Role of dust direct radiative effect on the tropical rain belt over middle east and North Africa: A high-resolution AGCM study

Journal of Geophysical Research

Volumn 120, Issue 10, 2015, Pages 4564-4584

  Bangalath, Hamza Kunhu ^a   Stenchikov, Georgiy ^a  

^a KING ABDULLAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY   (Saudi Arabia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CLIMATE CHANGE; DUST; ENSEMBLE FORECASTING; HADLEY CELL; RADIATIVE FORCING; RAINFALL;

MIDDLE EAST; NORTH AFRICA; SAHARA;

EID: 84932197688     PISSN: 01480227     EISSN: 21562202     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/2015JD023122     Document Type: Article

References (108)

1. Ackerman, S. A., and H. Chung (1992), Radiative effects of airborne dust on regional energy budgets at the top of the atmosphere, J. Appl. Meteorol., 31(2), 223-233, doi:10.1175/1520-0450(1992)031<0223:REOADO>2.0.CO;2.
2. Adler, R. F., et al. (2003), The version-2 Global Precipitation Climatology Project (GPCP) monthly precipitation analysis (1979-present), J. Hydrometeorol., 4(6), 1147-1167, doi:10.1175/1525-7541(2003)004<1147:TVGPCP>2.0.CO;2.
3. Ahn, H.-J., S.-U. Park, and L.-S. Chang (2007), Effect of direct radiative forcing of Asian dust on the meteorological fields in East Asia during an Asian dust event period, J. Appl.Meteorol. Climatol., 46(10), 1655-1681, doi:10.1175/JAM2551.1.
4. Allen, R. J., and S. C. Sherwood (2011), The impact of natural versus anthropogenic aerosols on atmospheric circulation in the community atmosphere model, Clim. Dyn., 36(9-10), 1959-1978, doi:10.1007/s00382-010-0898-8.
5. Balkanski, Y., M. Schulz, T. Claquin, and S. Guibert (2007), Reevaluation of mineral aerosol radiative forcings suggests a better agreement with satellite and aeronet data, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 7(1), 81-95, doi:10.5194/acp-7-81-2007.
6. Broccoli, A. J., K. A. Dahl, and R. J. Stouffer (2006), Response of the ITCZ to Northern Hemisphere cooling, Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L01702, doi:10.1029/2005GL024546.
7. Brohan, P., J. J. Kennedy, I. Harris, S. F. Tett, and P. D. Jones (2006), Uncertainty estimates in regional and global observed temperature changes: A new data set from 1850, J. Geophys. Res., 111, D12106, doi:10.1029/2005JD006548.
8. Brooks, N., and M. Legrand (2000), Dust variability over Northern Africa and rainfall in the Sahel, in Linking Climate Change to Land Surface Change, pp. 1-25, Springer, Netherlands, doi:10.1007/0-306-48086-7-1.
9. Chiang, J. C., and C.M. Bitz (2005), Influence of high latitude ice cover on the marine Intertropical Convergence Zone, Clim.Dyn., 25(5), 477-496, doi:10.1007/s00382-005-0040-5.
10. Chung, S. H., and J. H. Seinfeld (2005), Climate response of direct radiative forcing of anthropogenic black carbon, J.Geophys. Res., 110, D11102, doi:10.1029/2004JD005441.
11. Chýlek, P., and J. A. Coakley (1974), Aerosols and climate, Science, 183(4120), 75-77, doi:10.1126/science.183.4120.75.
12. Cook, K. H. (1999), Generation of the African Easterly Jet and its role in determining West African precipitation, J. Clim., 12(5), 1165-1184, doi:10.1175/1520-0442(1999)012<1165:GOTAEJ>2.0.CO;2.
13. Dai, A., P. J. Lamb, K. E. Trenberth, M. Hulme, P. D. Jones, and P. Xie (2004), The recent Sahel drought is real, Int. J. Climatol., 24(11), 1323-1331, doi:10.1002/joc.1083.
14. Donner, L. J., et al. (2011), The dynamical core, physical parameterizations, and basic simulation characteristics of theAtmosphericComponent AM3 of the GFDL global Coupled Model CM3, J. Clim., 24(13), 3484-3519, doi:10.1175/2011JCLI3955.1.
