys

Volumn 2016, Issue 558, 2016, Pages 9-54

  Chaboo, Caroline S ^a   Biesele, Megan ^b   Hitchcock, Robert K ^c   Weeks, Andrea ^d  

^a UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS   (United States)

^b Kalahari Peoples Fund   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF NEW MEXICO   (United States)

^d GEORGE MASON UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Arrows; Bushmen; Ethno entomology; Hunting; Indigenous knowledge

Indexed keywords

EID: 84956963976     PISSN: 13132989     EISSN: 13132970     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3897/zookeys.558.5957     Document Type: Article

References (258)

1. Aguilar-Ortigoza CJ, Sosa V (2004) The evolution of toxic phenolic compounds in a group of Anacardiaceae genera. Taxon 53: 357-364. doi: 10.2307/4135614.
2. Andersson CJ (1856) Lake Ngami or Explorations and Discovery during Four Years of Wanderings in Wilds of South-Western Africa. Harper and Brothers Publishers, New York, 521 pp.
3. Andersson CJ (1861) The Okawango River, a Narrative of Travel, Exploration and Adventure. Harper and Brothers Publishers, London, 414 pp.
4. Anichtchnko A (Ed.) (2007-2015) Carabidae of the World. http://carabidae.org/ [accessed 13 July 2015].
5. Attenborough D (Presenter) (2002) Life of Mammals. Film, BBC Natural History Unit and Discovery Channel. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=826HMLoiE_o.
6. Backwell L, d'Errico F, Wadley L (2008) Middle Stone Age bone tools from the Howiesons Poort layers, Sibudu Cave, South Africa. Journal of Archaeological Science 35(6): 1566-1580. doi: 10.1016/j.jas.2007.11.006.
7. Baines T (1864) Explorations in South-West Africa, being an account of a journey in the years 1861 and 1862 from Walvisch Bay, on the western coast, to Lake Ngami and the Victoria Falls. Longman, Green, Longman, Roberts and Green, London, 535 pp.
8. Baldwin WC (1863) African hunting from Natal to the Zambesi, including Lake Ngami, the Kalahari Desert, etc. from 1852-1860. Harper and Row, New York, 387 pp.
9. Barnard A (1976) Nharo Bushman Kinship and the Transformation of Khoi Kin Categories. PhD Dissertation, University of London.
10. Barnard A (1992) Hunters and herders of Southern Africa: A comparative ethnography of the Khoisan Peoples. Cambridge University Press, New York, Cambridge, 349 pp. doi: 10.1017/CBO9781139166508.
11. Bartram LE Jr (1997) A comparison of Kua (Botswana) and Hadza (Tanzania) bow and arrow hunting. In: Knecht H (Ed.) Projectile Technology. Plenum Press, New York, 321-343. doi: 10.1007/978-1-4899-1851-2_13.
12. Becerra JX (1993) Synchronous coadaptation in an ancient case of herbivory. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 100(22): 12804-12807. doi: 10.1073/pnas.2133013100.
13. Becerra JX (2004) Ecology and evolution of New World Blepharida. In: Jolivet P, Santiago-Blay J, Schmitt M (Eds) New contributions in biology of the Chrysomelidae. Kugler Publications, The Hague, 137-143.
14. Biesele M, Barclay S (2001) Jul'hoan women's tracking knowledge and its contribution to their husband's hunting success. In: Tanaka J, Ichikawa M, Kimura D (Eds) African Hunter-Gatherers: Persisting Cultures and Contemporary Problems. African Study Monographs, Supplementary Issue 26: 67-84.
15. Biesele M, Hitchcock R (2011) The Jul'Hoan San of Nyae Nyae and Namibian independence: Development, democracy, and indigenous voices in southern Africa. Berghahn Books, New York, 269 pp.
16. Bijlsma UG, de Waard F (1957) 'n Pylvergif van die Boesmans in Suid Afrika. South African Medical Journal 31: 115-118.
17. Biondi M, D'Alessandro P (2012) Afrotropical flea beetle genera: a key to their identification, updated catalogue and biogeographical analysis (Coleoptera, Chrysomelidae, Galerucinae, Alticini). ZooKeys (Special issue) 253: 1-158. doi: 10.3897/zookeys.253.3414.
18. Bisset NG, Mazars G (1984) Arrow poisons in south Asia. Part 1. Arrow poisons in ancient India. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 12(1): 1-24. doi: 10.1016/0378-8741(84)90084-9.
19. Bjerre J (1958) Kalahari Atomidens Stenalder. Carit Andersens Forlag, Copenhagen, 227 pp.
20. Bleek DF (1928) The Naron: A Bushman tribe of the central Kalahari. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 67 pp.
21. Böhm R (1890) Ueber das Echujin. Ein Beitrag zur Kenntniss der afrikanishen Pfeilgifte. Archiv für Experimentelle Pathologie und Pharmakologie 26: 165-176.
22. Böhm R (1897) Ueber das gift der larven von Diamphidia locusta. Archiv für Experimentelle Pathologie und Pharmathologie 38: 424-427. doi: 10.1007/bf01824739.
23. Bortels A (1994) A cation-selective channel induced by two protein fractions from the larval haemolymph of the Colorado potato beetle, Leptinotarsa decemlineata. Physiological Entomology 7: 370-386.
24. Breyer-Brandwijk MG (1937) A note on the Bushman arrow poison, Diamphidia simplex Péringuey. Bantu Studies 11: 279-284. doi: 10.1080/02561751.1937.9676056.
25. Burckhardt D, Basset Y (2000) The jumping plant-lice (Hemiptera, Psylloidea) associated with Schinus (Anacardiaceae): systematics, biogeography and host plant relationships. Journal of Natural History 34(1): 57-155. doi: 10.1080/002229300299688.
26. Burton RF (1856) First Footsteps in East Africa: Or, an exploration in Harar. Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans, London, 648 pp. [available via Project Gutenburg].
27. Bryant GE (1942) New species of Polyclada (Coleoptera, Halticinae) from Africa. Proceedings of the Royal Entomological Society of London (series B) 11: 161-165. doi: 10.1111/ j.1365-3113.1942.tb00716.x.
28. Campbell AC (1964) A few notes on the Gcwi Bushmen of the Central Kalahari Desert, Bechuanaland. Nada 9(1): 39-47.
29. Campbell AC (1968a) Gcwi Bushmen: Some notes on hunting with poisoned arrows. Botswana Notes and Records 1: 95-96.
30. Campbell AC (1968b) Central Kalahari Game Reserve: II. African Wildlife 22: 321.
31. Cassels BK (1985) Analysis of a Maasai arrow poison. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 14: 273-281. doi: 10.1016/0378-8741(85)90094-7.
