Nanoscale effects in water splitting photocatalysis

Topics in Current Chemistry

Volumn 371, Issue , 2015, Pages 105-142

  Osterloh, Frank E ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

Fermi Level; Junction; Metal Oxide; Recombination; Surface Photovoltage

Indexed keywords

EID: 84944810997     PISSN: 03401022     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1007/128_2015_633     Document Type: Chapter

References (209)

1. Lewis NS, Nocera DG (2006) Powering the planet: chemical challenges in solar energy utilization. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 103(43): 15729-15735.
2. Lewis NS, Crabtree G, Nozik AJ, Wasielewski MR, Alivisatos AP (2005) Basic research needs for solar energy utilization. Department of Energy http://science. energy. gov/bes/news-and-resources/reports/.
3. Green MA, Emery K, Hishikawa Y, Warta W, Dunlop ED (2015) Solar cell efficiency tables (Version 45). Prog Photovolt Res Appl 23(1): 1-9.
4. Peharz G, Dimroth F, Wittstadt U (2007) Solar hydrogen production by water splitting with a conversion efficiency of 18%. Int J Hydrogen Energy 32(15): 3248-3252.
5. Nocera DG (2012) The Artificial Leaf. Acc Chem Res 45(5): 767-776.
6. Reece SY, Hamel JA, Sung K, Jarvi TD, Esswein AJ, Pijpers JJH, Nocera DG (2011) Wireless solar water splitting using silicon-based semiconductors and Earth-abundant catalysts. Science 334(6056): 645-648.
7. Luo J, Im J-H, Mayer MT, Schreier M, Nazeeruddin MK, Park N-G, Tilley SD, Fan HJ, Grätzel M (2014) Water photolysis at 12. 3% efficiency via perovskite photovoltaics and Earth-abundant catalysts. Science 345(6204): 1593-1596.
8. Gratzel M, Park NG (2014) Organometal halide perovskite photovoltaics: a diamond in the rough. Nano 9(5): 1440002-1440009.
9. Walter MG, Warren EL, McKone JR, Boettcher SW, Mi QX, Santori EA, Lewis NS (2010) Solar water splitting cells. Chem Rev 110(11): 6446-6473.
10. Khaselev O, Turner JA (1998) A monolithic photovoltaic-photoelectrochemical device for hydrogen production via water splitting. Science 280(5362): 425-427.
11. Bolton JR, Strickler SJ, Connolly JS (1985) Limiting and realizable efficiencies of solar photolysis of water. Nature 316(6028): 495-500.
12. Varghese OK, Grimes CA (2008) Appropriate strategies for determining the photoconversion efficiency of water photo electrolysis cells: a review with examples using titania nanotube array photoanodes. Sol Energy Mat Sol C 92(4): 374-384.
13. Sathre R, Scown CD, Morrow WR, Stevens JC, Sharp ID, Ager JW, Walczak K, Houle FA, Greenblatt JB (2014) Life-cycle net energy assessment of large-scale hydrogen production via photoelectrochemical water splitting. Energy Environ Sci 7: 3264-3278.
14. Ronge J, Bosserez T, Martel D, Nervi C, Boarino L, Taulelle F, Decher G, Bordiga S, Martens JA (2014) Monolithic cells for solar fuels. Chem Soc Rev 43: 7963-7981.
15. Osterloh FE (2008) Inorganic materials as catalysts for photochemical splitting of water. Chem Mater 20(1): 35-54.
16. Maeda K (2013) Z-Scheme water splitting using two different semiconductor photocatalysts. ACS Catal 3(7): 1486-1503.
17. Kudo A (2011) Z-Scheme photocatalyst systems for water splitting under visible light irradiation. MRS Bull 36(1): 32-38.
18. Maeda K, Teramura K, Saito N, Inoue Y, Kobayashi H, Domen K (2006) Overall water splitting using (oxy)nitride photocatalysts. Pure Appl Chem 78(12): 2267-2276.
19. Rajeshwar K (2007) Hydrogen generation at irradiated oxide semiconductor-solution interfaces. J Appl Electrochem 37(7): 765-787.
20. Maeda K (2011) Photocatalytic water splitting using semiconductor particles: history and recent developments. J Photoch Photobio C 12(4): 237-268.
21. Maeda K, Domen K (2007) New non-oxide photocatalysts designed for overall water splitting under visible light. J Phys Chem C 111(22): 7851-7861.
22. Kudo A, Miseki Y (2009) Heterogeneous photocatalyst materials for water splitting. Chem Soc Rev 38(1): 253-278.
23. Abe R (2010) Recent progress on photocatalytic and photoelectrochemical water splitting under visible light irradiation. J Photoch Photobio C 11(4): 179-209.
24. Osterloh FE, Parkinson BA (2011) Recent developments in solar water splitting photocatalysis. MRS Bull 36(1): 17-22.
25. Pinaud BA, Benck JD, Seitz LC, Forman AJ, Chen ZB, Deutsch TG, James BD, Baum KN, Baum GN, Ardo S, Wang HL, Miller E, Jaramillo TF (2013) Technical and economic feasibility of centralized facilities for solar hydrogen production via photocatalysis and photoelectrochemistry. Energy Environ Sci 6(7): 1983-2002.