15. Forster, P., et al. (2007), Changes in atmospheric constituents and in radiative forcing, in Climate Change 2007. The Physical Science Basis, edited by S. Solomon et al., chap. 2, pp. 129-234, Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, U. K., and New York.
16. Fox, P., and J. Rockström (2003), Supplemental irrigation for dry-spell mitigation of rainfed agriculture in the Sahel, Agric. Water Manage., 61(1), 29-50, doi:10.1016/S0378-3774(03)00008-8.
17. Freidenreich, S., and V. Ramaswamy (1999), A new multiple-band solar radiative parameterization for general circulation models, J. Geophys. Res., 104(D24), 31,389-31,409, doi:10.1029/1999JD900456.
18. Anderson, J. L., et al. (2004), The new GFDL global atmosphere and land model AM2-LM2: Evaluation with prescribed SST simulations, J. Clim., 17, 4641-4673, doi:10.1175/JCLI-3223.1.
19. Ginoux, P., L.W. Horowitz, V. Ramaswamy, I. V. Geogdzhayev, B. N. Holben, G. Stenchikov, and X. Tie (2006), Evaluation of aerosol distribution and optical depth in the geophysical fluid dynamics laboratory coupled model CM2. 1 For present climate, J. Geophys. Res., 111, D22210, doi:10.1029/2005JD006707.
20. Giorgi, F., and L. O. Mearns (1991), Approaches to the simulation of regional climate change: A review, Rev. Geophys., 29(2), 191-216, doi:10.1029/90RG02636.
21. Hansen, J., M. Sato, and R. Ruedy (1997), Radiative forcing and climate response, J.Geophys. Res., 102(D6), 6831-6864, doi:10.1029/96JD03436.
22. Hansen, J., et al. (2005), Efficacy of climate forcings, J. Geophys. Res., 110, D18104, doi:10.1029/2005JD005776.
23. Haywood, J., B. Johnson, S. Osborne, J. Mulcahy, M. Brooks, M. Harrison, S. Milton, and H. Brindley (2011), Observations and modelling of the solar and terrestrial radiative effects of Saharan dust: A radiative closure case-study over oceans during the GERBILS campaign, Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 137(658), 1211-1226, doi:10.1002/qj.770.
24. Held, I. M., and A. Y. Hou (1980), Nonlinear axially symmetric circulations in a nearly inviscid atmosphere, J. Atmos. Sci., 37(3), 515-533, doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1980)037<0515:NASCIA>2.0.CO;2.
25. Held, I., T. Delworth, J. Lu, K. U. Findell, and T. Knutson (2005), Simulation of Sahel drought in the 20th and 21st centuries, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 102(50), 17,891-17,896, doi:10.1073/pnas.0509057102.
26. Horowitz, L. W., et al. (2003), A global simulation of tropospheric ozone and related tracers: Description and evaluation of MOZART, version 2, J. Geophys. Res., 108(D24), 4784, doi:10.1029/2002JD002853.
27. Houze, R. A., and A. K. Betts (1981), Convection in gate, Rev. Geophys., 19(4), 541-576, doi:10.1029/RG019i004p00541.
28. Hulme, M. (1996), Recent climatic change in the world’s drylands, Geophys. Res. Lett., 23(1), 61-64, doi:10.1029/95GL03586.
29. Hulme, M., and N. Tosdevin (1989), The tropical easterly jet and Sudan rainfall: A review, Theor. Appl. Climatol., 39(4), 179-187, doi:10.1007/BF00867945.
30. Janicot, S. (1992a), Spatiotemporal variability of West African rainfall. Part I: Regionalizations and typings, J. Clim., 5(5), 489-497, doi:10.1175/1520-0442(1992)005<0489:SVOWAR>2.0.CO;2.
31. Janicot, S. (1992b), Spatiotemporal variability of West African rainfall. Part II: Associated surface and airmass characteristics, J. Clim., 5(5), 499-511, doi:10.1175/1520-0442(1992)005<0499:SVOWAR>2.0.CO;2.
32. Jish Prakash, P., G. Stenchikov, S. Kalenderski, S. Osipov, and H. Bangalath (2014), The impact of dust storms on the Arabian Peninsula and the Red Sea, Atmos. Chem. Phys. Discuss., 14(13), 19,181-19,245, doi:10.5194/acp-15-199-2015.