32. Castellani A, Chalmers AJ (1919) Manual of Tropical Medicine, 3rd edn. Bailliere, Tindall and Cox, London, 2425 pp. doi: 10.5962/bhl.title.84653.
33. Chaboo CS (2011) Defensive behaviors in leaf beetles: from the unusual to the weird. In: Vivanco JM, Weir T (Eds) Chemical Biology of the Tropics: an interdisciplinary approach. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, 59-69. doi: 10.1007/978-3-642-19080-3_4.
34. Chaboo CS, Grobbelaar E, Larsen A (2007) Fecal ecology in leaf beetles: novel records in the African arrow-poison beetles, Diamphidia Gerstaecker and Polyclada Chevrolat (Chrysomelidae: Galerucinae). The Coleopterists Bulletin 61(2): 297-309. doi: 10.1649/0010-065X( 2007)61[297:FEILBN]2.0.CO;2.
35. Chapman J (1971) Travels in the Interior of South Africa 1849-1863. Hunting and Trading Journeys from Natal to Walvis Bay, and Visits to Lake Ngami and Victoria Falls. In: Tabler EC (Ed.) AA Balkema, Cape Town, 451 pp [Vol. 1], 480 pp [Vol. 2].
36. Clark JD, Philips JL, Staley PS (1975) Interpretations of prehistoric technology from ancient Egyptian and other sources (Part I)-Ancient Egyptian bows and arrows and their relevance for African prehistory. Paléorient 2(2): 323-388.
37. Clark JD (1975) Interpretations of prehistoric technology from ancient Egyptian and other sources (Part II)-Prehistoric arrow forms in Africa as shown by surviving examples of the traditional arrows of the San Bushmen. Paléorient 3: 127-150. doi: 10.3406/ paleo.1975.4193.
38. Clark VC, Raxworthy CJ, Sierwald P, Fisher BL (2005) Convergent evolution of chemical defense in poison frogs and arthropod prey between Madagascar and the Neotropics. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 102: 11617-11622. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0503502102.
39. Cohen DR (2009) Histories of the Subaltern from the Kalahari's Fringe, Botswana. PhD Thesis, University of California, Berkeley, CA, 285 pp.
40. Cornell FC (1920) The glamour of prospecting: Wanderings of a South African prospector in search of copper, gold, emeralds, and diamonds. T. Unwin Fisher, London, 334 pp.
41. Crosland RD (1982) Purification and characterization of LPT-h, a protein that opens presynaptic calcium channels. PhD Thesis, University of California, Berkeley, CA, 139 pp.
42. Crosland RD, Hsiao TH, McClure WO (1984) Purification and characterization of beta-leptinotarsin-h, an activator of presynaptic calcium channels. Biochemistry 23(4): 734-741. doi: 10.1021/bi00299a023.
43. Crowell AL, Hitchcock R (1978) Basarwa ambush hunting in Botswana. Botswana Notes and Records 10: 37-51.
44. Heikertinger F, Csikii E (1940) Pars. 166: Chrysomelidae: Halticinae I. In: Schenkling (Ed.) Coleopterum Catalogus. W. Junk, S'Gravenhage, 635 pp.
45. Daly D, Harley C, Martínez-Habibe M-C, Weeks A (2011) Burseraceae. In: Kubitzki K (Ed.) The Families and Genera of Vascular Plants (Vol. 10). Springer-Verlag, New York, 76-104.
46. Daly JW, Spande TF, Garrafo HM (2005) Alkaloids from amphibian skin: a tabulation of over eight-hundred compounds. Journal of Natural Products 68(10): 1556-1575. doi: 10.1021/np0580560.
47. Deacon J (1984) Later Stone Age people and their descendants in southern Africa. In: Klein RG (Ed.) Southern African prehistory and paleoenvironments. A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, 221-228.
48. Deacon J (1992) Arrows as Agents of Belief amongst the /Xam Bushmen. South African Museum, Cape Town, 21 pp.
49. De la Harpe JH, Dowdle EB (1980) Isolation and characterization of diamphotoxin. South African Journal of Science 76: 428.
50. De la Harpe JH, Reich E, Reich KA, Dowdle EB (1983) Diamphotoxin the arrow poison of the !Kung bushmen. Journal of Biological Chemistry 258(19): 11924-11931.
51. d'Errico F, Backwell LR, Villa P, Degano I, Lucejko J, Bamford M, Higham T, Colombini MP, Beaumont P (2012a) Early evidence of San material culture represented by organic artifacts from Border Cave, South Africa. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 109(33): 13214-13219. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1204213109.
52. Dickens P (1994) English-Jul'hoan, Jul'hoan-English Dictionary. Rudiger Koppe Verlag, Koln, Germany, 371 pp.
53. Dieckmann U (2007) Haillom in the Etosha region. A history of colonial settlement, ethnicity and nature conservation. Bab Publications, Basel, 398 pp.
54. Dieckmann U (2009) Born in Etosha: Homage to the Cultural Heritage of the Haillom. Legal Assistance Centre, Windhoek.
55. Dieckmann U, Thiem ME, Dirx E, Hays J (2014) 'Scraping the Pot: San in Namibia Two Decades after Independence. Legal Assistance Centre and Desert Research Foundation of Namibia, Windhoek, 650 pp.
56. Dornan SS (1925) Pygmies and Bushmen of the Kalahari: An account of the hunting tribes inhabiting the Great Arid Plateau of the Kalahari Desert, their precarious manner of living, their habits, customs and beliefs, with some reference to Bushman art, both early and of recent date, and to the neighbouring African tribes. Seeley, Service and Co, London, 318 pp.
57. Dumbacher JP, Wako A, Derrickson SR, Samuelson A, Spande TF, Daly JW (2004) Melyrid beetles (Choresine): A putative source for the batrachotoxin alkaloids found in poison-dart frogs and toxic passerine birds. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 101(45): 15857-15860. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0407197101.
58. Encyclopaedia Britannica (2015) Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc. http://www.britannica. com/place/Kalahari [accessed July 10 2015].
59. Evans AE (2012) Arrow poisons in the Palaeolithic? Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 109(48): e32902. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1213860109.
60. Fairmaire L (1893) Coleopteres de l'Ouganghi, recueillis par Crampel. Annales de la Société entomologique de France 37 62: 133-156.
61. Francis M (2009) Silencing the Past: Historical and Archaeological Colonization of the Southern San in KwaZulu-Natal, Southern Africa. Anthropology Southern Africa 32(3-4): 106-116. doi: 10.1080/23323256.2009.11499985.