26. James BD, Baum GN, Perez J, BaumKNhttp://www1. eere. energy. gov/hydrogenandfuelcells/pdfs/pec_technoeconomic_analysis. pdf.
27. Bard AJ, Fox MA (1995) Artificial photosynthesis-solar splitting of water to hydrogen and oxygen. Acc Chem Res 28(3): 141-145.
28. Mills A, LeHunte S (1997) An overview of semiconductor photocatalysis. J Photoch Photobio A 108(1): 1-35.
29. Nozik AJ (1978) Photoelectrochemistry-applications to solar-energy conversion. Ann Rev Phys Chem 29: 189-222.
30. Memming R (1994) Photoinduced charge-transfer processes at semiconductor electrodes and particles. Electron Transfer I 169: 105-181.
31. Krol R (2012) Principles of photoelectrochemical cells. In: van de Krol R, Grätzel M (eds) Photoelectrochemical hydrogen production, vol 102. Springer, USA, pp 13-67.
32. Kato H, Asakura K, Kudo A (2003) Highly efficient water splitting into H-2 and O-2 over lanthanum-doped NaTaO3 photocatalysts with high crystallinity and surface nanostructure. J Am Chem Soc 125(10): 3082-3089.
33. Ohno T, Bai L, Hisatomi T, Maeda K, Domen K (2012) Photocatalytic water splitting using modified GaN: ZnO solid solution under visible light: long-time operation and regeneration of activity. J Am Chem Soc 134(19): 8254-8259.
34. Maeda K, Teramura K, Lu DL, Takata T, Saito N, Inoue Y, Domen K (2006) Characterization of Rh-Cr mixed-oxide nanoparticles dispersed on (Ga1-xZnx)(N1-xOx) as a cocatalyst for visible-light-driven overall water splitting. J Phys Chem B 110(28): 13753-13758.
35. Maeda K, Teramura K, Lu DL, Takata T, Saito N, Inoue Y, Domen K (2006) Photocatalyst releasing hydrogen from water-enhancing catalytic performance holds promise for hydrogen production by water splitting in sunlight. Nature 440(7082): 295-295.
36. Zou ZG, Ye JH, Sayama K, Arakawa H (2001) Direct splitting of water under visible light irradiation with an oxide semiconductor photocatalyst. Nature 414(6864): 625-627.
37. Zou ZG, Arakawa H (2003) Direct water splitting into H-2 and O-2 under visible light irradiation with a new series of mixed oxide semiconductor photocatalysts. J Photoch Photobio A 158(2-3): 145-162.
38. Liao L, Zhang Q, Su Z, Zhao Z, Wang Y, Li Y, Lu X, Wei D, Feng G, Yu Q, Cai X, Zhao J, Ren Z, Fang H, Robles-Hernandez F, Baldelli S, Bao J (2014) Efficient solar water-splitting using a nanocrystalline CoO photocatalyst. Nat Nano 9(1): 69-73.
39. Hara M, Kondo T, Komoda M, Ikeda S, Shinohara K, Tanaka A, Kondo JN, Domen K (1998) Cu2O as a photocatalyst for overall water splitting under visible light irradiation. Chem Commun 3: 357-358.
40. de Jongh PE, Vanmaekelbergh D, Kelly JJ (1999) Cu2O: a catalyst for the photochemical decomposition of water? Chem Commun 12: 1069-1070.
41. Malingowski AC, Stephens PW, Huq A, Huang QZ, Khalid S, Khalifah PG (2012) Substitutional mechanism of Ni into the wide-band-gap semiconductor in TaO4 and its implications for water splitting activity in the wolframite structure type. Inorg Chem 51(11): 6096-6103.
42. Duonghong D, Borgarello E, Gratzel M (1981) Dynamics of light-induced water cleavage in colloidal systems. J Am Chem Soc 103(16): 4685-4690.
43. Bard AJ (1979) Photoelectrochemistry and heterogeneous photocatalysis at semiconductors. J Photochem 10(1): 59-75.
44. Kato H, Sasaki Y, Shirakura N, Kudo A (2013) Synthesis of highly active rhodium-soped SrTiO3 powders in Z-scheme systems for visible-light-driven photocatalytic overall water splitting. J Mater Chem A 1(39): 12327-12333.
45. 2 coatings stabilize Si, GaAs, and GaP photoanodes for efficient water oxidation. Science 344(6187): 1005-1009.
46. Paracchino A, Laporte V, Sivula K, Graetzel M, Thimsen E (2011) Highly active oxide photocathode for photoelectrochemical water reduction. Nat Mater 10(6): 456-461.
47. Joshi UA, Palasyuk A, Arney D, Maggard PA (2010) Semiconducting oxides to facilitate the conversion of solar energy to chemical fuels. J Phys Chem Lett 1(18): 2719-2726.
48. Woodhouse M, Parkinson BA (2008) Combinatorial discovery and optimization of a complex oxide with water photoelectrolysis activity. Chem Mater 20(7): 2495-2502.
49. Woodhouse M, Herman GS, Parkinson BA (2005) Combinatorial approach to identification of catalysts for the photoelectrolysis of water. Chem Mater 17(17): 4318-4324.
