Antibodies to Phosphatidylserine/Prothrombin Complex in Antiphospholipid Syndrome: Analytical and Clinical Perspectives

Advances in Clinical Chemistry

Volumn 73, Issue , 2016, Pages 1-28

  Peterson, Lisa K ^a   Willis, Rohan ^b   Harris, E Nigel ^c   Branch, Ware D ^a   Tebo, Anne E ^a,d  

^a UNIVERSITY OF UTAH SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS MEDICAL BRANCH   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF THE WEST INDIES   (Jamaica)

^d ARUP INSTITUTE FOR CLINICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL PATHOLOGY   (United States)

Author keywords

Antiphospholipid antibodies; Antiphospholipid syndrome; APS PT; Immunoassays

Indexed keywords

ANTIBODY; BIOLOGICAL MARKER; PHOSPHATIDYLSERINE; PROTHROMBIN;

ANTIPHOSPHOLIPID SYNDROME; CHEMISTRY; HUMAN; IMMUNOLOGY; METABOLISM;

ANTIBODIES; ANTIPHOSPHOLIPID SYNDROME; BIOMARKERS; HUMANS; PHOSPHATIDYLSERINES; PROTHROMBIN;

EID: 84954305230     PISSN: 00652423     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1016/bs.acc.2015.10.003     Document Type: Chapter

References (98)