33. Kalenderski, S., G. Stenchikov, and C. Zhao (2013), Modeling a typical winter-time dust event over the Arabian Peninsula and the Red Sea, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 13(4), 1999-2014, doi:10.5194/acp-13-1999-2013.
34. Kaufman, Y., D. Tanré, O. Dubovik, A. Karnieli, and L. Remer (2001), Absorption of sunlight by dust as inferred from satellite and ground-based remote sensing, Geophys. Res. Lett., 28(8), 1479-1482, doi:10.1029/2000GL012647.
35. Kinne, S., et al. (2005), An aerocom initial assessment-optical properties in aerosol componentmodules of globalmodels, Atmos. Chem. Phys. Discuss., 5(5), 8285-8330, doi:10.5194/acp-6-1815-2006.
36. Konare, A., A. Zakey, F. Solmon, F. Giorgi, S. Rauscher, S. Ibrah, and X. Bi (2008), A regional climate modeling study of the effect of desert dust on the West African monsoon, J. Geophys. Res., 113, D12206, doi:10.1029/2007JD009322.
37. Koteswaram, P. (1958), The easterly jet stream in the tropics, Tellus, 10(1), 43-57, doi:10.1111/j.2153-3490.1958.tb01984.x.
38. Lamb, P. J. (1978), Case studies of tropical Atlantic surface circulation patterns during recent sub-Saharan weather anomalies: 1967 and 1968, Mon.Weather Rev., 106(4), 482-491, doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1978)106<0482:CSOTAS>2.0.CO;2.
39. Lamb, P. J., and R. A. Peppler (1992), Further case studies of tropical Atlantic surface atmospheric and oceanic patterns associated with sub-Saharan drought, J. Clim., 5(5), 476-488, doi:10.1175/1520-0442(1992)005<0476:FCSOTA>2.0.CO;2.
40. Lau, K., M. Kim, and K. Kim(2006), Asian summer monsoon anomalies induced by aerosol direct forcing: The role of the Tibetan Plateau, Clim. Dyn., 26(7-8), 855-864, doi:10.1007/s00382-006-0114-z.
41. Lau, K., K. Kim, Y. Sud, and G. Walker (2009), A GCM study of the response of the atmospheric water cycle of West Africa and the Atlantic to Saharan dust radiative forcing, Ann. Geophys., 27, 4023-4037, doi:10.5194/angeo-27-4023-2009.
42. Levin, Z., E. Ganor, and V. Gladstein (1996), The effects of desert particles coated with sulfate on rain formation in the Eastern Mediterranean, J. Appl.Meteorol., 35(9), 1511-1523, doi:10.1175/1520-0450(1996)035<1511:TEODPC>2.0.CO;2.
43. Lin, S.-J. (2004), A “vertically Lagrangian” finite-volume dynamical core for global models, Mon. Weather Rev., 132(10), 2293-2307, doi:10.1175/1520-0493(2004)132<2293:AVLFDC>2.0.CO;2.
44. Lindzen, R. S., and A. V. Hou (1988), Hadley circulations for zonally averaged heating centered off the equator, J. Atmos. Sci., 45(17), 2416-2427, doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1988)045<2416:HCFZAH>2.0.CO;2.
45. Mantsis, D. F., and A. C. Clement (2009), Simulated variability in the mean atmospheric meridional circulation over the 20th century, Geophys. Res. Lett., 36, L06704, doi:10.1029/2008GL036741.
46. Marsham, J. H., P. Knippertz, N. S. Dixon, D. J. Parker, and G. Lister (2011), The importance of the representation of deep convection formodeled dust-generating winds over West Africa during summer, Geophys. Res. Lett., 38, L16803, doi:10.1029/2011GL048368.
47. Miller, R., and I. Tegen (1998), Climate response to soil dust aerosols, J. Clim., 11(12), 3247-3267, doi:10.1175/1520-0442(1998)011<3247:CRTSDA>2.0.CO;2.
48. Miller, R., and I. Tegen (1999), Radiative forcing of a tropical direct circulation by soil dust aerosols, J. Atmos. Sci., 56(14), 2403-2433, doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1999)056<2403:RFOATD>2.0.CO;2.