50. Woodhouse M, Parkinson BA (2009) Combinatorial approaches for the identification and optimization of oxide semiconductors for efficient solar photoelectrolysis. Chem Soc Rev 38(1): 197-210.
51. Jaramillo TF, Baeck SH, Kleiman-Shwarsctein A, Choi KS, Stucky GD, McFarland EW (2005) Automated electrochemical synthesis and photoelectrochemical characterization of Zn1-xCoxO thin films for solar hydrogen production. J Comb Chem 7(2): 264-271.
52. Katz JE, Gingrich TR, Santori EA, Lewis NS (2009) Combinatorial synthesis and highthroughput photopotential and photocurrent screening of mixed-metal oxides for photoelectrochemical water splitting. Energy Environ Sci 2(1): 103-112.
53. Dingle R, Wiegmann W, Henry CH (1974) Quantum states of confined carriers in very thin AlxGa1-xAs-GaAs-AlxGa1-xAs heterostructures. Phys Rev Lett 33(14): 827-830.
54. Henglein A (1982) Photo-degradation and fluorescence of colloidal-cadmium sulfide in aqueous-solution. Phys Chem Chem Phys 86(4): 301-305.
55. Fojtik A, Weller H, Koch U, Henglein A (1984) Photo-chemistry of colloidal metal sulfides. 8. Photo-physics of extremely small CDS particle S-Q-state CDS and magic agglomeration numbers. Phys Chem Chem Phys 88(10): 969-977.
56. Brus LE (1983) A simple-model for the ionization-potential, electron-affinity, and aqueous redox potentials of small semiconductor crystallites. J Chem Phys 79(11): 5566-5571.
57. Vayssieres L (2009) On solar hydrogen & nanotechnology. Wiley, Singapore/Hoboken, p xxi, 680 pp, 16 p.
58. Hoertz PG, Mallouk TE (2005) Light-to-chemical energy conversion in lamellar solids and thin films. Inorg Chem 44(20): 6828-6840.
59. Hagfeldt A, Gratzel M (1995) Light-induced redox reactions in nanocrystalline systems. Chem Rev 95(1): 49-68.
60. Zhu JF, Zach M (2009) Nanostructured materials for photocatalytic hydrogen production. Curr Opin Colloid Interface Sci 14(4): 260-269.
61. Kamat PV (2007) Meeting the clean energy demand: nanostructure architectures for solar energy conversion. J Phys Chem C 111(7): 2834-2860.
62. Kamat PV, Dimitrijevic NM (1990) Colloidal semiconductors as photocatalysts for solarenergy conversion. Sol Energy 44(2): 83-98.
63. Kamat PV, Tvrdy K, Baker DR, Radich JG (2010) Beyond photovoltaics: semiconductor nanoarchitectures for liquid-junction solar cells. Chem Rev 110(11): 6664-6688.
64. Zhang JZ (2011) Metal oxide nanomaterials for solar hydrogen generation from photoelectrochemical water splitting. MRS Bull 36(1): 48-55.
65. Foley JM, Price MJ, Feldblyum JI, Maldonado S (2012) Analysis of the operation of thin nanowire photoelectrodes for solar energy conversion. Energy Environ Sci 5(1): 5203-5220.
66. Jaegermann W, Tributsch H (1988) Interfacial properties of semiconducting transition-metal chalcogenides. Prog Surf Sci 29(1-2): 1-167.
67. van de Krol R, Liang YQ, Schoonman J (2008) Solar hydrogen production with nanostructured metal oxides. J Mater Chem 18(20): 2311-2320.
68. Umena Y, Kawakami K, Shen JR, Kamiya N (2011) Crystal structure of oxygen-evolving photosystem II at a resolution of 1. 9 Å. Nature 473(7345): 55-U65.
69. 2. J Electrochem Soc 115(2): 199.
70. Freund T, Gomes WP (1970) Electrochemical methods for investigating catalysis by semiconductors. Catal Rev 3(1): 1-36.
71. Fujishima A, Honda K (1971) Studies on photosensitive electrode reactions. 3. Electrochemical evidence for mechanism of primary stage of photosynthesis. B Chem Soc Jpn 44(4): 1148-1150.
72. Fujishima A, Honda K (1972) Electrochemical photolysis of water at a semiconductor electrode. Nature 238(5358): 37-38.
73. Henglein A (1989) Small-particle research-physicochemical properties of extremely small colloidal metal and semiconductor particles. Chem Rev 89(8): 1861-1873.
74. Kalyanasundaram K, Gratzel M(1979) Cyclic cleavage of water into H-2 and O-2 by visiblelight with coupled redox catalysts. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 18(9): 701-702.
75. Mills A, Porter G (1982) Photosensitized dissociation of water using dispersed suspensions of N-type semiconductors. J Chem Soc Faraday T I 78: 3659-3669.
76. Nozik AJ (1977) Photochemical diodes. Appl Phys Lett 30(11): 567-569.
77. Würfel P (2005) Physics of solar cells. Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, p 244.
78. Berger LI (2008) Optical properties of selected inorganic and organic solids. In: Lide DR (ed) CRC handbook of chemistry and physics, vol 88. CRC/Taylor and Francis, Boca Raton.