1. Wilson W.A., Gharavi A.E., Koike T., Lockshin M.D., Branch D.W., Piette J.C., Brey R., Derksen R., Harris E.N., Hughes G.R., Triplett D.A., Khamashta M.A. International consensus statement on preliminary classification criteria for definite antiphospholipid syndrome: report of an international workshop. Arthritis Rheum. 1999, 42:1309-1311.
2. Miyakis S., Lockshin M.D., Atsumi T., Branch D.W., Brey R.L., Cervera R., Derksen R.H., de Groot P.G., Koike T., Meroni P.L., Reber G., Shoenfeld Y., Tincani A., Vlachoyiannopoulos P.G., Krilis S.A. International consensus statement on an update of the classification criteria for definite antiphospholipid syndrome (APS). J. Thromb. Haemost. 2006, 4:295-306.
3. Meroni P.L., Borghi M.O., Raschi E., Tedesco F. Pathogenesis of antiphospholipid syndrome: understanding the antibodies. Nat. Rev. Rheumatol. 2011, 7:330-339.
4. Meroni P.L., Chighizola C.B., Rovelli F., Gerosa M. Antiphospholipid syndrome in 2014: more clinical manifestations, novel pathogenic players and emerging biomarkers. Arthritis Res. Ther. 2014, 16:209.
5. Wassermann A., Neisser A., Bruck C. Eine serodiagnostiche reaktion bei syphilis. Deutsche Med. Wochenschr. 1906, 32:745-746.
6. Pangborn M.C. A new serologically active phospholipid from beef heart. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 1941, 48:484-486.
7. Moore J.E., Mohr C.F. Biologically false positive serologic tests for syphilis; type, incidence, and cause. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 1952, 150:467-473.
8. Moore J.E., Lutz W.B. The natural history of systemic lupus erythematosus: an approach to its study through chronic biologic false positive reactors. J. Chronic Dis. 1955, 1:297-316.
9. Conley M.R., Hartmann R.C. A hemorrhagic disorder caused by circulating anticoagulant in patients with disseminated lupus erythematosus. J. Lab Clin. Invest. 1952, 31:621-622.
10. Loelinger A. Prothrombin as co-factor of the circulating anticoagulant in systemic lupus erythematosus?. Thromb. Diath. Haemorrh. 1959, 3:237-256.
11. Bowie E.J., Thompson J.H., Pascuzzi C.A., Owen C.A. Thrombosis in systemic lupus erthematosus despite circulating anticoagulants. J. Lab. Clin. Med. 1963, 62:416-430.
12. Lechner K. A new type of coagulation inhibitor. Thromb. Diath. Haemorrh. 1969, 21:482-499.
13. Feinstein D.I., Rapaport S.I. Acquired inhibitors of blood coagulation. Prog. Hemost. Thromb. 1972, 1:75-95.
14. Harris E.N., Gharavi A.E., Boey M.L., Patel B.M., Mackworth-Young C.G., Loizou S., Hughes G.R. Anticardiolipin antibodies: detection by radioimmunoassay and association with thrombosis in systemic lupus erythematosus. Lancet 1983, 2:1211-1214.
15. Loizou S., McCrea J.D., Rudge A.C., Reynolds R., Boyle C.C., Harris E.N. Measurement of anti-cardiolipin antibodies by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA): standardization and quantitation of results. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 1985, 62:738-745.
16. Hughes G.R. Autoantibodies in lupus and its variants: experience in 1000 patients. Br. Med. J. (Clin. Res. Ed.) 1984, 289:339-342.
17. Hughes G.R. Thrombosis, abortion, cerebral disease, and the lupus anticoagulant. Br. Med. J. (Clin. Res. Ed.) 1983, 287:1088-1089.
18. Galli M., Comfurius P., Maassen C., Hemker H.C., de Baets M.H., van Breda-Vriesman P.J., Barbui T., Zwaal R.F., Bevers E.M. Anticardiolipin antibodies (ACA) directed not to cardiolipin but to a plasma protein cofactor. Lancet 1990, 335:1544-1547.
19. McNeil H.P., Simpson R.J., Chesterman C.N., Krilis S.A. Anti-phospholipid antibodies are directed against a complex antigen that includes a lipid-binding inhibitor of coagulation: beta 2-glycoprotein I (apolipoprotein H). Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 1990, 87:4120-4124.
20. Hunt J.E., McNeil H.P., Morgan G.J., Crameri R.M., Krilis S.A. A phospholipid-beta 2-glycoprotein I complex is an antigen for anticardiolipin antibodies occurring in autoimmune disease but not with infection. Lupus 1992, 1:75-81.
21. Oosting J.D., Derksen R.H., Entjes H.T., Bouma B.N., de Groot P.G. Lupus anticoagulant activity is frequently dependent on the presence of beta 2-glycoprotein I. Thromb. Haemost. 1992, 67:499-502.