62. Fuller HC (1920) Chemistry and analysis of drugs and medicine. John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1072 pp.
63. Furth DG (1992) The new world Blepharida group, with a key to genera and description of a new species (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae). Journal of the New York Entomological Society 100(2): 399-414.
64. Gerhadt K, Steiner M (1986) An inventory of a coastal forest in Kenya at Gedi National Monument including a checklist and a nature trial: Report from a minor field study. Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, 52 pp.
65. Goodwin AJH (1945) Some historical Bushman arrows. South African Journal of Science 41: 429-443.
66. Gordon RJ, Douglas SS (2000) The Bushman Myth: The Making of a Namibian Underclass. 2nd edn. Westview Press, Boulder, CO, 342 pp.
67. Greaves RD (1997) Hunting and multifunctional use of bows and arrows: Ethnoarchaeology of technological organization among Pumé hunters of Venezuela. In: Knecht H (Ed.) Projectile technology. Plenum, New York, London, 287-320. doi: 10.1007/978-1-4899-1851-2_12.
68. Green SV (1998) The bushman as an entomologist. Antenna 22(1): 4-8.
69. Guenther M (Ed.) (2005) Kalahari and Namib Bushmen in German South West Africa: Ethnographic Reports by Colonial Soldiers and Settlers. Rudiger Koppe Verlag, Koln, 268 pp.
70. Guenther MG (1986) The Nharo Bushmen of Botswana: Tradition and Change. Helmut Buske Verlag, Hamburg, 224 pp.
71. Hahn C, Vedder H, Fourie L (Eds) (1928) The native tribes of South West Africa. South West African Administration, Cape Town.
72. Hall IC, Whitehead RW (1927) A pharmaco-bacterologic study of African poisoned arrows. Journal of Infectious Diseases 41: 51-69. doi: 10.1093/infdis/41.1.51.
73. Harbourne JB, Baxter H, Moss GP (Eds) (1999) Phytochemical Dictionary: a handbook of bioactive compounds from plants. Taylor and Francis, London, 976 pp.
74. Heinz HJ (1966) The Social Organization of the !Ko Bushmen. M.A. Thesis, Department of Anthropology, University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa.
75. Heinz HJ (1973) Bere: A Balance Sheet. Occasional Paper No. 4. Department of Pathology, University of Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa.
76. Heinz HJ, Maguire B (1974) The ethno-biology of the !Ko Bushmen. Occasional Paper No. 1. Botswana Society, Gaborone, 53 pp.
77. Heubner W von (1907) Über das pfeilgift der Kalahari. Archiv für experimentelle Pathologie und Pharmakologie 57: 358-366.
78. Hill K, Hurtado AM (1989) Hunter-Gatherers of the New World. American Scientist 77(5): 436-443.
79. Hitchcock RK (1978) Kalahari Cattle Posts: A regional study of hunter-gatherers, pastoralists, and agriculturalists in the Western Sandveld Region, Central District, Botswana. Two volumes. Government Printer, Gaborone, Botswana, 709 pp.
80. Hitchcock RK (1982) The Ethnoarcheology of Sedentism: Mobility Strategies and Site Structure among Foraging and Food Producing Populations in the Eastern Kalahari Desert, Botswana Ph.D. dissertation, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, 402 pp.
81. Hitchcock RK (2015) Authenticity, identify, and humanity: The Haillom San and State of Namibia. Anthropological Forum 25(3): 262-284. doi: 10.1080/00664677.2015.1027658.
82. Hitchcock RK (in press) Hunters-gatherers, herders, agropastoralists, and farm workers: Haillom and Jul'hoansi San and their neighbors in Namibia in the 20th and 21st centuries. In: Ikeya K, Hitchcock R (Eds) Hunter-Gatherers and Their Neighbours in Asia, Africa, and South America. Senri Ethnological Studies, Osaka.
83. Hitchcock RK, Begbie-Clench B, Murwira A (2014) The San of Zimbabwe: An Assessment Report. Government of Zimbabwe, Harare, International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs, Copenhagen, and Open Society Initiative for Southern Africa, Johannesburg, 134 pp.
84. Hitchcock RK, Bleed P (1997) Each according to need and fashion: Spear and arrow use among San hunters of the Kalahari. In: Knecht H (Ed.) Projectile Technology. Plenum Press, New York, 345-368. doi: 10.1007/978-1-4899-1851-2_14.
85. Hitchcock RK, Sapignoli M, Babchuk W (2011) What about Our Rights? Settlements, Subsistence, and Livelihood Security among Central Kalahari San and Bakgalagadi. International Journal of Human Rights 15(1): 67-87. doi: 10.1080/13642987.2011.529689.
86. Hitchcock RK, Sapignoli M, Babchuk WA (2015) Settler Colonialism, Conflict, and Genocide: Interactions between Hunter-Gatherers and Settlers in Kenya and Zimbabwe and Northern Botswana. Settler Colonial Studies 5(1): 40-65.
87. Hitchcock RK, Sapignoli M, Main M, Babchuk WA (2015) The Politics and Economics of Community-Based Natural Resource Management in /Xai/Xai, Ngamiland, Botswana. African Study Monographs 36(4): 211-260.
88. Hitchcock RK, Yellen J, Crowell AL, Gelburd D, Osborn AJ, Crowell AL (1996) Subsistence hunting and resource management among the Jul'hoansi of northwestern Botswana. African Study Monographs 17(4): 153-220.
89. Hitchcock RK, Ikeya K, Biesele M, Lee RB (Eds) (2006) Updating the San: Image and Reality of an African People in the 21st Century. Senri Ethnological Studies 70. National Museum of Ethnology, Osaka, Japan, 236 pp.
90. Holmes EM (1888) The arrow poisons of the pygmies (Part II)-Identification of the material. In: Holmes EM (Ed.) My Personal Experiences in Equatorial Africa: As Medical Officer of the Emin Pasha Relief Expedition. C. Scribner, New York, 315-319. [Reprinted 2011, Ullan Press, 628 pp].
91. Homer (~800 B.C.E.) The Odyssey. Perseus Project, Tufts University, Boston, MA. http:// www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/26275 [Project Gutenberg, accessed July 9 2015].
92. Homer (~800 B.C.E.) The Iliad. Available via the Perseus Project, Tufts University, Boston, MA. [accessed July 9 2015].
93. Hsiao TH (1978) Comparative studies on haemolymph protein toxins of Leptinotarsa beetles. In: Rosenberg P (Ed.) Toxins: animal, plant and microbial: 5th International Symposium proceedings. Pergamon Press, Oxford, 675-688.