79. Maiolo JR, Atwater HA, Lewis NS (2008) Macroporous silicon as a model for silicon wire array solar cells. J Phys Chem C 112(15): 6194-6201.
80. Berger LI (2008) Properties of semiconductors. In: Lide DR (ed) CRC handbook of chemistry and physics, vol 88. CRC/Taylor and Francis, Boca Raton.
81. Huda MN, Al-Jassim MM, Turner JA (2011) Mott insulators: an early selection criterion for materials for photoelectrochemical H(2) production. J Renew Sustain Energy 3(5): 053101-1-053101-10.
82. Cox PA (2010) Transition metal oxides: an introduction to their electronic structure and properties. Clarendon/Oxford University Press, Oxford/New York.
83. Sabio EM, Chamousis RL, Browning ND, Osterloh FE (2012) Correction: photocatalytic water splitting with suspended calcium niobium oxides: why nanoscale is better than bulk-a kinetic analysis. J Phys Chem C 116(35): 19051-19051.
84. Sabio EM, Chamousis RL, Browning ND, Osterloh FE (2012) Photocatalytic water splitting with suspended calcium niobium oxides: why nanoscale is better than bulk-a kinetic analysis. J Phys Chem C 116(4): 3161-3170.
85. Laser D, Bard AJ (1976) Semiconductor electrodes. 9. digital-simulation of relaxation of photogenerated free carriers and photocurrents. J Electrochem Soc 123(12): 1837-1842.
86. Morrison SR (1980) Electrochemistry at semiconductor and oxidized metal electrodes. Plenum, New York, p xiv, 401.
87. Pleskov YV, GurevichYY(1986) Semiconductor photoelectrochemistry. Consultants Bureau, New York, p xxv, 422.
88. Salvador P (2001) Semiconductors' photoelectrochemistry: a kinetic and thermodynamic analysis in the light of equilibrium and nonequilibrium models. J Phys Chem B 105(26): 6128-6141.
89. Townsend TK, Sabio EM, Browning ND, Osterloh FE (2011) Photocatalytic water oxidation with suspended alpha-Fe2O3 particles-effects of nanoscaling. Energy Env Sci 4: 4270-4275.
90. 2. Phys Rev B 3(16).
91. 2 nanocrystals under visible and UV light. J Am Chem Soc 133(19): 7264-7267.
92. Yoffe AD (2001) Semiconductor quantum dots and related systems: electronic, optical, luminescence and related properties of low dimensional systems. Adv Phys 50(1): 1-208.
93. Gerischer H (1990) The impact of semiconductors on the concepts of electrochemistry. Electrochim Acta 35(11-12): 1677-1699.
94. Marcus RA (1964) Chemical + electrochemical electron-transfer theory. Ann Rev Phys Chem 15: 155-196.
95. 2 semiconductor nanoclusters. Phys Chem Chem Phys 4(2): 198-203.
96. 2 nanoparticles. J Am Chem Soc 129(14): 4136-4137.
97. Tvrdy K, Frantsuzov PA, Kamat PV (2011) Photoinduced electron transfer from semiconductor quantum dots to metal oxide nanoparticles. PNAS 108(1): 29-34.
98. Holmes MA, Townsend TK, Osterloh FE (2012) Quantum confinement controlled photocatalytic water splitting by suspended CdSe nanocrystals. Chem Commun 48(3): 371-373.
99. Zhao J, Holmes MA, Osterloh FE (2013) Quantum confinement controls photocatalysis-a free energy analysis for photocatalytic proton reduction at CdSe nanocrystals. ACS Nano 7(5): 4316-4325.
100. Rogach AL, Kornowski A, Gao MY, Eychmuller A, Weller H (1999) Synthesis and characterization of a size series of extremely small thiol-stabilized CdSe nanocrystals. J Phys Chem B 103(16): 3065-3069.
101. Bard AJ, Faulkner LR (2001) Electrochemical methods: fundamentals and applications. 2nd edn. Wiley, New York, p xxi, 833.
102. Waller M, Townsend TK, Zhao J, Sabio EM, Chamousis RL, Browning ND, Osterloh FE (2012) Single-crystal tungsten oxide nanosheets: photochemical water oxidation in the quantum confinement regime. Chem Mater 24(4): 698-704.
103. Sambur JB, Novet T, Parkinson BA (2010) Multiple exciton collection in a sensitized photovoltaic system. Science 330(6000): 63-66.
104. Semonin OE, Luther JM, Choi S, Chen HY, Gao JB, Nozik AJ, Beard MC (2011) Peak external photocurrent quantum efficiency exceeding 100% via MEG in a quantum dot solar cell. Science 334(6062): 1530-1533.
105. Nozik AJ (2002) Quantum dot solar cells. Phys E Low Dimens Syst Nanostruct 14(1-2): 115-120.
106. Kavan L, Gratzel M, Gilbert SE, Klemenz C, Scheel HJ (1996) Electrochemical and photoelectrochemical investigation of single-crystal anatase. J Am Chem Soc 118(28): 6716-6723.
107. Khan SUM, Akikusa J (1999) Photoelectrochemical splitting of water at nanocrystalline n-Fe2O3 thin-film electrodes. J Phys Chem B 103(34): 7184-7189.