49. Miller, R., J. Perlwitz, and I. Tegen (2004a), Feedback upon dust emission by dust radiative forcing through the planetary boundary layer, J. Geophys. Res., 109, D24209, doi:10.1029/2004JD004912.
50. Miller, R., I. Tegen, and J. Perlwitz (2004b), Surface radiative forcing by soil dust aerosols and the hydrologic cycle, J.Geophys. Res., 109, D04203, doi:10.1029/2003JD004085.
51. Milton, S., G. Greed, M. Brooks, J. Haywood, B. Johnson, R. Allan, A. Slingo, andW. Grey (2008), Modeled and observed atmospheric radiation balance during the West African dry season: Role of mineral dust, biomass burning aerosol, and surface albedo, J. Geophys. Res., 113, D00C02, doi:10.1029/2007JD009741.
52. Mitchell, J., R. Davis, W. A. Ingram, and C. Senior (1995), On surface temperature, greenhouse gases, and aerosols: Models and observations, J. Clim., 8(10), 2364-2386, doi:10.1175/1520-0442(1995)008<2364:OSTGGA>2.0.CO;2.
53. Mohr, K. I., and C. D. Thorncroft (2006), Intense convective systems in West Africa and their relationship to the African Easterly Jet, Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 132(614), 163-176, doi:10.1256/qj.05.55.
54. Nicholson, S. (2000), Land surface processes and Sahel climate, Rev. Geophys., 38(1), 117-139, doi:10.1029/1999RG900014.
55. Nicholson, S., A. Barcilon, and M. Challa (2008), An analysis ofWest African dynamics using a linearized GCM*, J. Atmos. Sci., 65(4), 1182-1203, doi:10.1175/2007JAS2194.1.
56. Nicholson, S. E. (2001), Climatic and environmental change in Africa during the last two centuries, Clim. Res., 17(2), 123-144, doi:10.3354/cr017123.
57. Nicholson, S. E. (2009), A revised picture of the structure of the “monsoon” and land ITCZ over West Africa, Clim. Dyn., 32(7-8), 1155-1171, doi:10.1007/s00382-008-0514-3.
58. Nicholson, S. E. (2014a), The predictability of rainfall over the greater horn of Africa. Part I. Prediction of seasonal rainfall, J. Hydrometeorol., 15(2014), 1011-1027, doi:10.1175/JHM-D-13-062.1.
59. Nicholson, S. E. (2014b), A detailed look at the recent drought situation in the greater horn of Africa, J. Arid Environ., 103, 71-79, doi:10.1016/j.jaridenv.2013.12.003.
60. Nicholson, S. E., and J. Grist (2001), A conceptual model for understanding rainfall variability in the West African Sahel on interannual and interdecadal timescales, Int. J. Climatol., 21(14), 1733-1757, doi:10.1002/joc.648.
61. Oort, A. H., and J. J. Yienger (1996), Observed interannual variability in the Hadley circulation and its connection to ENSO, J. Clim., 9(11), 2751-2767, doi:10.1175/1520-0442(1996)009<2751:OIVITH>2.0.CO;2.
62. Ott, L., B. Duncan, S. Pawson, P. Colarco, M. Chin, C. Randles, T. Diehl, and E. Nielsen (2010), Influence of the 2006 Indonesian biomass burning aerosols on tropical dynamics studied with the GEOS-5 AGCM, J. Geophys. Res., 115, D14121, doi:10.1029/2009JD013181.
63. Otto, S., E. Bierwirth, B. Weinzierl, K. Kandler, M. Esselborn, M. Tesche, A. Schladitz, M. Wendisch, and T. Trautmann (2009), Solar radiative effects of a Saharan dust plume observed during SAMUM assuming spheroidal model particles, Tellus B, 61(1), 270-296, doi:10.1111/j.1600-0889.2008.00389.x.
64. Perlwitz, J., and R. L. Miller (2010), Cloud cover increasewith increasing aerosol absorptivity: A counterexample to the conventional semidirect aerosol effect, J. Geophys. Res., 115, D08203, doi:10.1029/2009JD012637.
65. Perlwitz, J., I. Tegen, and R. L. Miller (2001), Interactive soil dust aerosol model in the GISS GCM: 1.Sensitivity of the soil dust cycle to radiative properties of soil dust aerosols, J. Geophys. Res., 106(D16), 18,167-18,192, doi:10.1029/2000JD900668.