94. Hsiao T, Fraenkel G (1969) Properties of leptinotarsin, a toxic haemolymph protein from the Colorado potato beetle. Toxicon 7: 119. doi: 10.1016/0041-0101(69)90074-9.
95. Hsiao TH, Hsiao C, Rothschild M (1980) Characterization of a protein toxin from dried specimens of the garden tiger moth (Arctia caja L.). Toxicon 18: 291. doi: 10.1016/0041-0101(80)90008-2.
96. Hutchinson DA, Mori A, Savitzky AH, Burghardt GM, Wu X, Meinwald AJ, Schroeder FC (2007) Dietary sequestration of defensive steroids in nuchal glands of the Asian snake Rhabdophis tigrinus. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 104(7): 2265-2270. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0610785104.
97. Ikeya K (2001) Some Changes among the San under the Influence of Relocation Plan in Botswana. In: Anderson DG, Ikeya K (Eds) Parks, Property, and Power: Managing Hunting Practice and Identity Within State Policy Regimes. Senri Ethnological Studies No. 59. National Museum of Ethnology, Osaka, Japan, 183-198.
98. Jacobsen TF, Sand O, Bjøro T, Karlsen HE, Iversen JG (1990) Effect of Diamphidia toxin, a Bushman arrow poison, on ionic permeability in nucleated cells. Toxicon 28: 435-44. doi: 10.1016/0041-0101(90)90082-I.
99. Kahn T (2002) Bushmen to share gains from 'slimming cactus'. Science and Development Network. http://www.scidev.net [accessed 26 July 2006].
100. Kann N (1989) Further purification of the Basarwa arrow poison. Unpublished manuscript on file with the Kalahari Peoples Fund, Austin, Texas, 21 pp.
101. Kao CY, Salwen MJ, Hu SL, Pitter HM, Woollard JMR (1989) Diamphidia toxin, the bushman's arrow poison: possible mechanism of prey-killing. Toxicon 27: 1351-1366. doi: 10.1016/0041-0101(89)90067-6.
102. Karimi M (1973) The arrow poisons. East African Literature Bureau, Nairobi, 97 pp.
103. Karras DJ, Farrell SE, Harrigan RA, Henretig FM, Gealt L (1996) Poisoning from "Spanish fly" (cantharidin). American Journal of Emergency Medicine 14(5): 478-483. doi: 10.1016/S0735-6757(96)90158-8.
104. Kiema K (2010) Tears For My Land: A Social History of the Kua of the Central Kalahari Game Reserve, Tc'amnqo. Mmegi Publishing House, Gaborone, 171 pp.
105. Kline AS (2000) Ovid's Metamorphoses. http://ovid.lib.virginia.edu/trans/Ovhome.htm [accessed July 10 2015].
106. Kingdon J, Agwanda B, Kinnaird M, O'Brien T, Holland C, Gheysens T, Boulet-Audet M, Vollrath F (2011) A poisonous surprise under the coat of the African crested rat. Proceedings of the Royal Society B 279(1729): 675-680. doi: 10.1098/rspb.2011.1169.
107. Kingston DG, Reichstein T (1974) Cytotoxic cardenolides from Acokanthera longiflora Stapf. and related species. Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences 63(3): 462-464. doi: 10.1002/ jps.2600630337.
108. Knight A, Underhill PA, Mortensen HM, Zhivotovsky LA, Lin AA, Henn BM, Ruhlen M, Mountain J (2003) African Y Chromosome and mtDNA divergence provides insight into the history of click languages. Current Biology 13: 464-473. doi: 10.1016/S0960-9822(03)00130-1.
109. Koch C (1958) Preliminary notes on the coleopterological aspect of the arrow poison of the Bushmen. South African Biological Society. Pamphlet 20: 49-54.
110. Koot SP (2013) Dwelling in Tourism: Power and Myth amongst Bushmen in Southern Africa. African Studies Collection Volume 54. African Studies Centre, Leiden, The Netherlands, 310 pp.
111. Kündig H (1978) The pharmacology of Diamphidia arrow poison. PhD Thesis, Department of Pharmacology, University of Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, 180 pp.
112. Kupicha FK (1982) Studies on African Apocynaceae: the genus Acokanthera. Kew Bulletin 37(1): 41-67. doi: 10.2307/4114719.
113. Langenheim JH (1994) Higher plant terpenoids: a phytocentric overview of their ecological roles. Journal of Chemical Ecology 206: 1223-1280. doi: 10.1007/BF02059809.
114. Langenheim J (2003) Plant resins: Chemistry, evolution, ecology, ethnobotany. Timber Press, Portland, 586 pp.
115. Lawry S, Begbie-Clench B, Hitchcock RK (2012) Haillom Resettlement Farms: Strategy and Action Plan. Windhoek: Ministry of Environment and Tourism and Millennium Challenge Corporation, September, 2012, 105 pp.
116. Lee RB (1968) What hunters do for a living, or, how to make out on scarce resources. In: Lee RB, DeVore I (Eds) Man the Hunter. Aldine, Chicago, 30-48.
117. Lee RB (1972) The !Kung Bushmen of Botswana. In: Bicchieri MG (Ed.) Hunters and gatherers today, a socioeconomic study of eleven such cultures in the twentieth century. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York, 327-368.
118. Lee RB (1978) Ecology of a contemporary San people. In: Tobias PV (Ed.) The Bushmen: San hunters and herders of southern Africa. Human and Rousseau, Cape Town, 94-114.
119. Lee RB (1979) The !Kung San: Men, Women, and Work in a Foraging Society. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 556 pp.
120. Lee RB (2013) The Dobe Jul'hoansi. 4th edn. Wadsworth Cencage Publishing, Belmont, CA, 294 pp.
121. Lee RB, Hurlich S (1982) From Foragers to Fighters: South Africa's Militarization of the Namibian San. In: Leacock E, Lee RB (Eds) Politics and History in Band Societies. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 327-345.
122. Lee RB, DeVore I (Eds) (1968) Kalahari Hunter-Gatherers. Studies of the !Kung San and their neighbors. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 408 pp.
123. Leffers A (2003) Gemsbok bean and Kalahari truffle: traditional plant use by Jul'hoansi in north-eastern Namibia. Gamsberg MacMillan Publishers, Windhoek, 202 pp.
124. Lewin L (1912a) Uber die Pfeilgifte der Bushmanner. Zeitschrift für Ethnologie Bd 44(5): 831-837.
125. Lewin L (1912b) Blepharida evanida, cin neuer Pfeilgiftkafer. Archiv für experimentelle Pathologie und Pharmakologie 69: 60-66.