108. Atkinson RJ, Posner AM, Quirk JP (1967) Adsorption of potential-determining ions at ferric oxide-aqueous electrolyte interface. J Phys Chem 71(3): 550-558.
109. Brown GE, Henrich VE, Casey WH, Clark DL, Eggleston C, Felmy A, Goodman DW, Gratzel M, Maciel G, McCarthy MI, Nealson KH, Sverjensky DA, Toney MF, Zachara JM (1999) Metal oxide surfaces and their interactions with aqueous solutions and microbial organisms. Chem Rev 99(1): 77-174.
110. Hingston FJ, Atkinson RJ, Posner AM, Quirk JP (1967) Specific adsorption of anions. Nature 215(5109): 1459-1461.
111. Meissner D, Memming R, Kastening B (1988) Photoelectrochemistry of cadmium-sulfide. 1. Reanalysis of photocorrosion and flat-band potential. J Phys Chem 92(12): 3476-3483.
112. Ginley DS, Butler MA (1978) Flatband potential of cadmium-sulfide (Cds) photoanodes and its dependence on surface ion effects. J Electrochem Soc 125(12): 1968-1974.
113. Frese KW, Canfield DG (1984) Adsorption of hydroxide and sulfide ions on single-crystal n-CdSe electrodes. J Electrochem Soc 131(11): 2614-2618.
114. Lincot D, Vedel J (1988) Adsorption of telluride ions on cadmium telluride-consequences for photoelectrochemical cells. J Phys Chem 92(14): 4103-4110.
115. Minoura H, Watanabe T, Oki T, Tsuiki M (1977) Effects of dissolved Cd2+ and S2-ions on flatband potential of CdS electrode in aqueous-solution. Jpn J Appl Phys 16(5): 865-866.
116. Singh P, Singh R, Gale R, Rajeshwar K, Dubow J (1980) Surface-charge and specific ion adsorption effects in photoelectrochemical devices. J Appl Phys 51(12): 6286-6291.
117. Butler MA, Ginley GS (1978) Prediction of flatband potentials at semiconductor-electrolyte interfaces from atomic electronegativies. J Electrochem Soc 125(2): 228-232.
118. Bard AJ, Faulkner LR (2001) Electrochemical methods: fundamentals and applications, 2nd edn. Wiley, New York, p 60.
119. Vanysek P (2008) Electrochemical series. In: CRC handbook of chemistry and physics, vol 88. CRC/Taylor and Francis, Boca Raton.
120. Bard AJ, Faulkner LR (2001) Electrochemical methods: fundamentals and applications, 2nd edn, Wiley, New York, p 550.
121. Grahame DC (1947) The electrical double layer and the theory of electrocapillarity. Chem Rev 41(3): 441-501.
122. Mayer JM (2004) Proton-coupled electron transfer: a reaction chemist's view. Ann Rev Phys Chem 55: 363-390.
123. Chamousis RL, Osterloh FE (2014) Use of potential determining ions to control energetics and photochemical charge transfer of a nanoscale water splitting photocatalyst. Energy Envi Sci 7(2): 736-743.
124. Nozik AJ, Memming R (1996) Physical chemistry of semiconductor-liquid interfaces. J Phys Chem 100(31): 13061-13078.
125. Miller RJD, Memming R (2008) Fundamentals in photoelectrochemistry. In: Archer MD, Nozik AJ (eds) Nanostructured and photoelectrochemical systems for solar photon conversion, vol 3. Imperial College Press, London.
126. Chmiel G, Gerischer H (1990) Photoluminescence at a semiconductor electrolyte contact around and beyond the flat-band potential. J Phys Chem 94(4): 1612-1619.
127. Klahr BM, Hamann TW (2011) Current and voltage limiting processes in thin film hematite electrodes. J Phys Chem C 115(16): 8393-8399.
128. Tan MX, Laibinis PE, Nguyen ST, Kesselman JM, Stanton CE, Lewis NS (1994) Principles and applications of semiconductor photoelectrochemistry. In: Progress in inorganic chemistry, Wiley, New York, vol 41. pp 21-144.
129. 2 in a complete photoelectrochemical cell exhibits efficiencies limited by charge recombination. J Phys Chem C 114(9): 4208-4214.
130. Tang JW, Durrant JR, Klug DR (2008) Mechanism of photocatalytic water splitting in TiO (2). Reaction of water with photoholes, importance of charge carrier dynamics, and evidence for four-hole chemistry. J Am Chem Soc 130(42): 13885-13891.
131. McCrory CCL, Jung SH, Peters JC, Jaramillo TF (2013) Benchmarking heterogeneous electrocatalysts for the oxygen evolution reaction. J Am Chem Soc 135(45): 16977-16987.
132. Popczun EJ, McKone JR, Read CG, Biacchi AJ, Wiltrout AM, Lewis NS, Schaak RE (2013) Nanostructured nickel phosphide as an electrocatalyst for the hydrogen evolution reaction. J Am Chem Soc 135(25): 9267-9270.
133. Popczun EJ, Read CG, Roske CW, Lewis NS, Schaak RE (2014) Highly active electrocatalysis of the hydrogen evolution reaction by cobalt phosphide nanoparticles. Angew Chem 126(21): 5531-5534.