22. Roubey R.A., Pratt C.W., Buyon J.P., Winfield J.B. Lupus anticoagulant activity of autoimmune antiphospholipid antibodies is dependent upon beta 2-glycoprotein I. J. Clin. Invest. 1992, 90:1100-1104.
23. Bevers E.M., Galli M., Barbui T., Comfurius P., Zwaal R.F. Lupus anticoagulant IgG's (LA) are not directed to phospholipids only, but to a complex of lipid-bound human prothrombin. Thromb. Haemost. 1991, 66:629-632.
24. Permpikul P., Rao L.V., Rapaport S.I. Functional and binding studies of the roles of prothrombin and beta 2-glycoprotein I in the expression of lupus anticoagulant activity. Blood 1994, 83:2878-2892.
25. Sanfilippo S.S., Khamashta M.A., Atsumi T., Amengual O., Bertolaccini M.L., D'Cruz D., Amft N., Swana G.T., Hughes G.R. Antibodies to beta2-glycoprotein I: a potential marker for clinical features of antiphospholipid antibody syndrome in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. J. Rheumatol. 1998, 25:2131-2134.
26. Detkov D., Gil-Aguado A., Lavilla P., Cuesta M.V., Fontán G., Pascual-Salcedo D. Do antibodies to beta2-glycoprotein 1 contribute to the better characterization of the antiphospholipid syndrome?. Lupus 1999, 8:430-438.
27. Bruce I.N., Clark-Soloninka C.A., Spitzer K.A., Gladman D.D., Urowitz M.B., Laskin C.A. Prevalence of antibodies to beta2-glycoprotein I in systemic lupus erythematosus and their association with antiphospholipid antibody syndrome criteria: a single center study and literature review. J. Rheumatol. 2000, 27:2833-2837.
28. Lee E.Y., Lee C.K., Lee T.H., Chung S.M., Kim S.H., Cho Y.S., Yoo B., Moon H.B. Does the anti-beta2-glycoprotein I antibody provide additional information in patients with thrombosis?. Thromb. Res. 2003, 111:29-32.
29. Willis R., Lakos G., Harris E.N. Standardization of antiphospholipid antibody testing-historical perspectives and ongoing initiatives. Semin. Thromb. Hemost. 2014, 40:172-177.
30. Meroni P.L., Biggioggero M., Pierangeli S.S., Sheldon J., Zegers I., Borghi M.O. Standardization of autoantibody testing: a paradigm for serology in rheumatic diseases. Nat. Rev. Rheumatol. 2014, 10:35-43.
31. Caliz R., Atsumi T., Kondeatis E., Amengual O., Khamashta M.A., Vaughan R.W., Lanchbury J.S., Hughes G.R. HLA class II gene polymorphisms in antiphospholipid syndrome: haplotype analysis in 83 Caucasoid patients. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2001, 40:31-36.
32. Sebastiani G.D., Minisola G., Galeazzi M. HLA class II alleles and genetic predisposition to the antiphospholipid syndrome. Autoimmun. Rev. 2003, 2:387-394.
33. Meroni P.L. Pathogenesis of the antiphospholipid syndrome: an additional example of the mosaic of autoimmunity. J. Autoimmun. 2008, 30:99-103.
34. Castro-Marrero J., Balada E., Vilardell-Tarrés M., Ordi-Ros J. Genetic risk factors of thrombosis in the antiphospholipid syndrome. Br. J. Haematol. 2009, 147:289-296.
35. Amengual O., Atsumi T., Koike T. Specificities, properties, and clinical significance of antiprothrombin antibodies. Arthritis Rheum. 2003, 48:886-895.
36. Galli M., Finazzi G., Barbui T. Antiphospholipid antibodies: predictive value of laboratory tests. Thromb. Haemost. 1997, 78:75-78.
37. Horbach D., van Oort E., Derksen R., de Groot P. The contribution of anti-prothrombin antibodies to lupus anticoagulant activity-discrimination between functional and non-functional anti-prothrombin antibodies. Thromb. Haemost. 1998, 79:790-795.
38. Devreese K., Hoylaerts M.F. Challenges in the diagnosis of the antiphospholipid syndrome. Clin. Chem. 2010, 56:930-940.
39. Giannakopoulos B., Passam F., Rahgozar S., Krilis S.A. Current concepts on the pathogenesis of the antiphospholipid syndrome. Blood 2007, 109:422-430.
40. Urbanus R.T., Derksen R.H., de Groot P.G. Current insight into diagnostics and pathophysiology of the antiphospholipid syndrome. Blood Rev. 2008, 22:93-105.
41. Abrahams V.M. Mechanisms of antiphospholipid antibody-associated pregnancy complications. Thromb. Res. 2009, 124:521-525.
42. Meroni P.L., Tedesco F., Locati M., Vecchi A., Di Simone N., Acaia B., Pierangeli S.S., Borghi M.O. Anti-phospholipid antibody mediated fetal loss: still an open question from a pathogenic point of view. Lupus 2010, 19:453-456.