126. Lewin L (1923) Die Pfeilgifte. Verlag von Johann Ambrosius Barth, Leipzig, 517 pp.
127. Liebenberg L (2000) A photographic guide to tracks and tracking in southern Africa. Struik, Cape Town, 144 pp.
128. Liebenberg L (2001) The art of tracking: the origin of science. David Philip, Cape Town, 176 pp.
129. Liebenberg L (2006) Persistence Hunting by Modern Hunter Gatherers. Current Anthropology 47(6): 1017-1025. doi: 10.1086/508695.
130. Liebenberg L (2008) The relevance of persistence hunting to human evolution. Journal of Human Evolution 55(6): 1156-1159. doi: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.07.004.
131. Lindroth CH (1971) Disappearance as a protective factor: a supposed case of Batesian mimicry among beetles (Coleoptera: Carabidae, Chrysomelidae). Entomologica Scandinavica 2(1): 41. doi: 10.1163/187631271x00031.
132. Livingstone D (1858) Missionary travels and researches in South Africa including a sketch of sixteen years' residence in the interior of Africa. John Murray, London, 732 pp.
133. Livingstone D, Livingstone C (1865) A narrative of an expedition to the Zambesi. J. Murray, London, 608 pp.
134. Lombard M (2011) Quartz-tipped arrows older than 60, 000 ya. Journal of archaeological Science 38: 1918-1930. doi: 10.1016/j.jas.2011.04.001.
135. Lombard M (2015) Hunting and Hunting Technologies as Proxy for Teaching and Learning During the Stone Age of Africa. Cambridge Archaeological Journal 25(4): 877-887. doi: 10.1017/S0959774315000219.
136. Lombard M, Phillipson L (2010) Indications of bow and stone tipped arrow use 64, 000 years ago in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Antiquity 84(325): 635-648. doi: 10.1017/ S0003598X00100134.
137. Ma J, Jones SH, Hecht SM (2005) A dihydroflavonol glucoside from Commiphora africana that mediates DNA strand scission. Journal of Natural Products 68: 115-117. doi: 10.1021/ np0400510.
138. Madeddu L, Pozzan T, Robello M, Rolandi R, Hsiao TH, Meldolesi J (1985a) Leptinotoxin-h action in synatosomes, neurosecretory cells, and artificial membranes: stimulation of neurotransmitter release. Journal of Neurochemistry 45(6): 1708-1718. doi: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.1985.tb10526.x.
139. Madeddu L, Saito I, Hsiao TH, Meldolesi J (1985b) Leptinotoxin-h action in synaptosomes and neurosecretory cells. Stimulation of neurotransmitter release. Journal of Neurochemistry 45(6): 1719-1730. doi: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.1985.tb10527.x.
140. Main M (1987) Kalahari: Life's variety in dune and delta. Southern Book Publishers, Cape Town, 265 pp.
141. Maitai CK, Muraguri N, Patel HA (1973) A survey on the use of poisoned arrows in Kenya during the period 1964-1971. East Africa Medical Journal 50: 100-104.
142. Marean CW, Assefa Z (2005) The Middle and Upper Pleistocene African Record for the Biological Origins of Modern Humans. In: Stahl AB (Ed.) African Archaeology: A Critical Introduction. Blackwell Publishing, Malden, Massachusetts, 93-129.
143. Marks S (1977) Hunting Behavior and Strategies of the Valley Bisa in Zambia. Human Ecology 5(1): 1-36. doi: 10.1007/BF01880256.
144. Marlowe FW (2010) The Hadza: Hunter-gatherers of Tanzania. University of California Press, Berkeley and London, 325 pp.
145. Marshall J (1958a) Huntsmen of Nyae Nyae: The !Kung still practice Man's oldest craft. Part II. Natural History 67: 291-309, 376-395.
146. Marshall J (Producer) (1958b) The Hunters (film). Wilmette: Films Incorporated. Center for Documentary Educational Resources, Watertown, MA.
147. Marshall J (2003) A Kalahari Family (film). Documentary Educational Resources, Watertown.
148. Marshall J, Ritchie C (1984) Where are the JulWasi of Nyae Nyae? Changes in a Bushman Society: 1958-1981. Communications No. 9, Center for African Area Studies, University of Cape Town. University of Cape Town, Cape Town, 187 pp.
149. Marshall L (1961) Sharing, talking, and giving: Relief of social tensions among !Kung Bushmen. Africa 31: 231-249. doi: 10.2307/1157263.
150. Marshall L (1976) The !Kung of Nyae Nyae. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 433 pp. doi: 10.4159/harvard.9780674180574.
151. Marshall Thomas E (1959) The harmless people. Secker and Warburg, Ltd., London, 250 pp. [Reprinted 1988 & 2006, Africa South Paperbacks, Cape Town.].
152. McClure WO, Abbot BC, Baxter DE, Hsiao TH, Satin LS, Siger S, Yoshino J (1980) Leptinotarsin: a new toxin neurotoxin that stimulates acetylcholine release. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 77(2): 1219-1223. doi: 10.1073/pnas.77.2.1219.
153. Mebs D, Brünning F, Pfaff N, Neuwinger HD (1982) Preliminary studies on the chemical properties of the toxic principle from Diamphidia nigro-ornata larvae, a source of Bushman arrow poison. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 6(1): 1-11. doi: 10.1016/0378-8741(82)90068-X.
154. Mendelsohn J, Jarvis A, Roberts C, Robertson T (2009) Atlas of Namibia: A Portrait of the Land and its People. 3rd edn. Sunbird Publishers, Cape Town, South Africa, 260 pp.
155. Miljanich GP, Yeager RE, Hsiao TH (1988) Leptinotarsin-D, a neurotoxic protein evokes neurotransmitter release from, and calcium flux into, isolated electric organ nerve terminals. Journal of Neurobiology 19(4): 373-386. doi: 10.1002/neu.480190405.
156. Mitchell PJ (2010a) Genetics and Southern African Prehistory: An Archaeological View. Journal of Anthropological Sciences 88: 73-92.
157. Mitchell PJ (2010b) Making History at Sehongong: Soal and the Last Bushman Occupants of His Shelter. Southern African Humanities 22: 149-170.
158. Mitchell PJ (2012) San Origins and Transition to the Later Stone Age: New Research from Border Cave, South Africa. South African Journal of Science 108(11/12): 1-2. doi: 10.4102/sajs.v108i11/12.1447.
159. Mitchell P, Smith B (Eds) (2009) The Eland's People: New Perspectives in the Rock Art of the Maloti-Drakensberg Bushmen: Essays in Memory of Patricia Vinnicombe. Witwatersrand University Press, Johannesburg, 386 pp.
160. Moen L, Shwayder T, Chang M (2001) Cantharidin revisited: a blistering defense of an ancient medicine. Archives of Dermatology 137: 1357-1360.