134. Lewis NS (2005) Chemical control of charge transfer and recombination at semiconductor photoelectrode surfaces. Inorg Chem 44(20): 6900-6911.
135. Shockley W, Queisser HJ (1961) Detailed balance limit of efficiency of p-n junction solar cells. J Appl Phys 32(3): 510-519.
136. Lewis NS (1990) Mechanistic studies of light-induced charge separation at semiconductor liquid interfaces. Acc Chem Res 23(6): 176-183.
137. Lewis NS (2001) Frontiers of research in photoelectrochemical solar energy conversion. J Electroanal Chem 508(1-2): 1-10.
138. Yablonovitch E, Allara DL, Chang CC, Gmitter T, Bright TB (1986) Unusually low surface recombination velocity on silicon and germanium surfaces. Phys Rev Lett 57(2): 249-252.
139. Diebold U (2003) The surface science of titanium dioxide. Surf Sci Rep 48(5-8): 53-229.
140. Cummings CY, Marken F, Peter LM, Tahir AA, Wijayantha KGU (2012) Kinetics and mechanism of light-driven oxygen evolution at thin film alpha-Fe2O3 electrodes. Chem Commun 48(14): 2027-2029.
141. 2 particles-significant effect of Na2CO3 addition on water splitting. In: Kaneko M, Okura I (eds) Photocatalysis science and technology. Springer, New York, pp 235-248.
142. Saito K, Koga K, Kudo A (2011) Lithium niobate nanowires for photocatalytic water splitting. Dalton Trans 40(15): 3909-3913.
143. Yan SC, Wan LJ, Li ZS, Zou ZG (2011) Facile temperature-controlled synthesis of hexagonal Zn(2)GeO(4) nanorods with different aspect ratios toward improved photocatalytic activity for overall water splitting and photoreduction of CO(2). Chem Commun 47(19): 5632-5634.
144. Pala RA, Leenheer AJ, Lichterman M, Atwater HA, Lewis NS (2014) Measurement of minority-carrier diffusion lengths using wedge-shaped semiconductor photoelectrodes. Energy Environ Sci 7(10): 3424-3430.
145. Pendlebury SR, Cowan AJ, Barroso M, Sivula K, Ye JH, Gratzel M, Klug DR, Tang JW, Durrant JR (2012) Correlating long-lived photogenerated hole populations with photocurrent densities in hematite water oxidation photoanodes. Energy Environ Sci 5(4): 6304-6312.
146. Hagedorn K, Forgacs C, Collins S, Maldonado S (2010) Design considerations for nanowire heterojunctions in solar energy conversion/storage applications. J Phys Chem C 114(27): 12010-12017.
147. Maruyama M, Iwase A, Kato H, Kudo A, Onishi H (2009) Time-resolved infrared absorption study of NaTaO3 photocatalysts doped with alkali earth metals. J Phys Chem C 113(31): 13918-13923.
148. Garnett EC, Yang PD (2008) Silicon nanowire radial p-n junction solar cells. J Am Chem Soc 130(29): 9224.
149. Wu P, Wang J, Zhao J, Guo L, Osterloh FE (2014) Structure defects in g-C3N4 limit visible light driven hydrogen evolution and photovoltage. J Mater Chem A 2(47): 20338-20344.
150. Osterloh FE (2014) Boosting the efficiency of suspended photocatalysts for overall water splitting. J Phys Chem Lett 5(15): 2510-2511.
151. Le Formal F, Tetreault N, Cornuz M, Moehl T, Gratzel M, Sivula K (2011) Passivating surface states on water splitting hematite photoanodes with alumina overlayers. Chem Sci 2(4): 737-743.
152. Spray RL, McDonald KJ, Choi K-S (2011) Enhancing photoresponse of nanoparticulate alpha-Fe2O3 electrodes by surface composition tuning. J Phys Chem C 115(8): 3497-3506.
153. Liang YQ, Tsubota T, Mooij LPA, van de Krol R (2011) Highly improved quantum efficiencies for thin film BiVO4 photoanodes. J Phys Chem C 115(35): 17594-17598.
154. Zhong DK, Choi S, Gamelin DR (2011) Near-complete suppression of surface recombination in solar photoelectrolysis by "Co-Pi" catalyst-modified W: BiVO4. J Am Chem Soc 133(45): 18370-18377.
155. Osterloh FE (2014) Maximum theoretical efficiency limit of photovoltaic devices: effect of band structure on excited state entropy. J Phys Chem Lett 2014: 3354-3359.
156. Gerischer H (1966) Electrochemical behavior of semiconductors under illumination. J Electrochem Soc 113(11): 1174-1182.
157. Polman A, Atwater HA (2012) Photonic design principles for ultrahigh-efficiency photovoltaics. Nat Mater 11(3): 174-177.
158. Hodes G, Howell IDJ, Peter LM (1992) Nanocrystalline photoelectrochemical cells-a new concept in photovoltaic cells. J Electrochem Soc 139(11): 3136-3140.
159. Cesar I, Sivula K, Kay A, Zboril R, Graetzel M (2009) Influence of feature size, film thickness, and silicon doping on the performance of nanostructured hematite photoanodes for solar water splitting. J Phys Chem C 113(2): 772-782.