43. Blank M., Krause I., Fridkin M., Keller N., Kopolovic J., Goldberg I., Tobar A., Shoenfeld Y. Bacterial induction of autoantibodies to beta2-glycoprotein-I accounts for the infectious etiology of antiphospholipid syndrome. J. Clin. Invest. 2002, 109:797-804.
44. Willis R., Pierangeli S.S. Pathophysiology of the antiphospholipid antibody syndrome. Auto Immun. Highlights 2011, 2:35-52.
45. Gharavi A.E., Pierangeli S.S., Harris E.N. Origin of antiphospholipid antibodies. Rheum. Dis. Clin. North Am. 2001, 27:551-563.
46. Gharavi A.E., Pierangeli S.S., Harris E.N. Viral origin of antiphospholipid antibodies: endothelial cell activation and thrombus enhancement by CMV peptide-induced APL antibodies. Immunobiology 2003, 207:37-42.
47. Bajaj S.P., Rapaport S.I., Fierer D.S., Herbst K.D., Schwartz D.B. A mechanism for the hypoprothrombinemia of the acquired hypoprothrombinemia-lupus anticoagulant syndrome. Blood 1983, 61:684-692.
48. Fleck R.A., Rapaport S.I., Rao L.V. Anti-prothrombin antibodies and the lupus anticoagulant. Blood 1988, 72:512-519.
49. Matsuda J., Saitoh N., Gotoh M., Kawasugi K., Gohchi K., Tsukamoto M. Phosphatidyl serine-dependent antiprothrombin antibody is exclusive to patients with lupus anticoagulant. Br. J. Rheumatol. 1996, 35:589-591.
50. Atsumi T., Ieko M., Bertolaccini M.L., Ichikawa K., Tsutsumi A., Matsuura E., Koike T. Association of autoantibodies against the phosphatidylserine-prothrombin complex with manifestations of the antiphospholipid syndrome and with the presence of lupus anticoagulant. Arthritis Rheum. 2000, 43:1982-1993.
51. Bertolaccini M.L., Atsumi T., Koike T., Hughes G.R., Khamashta M.A. Antiprothrombin antibodies detected in two different assay systems. Prevalence and clinical significance in systemic lupus erythematosus. Thromb. Haemost. 2005, 93:289-297.
52. Matsuda J., Sanaka T., Nishizawa A., Gotoh M., Gohchi K. Two antiprothrombin antibodies against prothrombin and prothrombin-phosphatidyl serine show partial but not total identity. Blood Coagul. Fibrinolysis 2002, 13:697-702.
53. Bardin N., Alessi M.C., Dignat-George F., Vague I.J., Sampol J., Harlé J.R., Sanmarco M. Does the anti-prothrombin antibodies measurement provide additional information in patients with thrombosis?. Immunobiology 2007, 212:557-565.
54. Žigon P., Čučnik S., Ambrožič A., Sodin Šemrl S., Kveder T., Božič B. Antibodies to phosphatidylserine/prothrombin complex as an additional diagnostic marker of APS?. Lupus 2012, 21:790-792.
55. Pregnolato F., Chighizola C.B., Encabo S., Shums Z., Norman G.L., Tripodi A., Chantarangkul V., Bertero T., De Micheli V., Borghi M.O., Meroni P.L. Anti-phosphatidylserine/prothrombin antibodies: an additional diagnostic marker for APS?. Immunol. Res. 2013, 56:432-438.
56. Vlagea A., Gil A., Cuesta M.V., Arribas F., Diez J., Lavilla P., Pascual-Salcedo D. Antiphosphatidylserine/prothrombin antibodies (aPS/PT) as potential markers of antiphospholipid syndrome. Clin. Appl. Thromb. Hemost. 2013, 19:289-296.
57. Sanfelippo M.J., Joshi A., Schwartz S., Meister J.A., Goldberg J.W. Antibodies to phosphatidylserine/prothrombin complex in suspected antiphospholipid syndrome in the absence of antibodies to cardiolipin or beta-2-glycoprotein I. Lupus 2013, 22:1349-1352.
58. Bertolaccini M.L., Sciascia S., Murru V., Garcia-Fernandez C., Sanna G., Khamashta M.A. Prevalence of antibodies to prothrombin in solid phase (aPT) and to phosphatidylserine-prothrombin complex (aPS/PT) in patients with and without lupus anticoagulant. Thromb. Haemost. 2013, 109:207-213.
59. Fabris M., Giacomello R., Poz A., Pantarotto L., Tanzi N., Curcio F., Tonutti E. The introduction of anti-phosphatidylserine/prothrombin autoantibodies in the laboratory diagnostic process of anti-phospholipid antibody syndrome: 6 months of observation. Auto Immun. Highlights 2014, 5:63-67.
60. Nojima J., Motoki Y., Aoki N., Tsuneoka H., Ichihara K. A novel ELISA system for simultaneous detection of six subclasses of anti-phospholipid antibodies for prediction of thrombotic complications among SLE patients. Thromb. Res. 2014, 133:1135-1140.
61. Sciascia S., Murru V., Sanna G., Roccatello D., Khamashta M.A., Bertolaccini M.L. Clinical accuracy for diagnosis of antiphospholipid syndrome in systemic lupus erythematosus: evaluation of 23 possible combinations of antiphospholipid antibody specificities. J. Thromb. Haemost. 2012, 10:2512-2518.