161. Morton F, Hitchcock RK (2013) Tswana hunting: Continuities and changes in the Transvaal and Kalahari after 1600. South African Historical Journal. doi: 10.1080/02582473.2013.855809.
162. Myers CW, Daly JW, Malkin B (1978) A dangerously toxic new frog (Phyllobates) used by Embera Indians of western Colombia, with discussion of blowgun fabrication and dart poisoning. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 161(2): 307-366.
163. Nedved R (2014) On the complexity of the Urbanizaiton Process of the Bushmen: Cas Study on the !Xung in the Grootfontein Area in Namibia. Urban People /Lide Mesta 16(2): 169-194.
164. Neuwinger HD (1974a) Afrikanische Pfeilgifte I. Naturwissenschaftliche Rundschau 27(9): 340-349.
165. Neuwinger HD (1974b) Afrikanische Pfeilgifte II. Naturwissenschaftliche Rundschau 27(10): 385-402.
166. Neuwinger HD (1996) African Ethnobotany: poisons and drugs. Chapman Hall, Heidelberg, 941 pp.
167. Neuwinger HD (1998) Alkaloids in arrow poisons. In: Roberts MF, Wink M (Eds) Alkaloids: Biochemistry, Ecology, and Medical Applications. Plenum Press, New York, 45-88. doi: 10.1007/978-1-4757-2905-4_3.
168. Nicolaisen I (2010) Elusive hunters: The Haddad of Kanem and the Bahr el Ghazal. Aarhus University Press, Aarhus, 522 pp.
169. Noli HD (1993) A technical investigation into the material evidence for archery in the archaeological and ethnographical record in Southern Africa. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, University of Cape Town, 252 pp.
170. Nonaka K (1996) Ethnoentomology of the Central Kalahari San. African Study Monographs Supplementary Issue 22: 29-46.
171. Omino EA, Kokwaro JO (1993) Ethnobotany of Apocynaceae species in Kenya. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 40: 167-180. doi: 10.1016/0378-8741(93)90065-D.
172. Osaki M (1984) The social influence of change in hunting technique among the Central Kalahari San. African Study Monographs 5: 49-62.
173. Osaki M (2001) Reconstructing the recent history of the Glwi and Ghana Bushmen. African Study Monographs, Supplementary Issue 26: 27-39.
174. Ovid. Metamorphoses. English Translation by AS Kline, available at http://ovid.lib.virginia. edu/trans/Ovhome.htm [accessed 1 October 2014] and at the Internet Classics Archive, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, MA, http://classics.mit.edu/Ovid/metam.html.
175. Oswalt WH (1973) Habitat and Technology: The Evolution of Hunting. Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, New York, 191 pp.
176. Parke TH (1888) The arrow poisons of the pygmies. Part I. Description of the material. pp. 308-315. In: My personal experiences in Equatorial Africa: As medical officer of the Emin Pasha Relief Expedition. C. Scribner, New York. [Reprinted 2011, Ullan Press, 628 pp.].
177. Parker I, Amin M (1983) Ivory Crisis. Chatto and Windus Ltd., London, 184 pp.
178. Parker RA (1971) A comparison of heamolymph proteins in two species of Leptinotarsa beetles. Journal of Insect Physiology 17: 1689-1698. doi: 10.1016/0022-1910(71)90064-3.
179. Parker RA (1972) A comparison of the toxic protein in two species of Leptinotarsa. Toxicon 10: 79-80. doi: 10.1016/0041-0101(72)90094-3.
180. Parry E (2007) Arrow poisons. Zimbabwean Prehistory 27: 52-58.
181. Passarge S (1907) Die Buschmanner der Kalahari [The Bushman of the Kalahari]. Translated by Wilmsen EN (Ed.) The Kalahari Ethnographies (1869-1898) of Siefried Passarge. Research in Khoisan Studies 13: 127-218. Rüdiger, Köppe, Verlag, Köln, 332 pp.
182. Paterson W (1789) A narrative of four journeys into the country of the Hottentots and Caffaria, in the years 1777, 1778, 1779. J. Johnson, London, 205 pp.
183. Pawlowsky EN (1927) Giftiere und ihre Giftigkeit. Gustav Fischer, Jena, 466 pp.
184. Pell S, Mitchell K, Lobova JD, Miller AJ (2011) Anacardiaceae. In: Kubitzki K (Ed.) The Families and Genera of Vascular Plants. Springer-Verlag, New York, 10, 7-50.
185. Peters J, Dieckmann U, Vogelsang R (2009) Losing the spoor: Haillom animal exploitation in the Etosha region. In: Grupe G, McGlynn G, Peters J (Eds) Tracking Down the Past: Ethnohistory meets archaeozoology. Documenta Archaeobiologiae. Jahrbuch der Staatssammlung für Anthropologie und Paläoanatomie München 7. Verlab Marie Leidorf, Rahden/Westf., 103-185.
186. Pickrell JK, Patterson N, Barbieri C, Berthold F, Gerlach L, Güldemann T, Kure B, Mpoloka SW, Nakagawa H, Naumann C, Lipson M, Loh P-R, Lachance J, Mountain J, Bustamante CD, Berger B, Tishkoff SA, Henn BM, Stoneking M, Reich D, Pakendorf R (2012) The Genetic Prehistory of Southern Africa. Nature Communications 3: 1143. doi: 10.1038/ncomms2140.
187. PlantZAfrica (2015) South Africa National Biodiversity Institute. http://pza.sanbi.org/ [accessed July 9 2015].
188. Plazier AC (1980) A revision of Adenium Roem. and Schult. and of Diplorhynchus Welw. ex Fic. and Hiern (Apocynaceae). Mededelingen Landbouwhogeschool 80(12): 1-40.
189. Prathapan KD, Chaboo CS (2011) Biology of Blepharida-group flea beetles with first notes on natural history of Podontia congregata Baly 1865, an endemic flea beetle from southern India (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Galerucinae: Alticini). ZooKeys 157: 95-130. doi: 10.3897/zookeys.157.1472.
190. Preston D (1989) Suid-Afrikaanse Geskiedenis in Beeld. Bion Books, Cape Town, 192 pp.
191. Prins F (2009) Secret San of the Drakensberg and Their Rock Art Legacy. Critical Arts 23(2): 198-2008. doi: 10.1080/02560040903016917.
192. Prinsloo G, Street RA (2013) Marula [Sclerocarya birrea (A.Rich) Hochst]: A review of traditional uses, phytochemistry, and pharmacology. In: Juliani H, Simon JE, Ho C-T (Eds) African Natural Plant Products. Vol II: Discoveries and Challenges in Chemistry, Health and Nutrition. ACS Symposium Series, American Chemical Society, Washington, DC, 19-32. doi: 10.1021/bk-2013-1127.ch002.