160. Oregan B, Moser J, Anderson M, Gratzel M (1990) Vectorial electron injection into transparent semiconductor membranes and electric-field effects on the dynamics of light-induced charge separation. J Phys Chem 94(24): 8720-8726.
161. Dloczik L, Ileperuma O, Lauermann I, Peter LM, Ponomarev EA, Redmond G, Shaw NJ, Uhlendorf I (1997) Dynamic response of dye-sensitized nanocrystalline solar cells: characterization by intensity-modulated photocurrent spectroscopy. J Phys Chem B 101(49): 10281-10289.
162. Giebink NC, Wiederrecht GP, Wasielewski MR, Forrest SR (2011) Thermodynamic efficiency limit of excitonic solar cells. Phys Rev B 83(19): 195326-1-195326-6.
163. 2 over niobate and titanate photocatalysts with (111) plane-type layered perovskite structure. Energy Environ Sci 2(3): 306-314.
164. Matsumoto Y, Ida S, Inoue T (2008) Photodeposition of metal and metal oxide at the TiOx nanosheet to observe the photocatalytic active site. J Phys Chem C 112(31): 11614-11616.
165. Sabio EM, Chi M, Browning ND, Osterloh FE (2010) Charge separation in a niobate nanosheet photocatalyst studied with photochemical labeling. Langmuir 26(10): 7254-7261.
166. Li RG, Han HX, Zhang FX, Wang DG, Li C (2014) Highly efficient photocatalysts constructed by rational assembly of dual-cocatalysts separately on different facets of BiVO4. Energy Environ Sci 7(4): 1369-1376.
167. Giocondi JL, Rohrer GS (2001) Spatially selective photochemical reduction of silver on the surface of ferroelectric barium titanate. Chem Mater 13(2): 241-242.
168. Yang SY, Seidel J, Byrnes SJ, Shafer P, Yang CH, Rossell MD, Yu P, Chu YH, Scott JF, Ager JW, Martin LW, Ramesh R (2010) Above-bandgap voltages from ferroelectric photovoltaic devices. Nat Nanotechnol 5(2): 143-147.
169. Li L, Salvador PA, Rohrer GS (2014) Photocatalysts with internal electric fields. Nanoscale 6(1): 24-42.
170. Abdi FF, Han LH, Smets AHM, Zeman M, Dam B, van de Krol R (2013) Efficient solar water splitting by enhanced charge separation in a bismuth vanadate-silicon tandem photoelectrode. Nat Commun 2013: 4.
171. Dittrich T, Belaidi A, Ennaoui A (2011) Concepts of inorganic solid-state nanostructured solar cells. Sol Energy Mater 95(6): 1527-1536.
172. Du C, Yang XG, Mayer MT, Hoyt H, Xie J, McMahon G, Bischoping G, Wang DW (2013) Hematite-based water splitting with low turn-on voltages. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 52(48): 12692-12695.
173. Pasquarelli RM, Ginley DS, O'Hayre R (2011) Solution processing of transparent conductors: from flask to film. Chem Soc Rev 40(11): 5406-5441.
174. Sodergren S, Hagfeldt A, Olsson J, Lindquist SE (1994) Theoretical-models for the action spectrum and the current-voltage characteristics of microporous semiconductor-films in photoelectrochemical cells. J Phys Chem 98(21): 5552-5556.
175. 2-films-the charge separation process studied by means of action spectra in the UV region. Sol Energy Mat Sol C 27(4): 293-304.
176. Bisquert J, Vikhrenko VS (2004) Interpretation of the time constants measured by kinetic techniques in nanostructured semiconductor electrodes and dye-sensitized solar cells. J Phys Chem B 108(7): 2313-2322.
177. 2 films-the effect of oxygen studied by photocurrent transients. J Electroanal Chem 381(1-2): 39-46.
178. Abeles B, Sheng P, Coutts MD, Arie Y (1975) Structural and electrical properties of granular metal-films. Adv Phys 24(3): 407-461.
179. Terrill RH, Postlethwaite TA, Chen CH, Poon CD, Terzis A, Chen AD, Hutchison JE, Clark MR, Wignall G, Londono JD, Superfine R, Falvo M, Johnson CS, Samulski ET, Murray RW (1995) Monolayers in three dimensions: NMR, SAXS, thermal, and electron hopping studies of alkanethiol stabilized gold clusters. J Am Chem Soc 117(50): 12537-12548.
180. Yokoi T, Sakuma J, Maeda K, Domen K, Tatsumi T, Kondo JN (2011) Preparation of a colloidal array of NaTaO(3) nanoparticles via a confined space synthesis route and its photocatalytic application. Phys Chem Chem Phys 13(7): 2563-2570.
181. Townsend TK, Browning ND, Osterloh FE (2012) Nanoscale strontium titanate photocatalysts for overall water splitting. ACS Nano 6(8): 7420-7426.
182. Liu B, Wu C-H, Miao J, Yang P (2014) All inorganic semiconductor nanowire mesh for direct solar water splitting. ACS Nano 8(11): 11739-11744.
183. Liu J, Hisatomi T, Ma G, Iwanaga A, Minegishi T, Moriya Y, Katayama M, Kubota J, Domen K (2014) Improving the photoelectrochemical activity of La5Ti2CuS5O7 for hydrogen evolution by particle transfer and doping. Energy Environ Sci 7(7): 2239-2242.