62. Heikal N.M., Jaskowski T.D., Malmberg E., Lakos G., Branch D.W., Tebo A.E. Laboratory evaluation of anti-phospholipid syndrome: a preliminary prospective study of phosphatidylserine/prothrombin antibodies in an at-risk patient cohort. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 2015, 180:218-226.
63. Žigon P., Perdan Pirkmajer K., Tomšič M., Kveder T., Božič B., Sodin Šemrl S., Čučnik S., Ambrožič A. Anti-phosphatidylserine/prothrombin antibodies are associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes. J. Immunol. Res. 2015, 2015:975704.
64. Kitaori T., Sugiura-Ogasawara M., Oku K., Papisch W., Ebara T., Ozaki Y., Katano K., Atsumi T. Determination of clinically significant tests for antiphospholipid antibodies and cutoff levels for obstetric antiphospholipid syndrome. Lupus 2015, Epub ahead of print.
65. Hoxha A., Ruffatti A., Mattia E., Meneghel L., Tonello M., Salvan E., Pengo V., Punzi L. Relationship between antiphosphatidylserine/prothrombin and conventional antiphospholipid antibodies in primary antiphospholipid syndrome. Clin. Chem. Lab. Med. 2015, 53:1265-1270.
66. Haj-Yahia S., Sherer Y., Blank M., Kaetsu H., Smolinsky A., Shoenfeld Y. Anti-prothrombin antibodies cause thrombosis in a novel qualitative ex-vivo animal model. Lupus 2003, 12:364-369.
67. Kujovich J.L. Thrombophilia and pregnancy complications. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 2004, 191:412-424.
68. Blank M., Shoenfeld Y. Antiphospholipid antibody-mediated reproductive failure in antiphospholipid syndrome. Clin. Rev. Allergy Immunol. 2010, 38:141-147.
69. Oku K., Amengual O., Atsumi T. Pathophysiology of thrombosis and pregnancy morbidity in the antiphospholipid syndrome. Eur. J. Clin. Invest. 2012, 42:1126-1135.
70. Matalon S.T., Shoenfeld Y., Blank M., Yacobi S., von Landenberg P., Ornoy A. Antiphosphatidylserine antibodies affect rat yolk sacs in culture: a mechanism for fetal loss in antiphospholipid syndrome. Am. J. Reprod. Immunol. 2004, 51:144-151.
71. Sun W.Y., Witte D.P., Degen J.L., Colbert M.C., Burkart M.C., Holmbäck K., Xiao Q., Bugge T.H., Degen S.J. Prothrombin deficiency results in embryonic and neonatal lethality in mice. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 1998, 95:7597-7602.
72. Oretel T.L. Laboratory diagnosis of antiphosphopholipid syndrome. Curr. Rheumatol. Rep. 2012, 14:64-70.
73. Hoxha A., Ruffatti A., Tonello M., Bontadi A., Salvan E., Banzato A., Pengo V., Punzi L. Antiphosphatidylserine/prothrombin antibodies in primary antiphospholipid syndrome. Lupus 2012, 21:787-789.
74. Lockshin M.D., Kim M., Laskin C.A., Guerra M., Branch D.W., Merrill J., Petri M., Porter T.F., Sammaritano L., Stephenson M.D., Buyon J., Salmon J.E. Prediction of adverse pregnancy outcome by the presence of lupus anticoagulant, but not anticardiolipin antibody, in patients with antiphospholipid antibodies. Arthritis Rheum. 2012, 64:2311-2318.
75. Otomo K., Atsumi T., Amengual O., Fujieda Y., Kato M., Oku K., Horita T., Yasuda S., Koike T. Efficacy of the antiphospholipid score for the diagnosis of antiphospholipid syndrome and its predictive value for thrombotic events. Arthritis Rheum. 2012, 64:504-512.
76. Sciascia S., Sanna G., Murru V., Roccatello D., Khamashta M.A., Bertolaccini M.L. GAPSS: the global anti-phospholipid syndrome score. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2013, 52:1397-1403.
77. Sciascia S., Sanna G., Murru V., Roccatello D., Khamashta M.A., Bertolaccini M.L. Anti-prothrombin (aPT) and anti-phosphatidylserine/prothrombin (aPS/PT) antibodies and the risk of thrombosis in the antiphospholipid syndrome. A systematic review. Thromb. Res. Thromb. Haemost. 2014, 111:354-364.
78. Jaskowski T.D., Wilson A.R., Hill H.R., Branch W.D., Tebo A.E. Autoantibodies against phosphatidylserine, prothrombin and phosphatidylserine-prothrombin complex: identical or distinct diagnostic tools for antiphospholipid syndrome?. Clin. Chim. Acta 2009, 410:19-24.
79. Nash M.J., Camilleri R.S., Kunka S., Mackie I.J., Machin S.J., Cohen H. The anticardiolipin assay is required for sensitive screening for antiphospholipid antibodies. J. Thromb. Haemost. 2004, 2:1077-1081.