193. Rapold CJ, Widlok T (2008) Dimensions of variability in Northern Khoekhoe Language and Culture. Southern African Humanities 20: 133-161.
194. Reichstein T (1965) Chemische Rassen in Acokanthera. Planta Medica 13: 382-399. doi: 10.1055/s-0028-1100132.
195. Robbins LH, Campbell AC, Murphy ML, Brook GA, Mabuse A, Hitchcock R, Babuts G, Mmolawa M, Stewart KM, Steele TC, Klein RG, Appleton CC (2009) Mogapelwa: Archaeology, Paleoenvironment, and Oral Traditions at Lake Ngami, Botswana. South African Archaeological Bulletin 64(189): 13-32.
196. Robbins LH, Campbell AC, Brook GA, Murphy ML, Hitchcock RK (2012) The antiquity of the bow and arrow in the Kalahari Desert: Bone points from White Paintings Rock Shelter, Botswana. Journal of African Archaeology 10(1): 7-20. doi: 10.3213/2191-5784-10211.
197. Roodt V (1993) The Shell field guide to the common trees of the Okavango Delta and Moremi Game Reserve. Shell Oil, Gabarone, Botswana, 110 pp.
198. Rothschild M, Riechstein T, von Euw J, Aplin R, Harmon RRM (1970) Toxic Lepidoptera. Toxicon 8: 293. doi: 10.1016/0041-0101(70)90006-1.
199. Sands B, Chebanne A, Shah S (2011) Hunting terminology in =/Hoan. Paper presented at the International Symposium on Khoisan languages and linguistics, 11-13 July 2011, Riezlern/Kleinwalsertal.
200. Sapignoli M, Hitchcock R (2013) Indigenous Peoples in Southern Africa. The Round Table: The Commonwealth Journal of International Affairs 102(4): 355-365. doi: 10.1080/00358533.2013.795013.
201. Satin LS, Siger A, Abbot BC, Hsia TM, McClure WO (1978) Leptinotarsin: quantized release of acetylcholine at the rat neuromuscular junction. Abstracts, Society for Neuroscience 4: 584.
202. Schapera I (1925) Bushman Arrow Poisons. Bantu Studies 2: 199-214. doi: 10.1080/02561751.1923.9676184.
203. Schapera I (1930) The Khoisan peoples of South Africa: Bushmen and Hottentots. Routledge and Kegan Paul, Ltd., London, 312 pp.
204. Schinz H (1891) Deutsch-Südwestafrika, Forschungsreisen durch die deutschen Schutzgebiete Groß-Nama-und Hereroland, nach dem Kunene, dem Ngamisee und Kalahari, 1884-1887 (German South West Africa: Research Expedition of Herero and Nama Country, the Kunene Region, Lake Ngami and the Kalahari-1884-1887).
205. Schinz H, Böhm R [in Fairmaire] (1894) Ueber das Pfeilgift de Kalixari-San. Biologisches Zentralblatt 14(10): 337-339.
206. Schlebusch CM, Skoglund P, Sjodin P, Gattepaille LM, Hernandez D, Jay F, Li S, De Jongh M, Singleton A, Blum MBB, Soodyall H, Jakobson M (2012) Genomic Variation in Seven Khoe-San Groups Reveals Adaptation and Complex African History. Science 338: 374-379. doi: 10.1126/science.1227721.
207. Schmidt S (2015) South African /Xam Bushman Traditions and Their Relationships to Further Khoisan Folklore. Ruediger Koeppe Verlag, Cologne, 251 pp.
208. Schultze L (1907) Aus Namaland und Kalahari. Gustav Fischer, Jena, 752 pp.
209. Schulz A, Hammar A (1897) The New Africa: A journey up the Chobe and down the Okovango Rivers, a record of exploration and sport. William Heinemann, London, 406 pp.
210. Scott JA (1923) Poisoned arrows in Homer. Classical Journal 23: 619-620.
211. Sharples RW, Huby PM, Fortenbaugh WW (1995) Theophrastus of Eresus: Sources on Biology. Brill, Leiden, 273 pp.
212. Shaw EM, Woolley PL, Rae FA (1963) Bushman arrow poisons. Cimbebasia 7(2): 2-41.
213. Shea JJ (2006) The origins of lithic projectile point technology: Evidence from Africa, the Levant, and Europe. Journal of Archaeological Science 33: 823-846. doi: 10.1016/j. jas.2005.10.015.
214. Silberbauer GB (1972) The G/wi Bushmen. In: Bicchieri MG (Ed.) Hunters and gatherers today, a socioeconomic study of eleven such cultures in the twentieth century. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York, 271-326.
215. Silberbauer GB (1981a) Hunter and habitat in the Central Kalahari Desert. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 330 pp.
216. Sisk ML, Shea JJ (2009) Experimental use and quantitative performance analysis of triangular flakes (Levallois points) used as arrowheads. Journal of Archaeological Science 36: 2039-2047. doi: 10.1016/j.jas.2009.05.023.
217. Smith A, Malherbe C, Guenther M, Berens P (2000) Bushmen of Southern Africa: Foraging Society in transition. Ohio University Press, Athens, 112 pp.
218. Snyder AK (1971) A study of the physiological effects of leptinotarsin. PhD Thesis, University of Illinois, Urbana, 83 pp.
219. Stander PE, Ghau II, Tsisaba D, Oma II, VI (1997) Tracking and the Interpretation of Spoor: A Scientifically Sound Method in Ecology. Journal of the Zoological Society of London 242: 329-341. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-7998.1997.tb05805.x.
220. Stanford WE (1909-1910) Statement of Silayi with reference to his life among the Bushmen. Transactions of the Royal Society of South Africa 1: 435-440. doi: 10.1080/00359191009520056.
221. Stapleton T (2015) Warfare and Tracking in Africa, 1952-1990. Pickering and Chatto Publishers, London.
222. Starcke F (1897) Ueber die Wirkung des Giftes Larven von Diamphida locusta (Pfeilgift der Kalachari). Archives für experimentelle Pathologie und Pharmakologie 38: 428-446.
223. Steyn DG (1949) Vergiftiging van Mens en dier met gifplante, voedsel en drinkwater. Van Schaik, Pretoria, 264 pp.
224. Steyn DG (1957) The bushman arrow poison. South African Medical Journal 31: 119-120.
225. Steyn HP (1971) Aspects of the Economic Life of Some Nomadic Nharo Groups. Annals of the South African Museum 56(6): 275-322.