184. 2N electrodes prepared by particle transfer for sunlight-driven water splitting. Chem Sci 4(3): 1120-1124.
185. 2N photoanodes for water oxidation fabricated by the particle transfer method. Faraday Discuss 176: 213-223.
186. Townsend TK, Sabio EM, Browning ND, Osterloh FE (2011) Improved niobate nanoscroll photocatalysts for partial water splitting. ChemSusChem 4(2): 185-190.
187. Kronik L, Shapira Y (1999) Surface photovoltage phenomena: theory, experiment, and applications. Surf Sci Rep 37: 1-206.
188. Kronik L, Shapira Y (2001) SPV review-short version. Surf Interface Anal 31: 954-965.
189. Zhao J, Osterloh FE (2014) Photochemical charge separation in nanocrystal photocatalyst films-insights from surface photovoltage spectroscopy. J Phys Chem Lett 5: 782-786.
190. Osterloh FE, Holmes MA, Zhao J, Chang L, Kawula S, Roehling JD, Moulé AJ (2014) P3HT: PCBM bulk-heterojunctions: observing interfacial and charge transfer states with surface photovoltage spectroscopy. J Phys Chem C 118(27): 14723-14731.
191. Osterloh FE, Holmes MA, Chang L, Moule AJ, Zhao J (2013) Photochemical charge separation in poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT) films observed with surface photovoltage spectroscopy. J Phys Chem C 117(51): 26905-26913.
192. Lagowski J (1994) Semiconductor surface spectroscopies-the early years. Surf Sci 299 (1-3): 92-101.
193. Luria JL, Hoepker N, Bruce R, Jacobs AR, Groves C, Marohn JA (2012) Spectroscopic imaging of photopotentials and photoinduced potential fluctuations in a bulk heterojunction solar cell film. ACS Nano 6(11): 9392-9401.
194. Burstein L, Bregman J, Shapira Y (1991) Characterization of interface states at III-V compound semiconductor-metal interfaces. J Appl Phys 69(4): 2312-2316.
195. Lagowski J, Jastrzebski L, Cullen GW (1981) Electronic characterization of hetero-epitaxial silicon-on-sapphire by surface photo-voltage spectroscopy. J Electrochem Soc 128(12): 2665-2670.
196. Musser ME, Dahlberg SC (1980) The surface photo-voltage of polymethine semiconductingfilms. J Chem Phys 72(7): 4084-4088.
197. 2: F heterojunction by surface photovoltage spectroscopy. Appl Phys Lett 71(22): 3305-3307.
198. Gross D, Mora-Sero I, Dittrich T, Belaidi A, Mauser C, Houtepen AJ, Da Como E, Rogach AL, Feldmann J (2010) Charge separation in type II tunneling multi layered structures of CdTe and CdSe nanocrystals directly proven by surface photovoltage spectroscopy. J Am Chem Soc 132(17): 5981.
199. Dittrich T, Fiechter S, Thomas A (2011) Surface photovoltage spectroscopy of carbon nitride powder. Appl Phys Lett 99(8): 084105-1-084105-3.
200. Nowotny MK, Bogdanoff P, Dittrich T, Fiechter S, Fujishima A, Tributsch H (2010) Observations of p-type semiconductivity in titanium dioxide at room temperature. Mater Lett 64(8): 928-930.
201. Zidon Y, Shapira Y, Dittrich T, Otero L (2007) Light-induced charge separation in thin tetraphenyl-porphyrin layers deposited on Au. Phys Rev B 75(19).
202. Mandujano-Ramirez HJ, Gonzalez-Vazquez JP, Oskam G, Dittrich T, Garcia-Belmonte G, Mora-Sero I, Bisquert J, Anta JA (2014) Charge separation at disordered semiconductor heterojunctions from random walk numerical simulations. Phys Chem Chem Phys 16(9): 4082-4091.
203. 2/porphyrin-C-60 dyad system. J Mater Chem 17(20): 2107-2112.
204. Herzog C, Belaidi A, Ogacho A, Dittrich T (2009) Inorganic solid state solar cell with ultrathin nanocomposite absorber based on nanoporous TiO(2) and In(2)S(3). Energy Environ Sci 2(9): 962-964.
205. Maeda K, Mallouk TE (2009) Comparison of two-and three-layer restacked Dion-Jacobson phase niobate nanosheets as catalysts for photochemical hydrogen evolution. J Mater Chem 19(27): 4813-4818.
206. Compton OC, Osterloh FE (2009) Niobate nanosheets as catalysts for photochemical water splitting into hydrogen and hydrogen peroxide. J Phys Chem C 113(1): 479-485.
207. Lide DR (2008) Electron work function of the elements. In: CRC handbook of chemistry and physics, vol 88. CRC/Taylor and Francis, Boca Raton.
208. Wang J, Osterloh FE (2014) Limiting factors for photochemical charge separation in BiVO4/Co3O4, a highly active photocatalyst for water oxidation in sunlight. J Mater Chem A 2: 9405-9411.
209. 3 solution. Catal Lett 53(3-4): 229-230.