80. Echigo T., Hasegawa M., Inaoki M., Yamazaki M., Sato S., Takehara K. Antiphospholipid antibodies in patients with autoimmune blistering disease. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 2007, 57:397-400.
81. Hasegawa M., Fujimoto M., Hayakawa I., Matsushita T., Nishijima C., Yamazaki M., Takehara K., Sato S. Anti-phosphatidylserine-prothrombin complex antibodies in patients with localized scleroderma. Clin. Exp. Rheumatol. 2006, 24:19-24.
82. Kawakami T., Yamazaki M., Mizoguchi M., Soma Y. High titer of anti-phosphatidylserine-prothrombin complex antibodies in patients with cutaneous polyarteritis nodosa. Arthritis Rheum. 2007, 57:1507-1513.
83. Kawakami T., Yamazaki M., Mizoguchi M., Soma Y. High titer of serum antiphospholipid antibody levels in adult Henoch-Schönlein purpura and cutaneous leukocytoclastic angiitis. Arthritis Rheum. 2008, 59:561-567.
84. Kawakami T., Yamazaki M., Mizoguchi M., Soma Y. Differences in anti-phosphatidylserine-prothrombin complex antibodies and cutaneous vasculitis between regular livedo reticularis and livedo racemosa. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2009, 48:508-512.
85. Žigon P., Čučnik S., Ambrožič A., Kveder T., Šemrl S.S., Rozman B., Božič B. Detection of antiphosphatidylserine/prothrombin antibodies and their potential diagnostic value. Clin. Dev. Immunol. 2013, 20:724592.
86. Sciascia S., Sanna G., Murru V., Khamashta M.A., Bertolaccini M.L. Validation of a commercially available kit to detect anti-phosphatidylserine/prothrombin antibodies in a cohort of systemic lupus erythematosus patients. Thromb. Res. 2014, 133:451-454.
87. Amengual O., Horita T., Binder W., Norman G.L., Shums Z., Kato M., Otomo K., Fujieda Y., Oku K., Bohgaki T., Yasuda S., Atsumi T. Comparative analysis of different enzyme immunoassays for assessment of phosphatidylserine-dependent antiprothrombin antibodies. Rheumatol. Int. 2014, 34:1225-1230.
88. Pierangeli S.S., Harris E.N. A quarter of a century in anticardiolipin antibody testing and attempted standardization has led us to here, which is?. Semin. Thromb. Hemost. 2008, 34:313-328.
89. Lakos G., Favaloro E.J., Harris E.N., Meroni P.L., Tincani A., Wong R.C., Pierangeli S.S. International consensus guidelines on anticardiolipin and anti-β2-glycoprotein I testing: report from the 13th International Congress on antiphospholipid antibodies. Arthritis Rheum. 2012, 64:1-10.
90. Willis R., Grossi C., Orietta Borghi M., Martos-Sevilla G., Zegers I., Sheldon J., Meroni P.L. International standards for IgG and IgM anti-β2 glycoprotein antibody measurement. Lupus 2014, 23:1317-1319.
91. Lakos G., Teodorescu M. IgM, but not IgA rheumatoid factor interferes with anti-cardiolipin and antiβ2 glycoprotein I measurements: a quantitative analysis. Lupus 2011, 20:614-619.
92. Galli M., Barbui T. Antiphospholipid syndrome: clinical and diagnostic utility of laboratory tests. Semin. Thromb. Hemost. 2005, 31:17-24.
93. de Larrañaga G.F., Forastiero R.R., Martinuzzo M.E., Carreras L.O., Tsariktsian G., Sturno M.M., Alonso B.S. High prevalence of antiphospholipid antibodies in leprosy: evaluation of antigen reactivity. Lupus 2000, 9:594-600.
94. Arvieux J., Renaudineau Y., Mane I., Perraut R., Krilis S.A., Youinou P. Distinguishing features of anti-beta2 glycoprotein I antibodies between patients with leprosy and the antiphospholipid syndrome. Thromb. Haemost. 2002, 87:599-605.
95. Loizou S., Singh S., Wypkema E., Asherson R.A. Anticardiolipin, anti-beta(2)-glycoprotein I and antiprothrombin antibodies in black South African patients with infectious disease. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 2003, 62:1106-1111.
96. Zachou K., Liaskos C., Christodoulou D.K., Kardasi M., Papadamou G., Gatselis N., Georgiadou S.P., Tsianos E.V., Dalekos G.N. Anti-cardiolipin antibodies in patients with chronic viral hepatitis are independent of beta2-glycoprotein I cofactor or features of antiphospholipid syndrome. Eur. J. Clin. Invest. 2003, 33:161-168.
97. Galrão L., Brites C., Atta M.L., Atta A., Lima I., Gonzalez F., Magalhães F., Santiago M. Antiphospholipid antibodies in HIV-positive patients. Clin. Rheumatol. 2007, 26:1825-1830.
98. Suh-Lailam B.B., Cromar A., Davis K.W., Tebo A.E. APhL antibody ELISA as an alternative to anticardiolipin test for the diagnosis of antiphospholipid syndrome. Int. J. Clin. Exp. Pathol. 2012, 5:210-215.