226. Steyn M (2003) Southern Africa Commiphora. United Lithoa, Arcadia, 92 pp.
227. Stigand AG (1913) Notes on Ngamiland. Transactions of the Royal Society of South Africa 3: 379-391. doi: 10.1080/00359191309519705.
228. Stow GW (1905) The native races of South Africa: A History of the Intrusion of the Hottentots and Bantu into the Hunting Grounds of the Bushmen, the Aborigines of the Country. Swan Sonnenschein and Co., Ltd., London, 618 pp.
229. Suzman J (1999) "Things from the Bush": A Contemporary History of the Omaheke Bushmen. Basel Namibia Studies Series 5. P. Schlettwein Publishing, Basel, Switzerland, 246 pp.
230. Suzman J (2004) Etosha Dreams: An historical account of the Haillom predicament. Journal of Modern African Studies 42(2): 221-238.
231. Tanaka J (1978) A San Vocabulary of the Central Kalahari: G//ana and G/wi Dialects. Institute for the Study of Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa (ILCAA), University of Tokyo, Tokyo, 158 pp.
232. Tanaka J (2014) The Bushmen: A Half Century Chronicle of Transformations in Hunter-Gatherer Life and Ecology. Transpacific Press, 296 pp.
233. Thomas DSG, Shaw PA (2010) The Kalahari environment. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 325 pp.
234. Tishkoff SA, Reed FA, Friedlaender FR, Ehret C, Ranciaro A, Froment A, Hirbo JB, Awomoyi AA, Bodo J-M, Doumbo O, Ibrahim M, Juma AT, Kotze MJ, Lema G, Moore JH, Mortensen H, Nyambo TB, Omar SA, Powell K, Pretorius GS, Smith MW, Thera MA, Wambebe C, Weber JL, Williams SM (2009) The Genetic Structure and History of Africans and African Americans. Science 324: 1035-1044. doi: 10.1126/science.1172257.
235. Tobias PV (1957) Bushmen of the Kalahari. Man 57: 33-40. doi: 10.2307/2794792.
236. Trommsdorff H (1911) Experimentale Untersuchung ueber eine von Buschleten zum vergiften der Pfeilspitz benutzte Käferlarve. Archiv für Schiffs-und Tropen. Hygiene 15(19): 617-630.
237. Valiente-Noailles C (1993) The Kua: Life and soul of the Central Kalahari Bushmen. A.A. Balkema, Amsterdam, 232 pp.
238. Vierich HD (1981) The Kua of the Southeastern Kalahari: a study in the socio-ecology of dependency. PhD Thesis, University of Toronto, Toronto, 363 pp.
239. Vinnicombe P (1976) People of the Eland: Rock Paintings of the Drakensberg Bushmen as a Reflection of their Life and Thought. Natal University Press, Pietermaritzburg, 284 pp.
240. Visser, Hessel (2003) Naro Dictionary: Naro-English, English-Naro. 4th edn. Naro Language Project and Gaborone, Ghanzi, Botswana, Printing and Publishing Company, Botswana.
241. Wadley L (2013) Recognizing complex cognition through innovative technology in Stone Age and Paleolithic sites. Cambridge Archaeological Jounal 23(2): 163-183. doi: 10.1017/ S0959774313000309.
242. Watt JM, Breyer-Brandwijk M (1962) The medicinal and poisonous plants of Southern and Eastern Africa. E and S Livingstone, 2nd edn, Edinburgh, 1457 pp.
243. Weber DC, Saska P, Chaboo CS (2008) Carabid beetles, parasitoid. In: Capinera J (Ed.) Encyclopedia of Entomology, 2nd edn. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 35-37.
244. Widlok T (1999) Living on Mangetti: 'Bushman' autonomy and Namibian Independence. Oxford University Press, Oxford, 291 pp.
245. Wiessner P (1983) Style and information in Kalahari San projectile points. American Antiquity 48(2): 253-276. doi: 10.2307/280450.
246. Wiessner P (1984) Reconsidering the behavioral basis for style: A case study among the Kalahari San. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 3: 190-234. doi: 10.1016/0278-4165(84)90002-3.
247. Wiessner P (2002) Hunting, healing, and Hxaro exchange: A long term perspective on !Kung (Jul'hoansi) large game hunting. Evolution and Human Behavior 23: 407-436. doi: 10.1016/S1090-5138(02)00096-X.
248. Wilmsen EN (1989) Land Filled with Flies: A Political Economy of the Kalahari. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 420 pp.
249. Wilmsen EN (Ed.) (1997) The Kalahari ethnographies (1896-1898) of Siegfried Passarge. Nineteenth century Khoisan and Bantu-Speaking peoples. Rudiger Koppe Verlag, Koln, Germany, 332 pp.
250. Wikar HJ (1779) The journal of Hendrik Jacob Wikar. With an English translation by A.W. van der Horst and the journals of Jacobus Coetsé Jansz: (1760) and Willem van Reenen (1791) with an English translation by Dr. E. E. Mossop. Dr. E.E. Mossop (Editor, with footnotes). The Van Riebeeck Society, Cape Town, 1935.
251. Wintersteiner O, Dutcher JD (1943) Curare alkaloids from Chondodendron tomentosum. Science 97(2525): 467-470. doi: 10.1126/science.97.2525.467.
252. Woodburn J (1970) Hunters and gatherers: The material culture of the nomadic Hadza. British Museum, London, 59 pp.
253. Woollard J (1986) The active chemical components of the Basarwa arrow-poison. Botswana Notes and Records 18: 139-141.
254. Woollard JMR, Fuhrman AA, Mosher HS (1984) The Bushman arrow toxin, Diamphidia toxin: Isolation from pupae of Diamphidia nigro-ornata. Toxicon 22(6): 937-946. doi: 10.1016/0041-0101(84)90185-5.
255. Written in the Sand (2015) Written in the Sand. UNESCO'S Division for Cultural Policies in the Sector for Culture. http://www.san.org.za/terms.php [accessed July 10 2015].
256. Yamauchi T, Abe F (1990) Cardiac glycosides and pregnanes from Adenium obesum (Studies on the constituents of Adenium. I). Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin 38(3): 669-672. doi: 10.1248/cpb.38.669.
257. Yellen JE (1977) Archaeological approaches to the present: Models for reconstructing the past. Academic Press, New York, 259 pp.
258. Yellen JE, Lee RB (1976) The Dobe-lDulDa environment: Background to a hunting and gathering way of life. In: Lee RB, DeVore I (Eds) Kalahari Hunter-Gatherers: Studies of the !Kung San and their neighbors. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 27-46. doi: 10.4159/harvard.9780674430600.c4.