66. Philander, S., D. Gu, G. Lambert, T. Li, D. Halpern, N. Lau, and R. Pacanowski (1996),Why the ITCZ ismostly north of the equator, J. Clim., 9(12), 2958-2972, doi:10.1175/1520-0442(1996)009<2958:WTIIMN>2.0.CO;2.
67. Prospero, J. M., and P. J. Lamb (2003), African droughts and dust transport to the Caribbean: Climate change implications, Science, 302(5647), 1024-1027, doi:10.1126/science.1089915.
68. Prospero, J. M., P. Ginoux, O. Torres, S. E. Nicholson, and T. E. Gill (2002), Environmental characterization of global sources of atmospheric soil dust identified with the nimbus 7 Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS) absorbing aerosol product, Rev. Geophys., 40(1), 1002, doi:10.1029/2000RG000095.
69. Putman, W. M., and S.-J. Lin (2007), Finite-volume transport on various cubed-sphere grids, J. Comput. Phys., 227(1), 55-78, doi:10.1016/j.jcp.2007.07.022.
70. Ramanathan, V., P. Crutzen, J. Kiehl, and D. Rosenfeld (2001), Aerosols, climate, and the hydrological cycle, Science, 294(5549), 2119-2124, doi:10.1126/science.1064034.
71. Randles, C., P. Colarco, and A. da Silva (2013), Direct and semi-direct aerosol effects in the nasa GEOS-5 AGCM: Aerosol-climate interactions due to prognostic versus prescribed aerosols, J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 118(1), 149-169, doi:10.1029/2012JD018388.
72. Rayner, N., D. E. Parker, E. Horton, C. Folland, L. Alexander, D. Rowell, E. Kent, and A. Kaplan (2003), Global analyses of sea surface temperature, sea ice, and night marine air temperature since the late nineteenth century, J. Geophys. Res., 108(D14), 4407, doi:10.1029/2002JD002670.
73. Roberts, D. L., and A. Jones (2004), Climate sensitivity to black carbon aerosol from fossil fuel combustion, J. Geophys. Res., 109, D16202, doi:10.1029/2004JD004676.
74. Rodwell, M. J., and B. J. Hoskins (1996), Monsoons and the dynamics of deserts, Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 122(534), 1385-1404, doi:10.1002/qj.49712253408.
75. Rotstayn, L. D., and U. Lohmann (2002), Tropical rainfall trends and the indirect aerosol effect, J. Clim., 15(15), 2103-2116, doi:10.1175/1520-0442(2002)015<2103:TRTATI>2.0.CO;2.
76. Schwarzkopf, M. D., and V. Ramaswamy (1999), Radiative effects of CH4, N2O, halocarbons and the foreign-broadened H2O continuum: A GCM experiment, J. Geophys. Res., 104(D8), 9467-9488, doi:10.1029/1999JD900003.
77. Schwendike, J., P. Govekar, M. J. Reeder, R. Wardle, G. J. Berry, and C. Jakob (2014), Local partitioning of the overturning circulation in the tropics and the connection to the Hadley and Walker circulations, J. Geophys. Res. Atmos., 119(3), 1322-1339, doi:10.1002/2013JD020742.
78. Shindell, D., and G. Faluvegi (2009), Climate response to regional radiative forcing during the twentieth century, Nat. Geosci., 2(4), 294-300, doi:10.1038/ngeo473.
79. Shindell, D., M. Schulz, Y. Ming, T. Takemura, G. Faluvegi, and V. Ramaswamy (2010), Spatial scales of climate response to inhomogeneous radiative forcing, J. Geophys. Res., 115, D19110, doi:10.1029/2010JD014108.
80. Slingo, A., et al. (2006), Observations of the impact of a major Saharan dust storm on the atmospheric radiation balance, Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L24817, doi:10.1029/2006GL027869.
81. Sokolik, I. N., and O. B. Toon (1996), Direct radiative forcing by anthropogenic airborne mineral aerosols, Nature, 381(6584), 681-683, doi:10.1038/381681a0.
82. Solmon, F., M. Mallet, N. Elguindi, F. Giorgi, A. Zakey, and A. Konaré (2008), Dust aerosol impact on regional precipitation overWestern Africa, mechanisms and sensitivity to absorption properties, Geophys. Res. Lett., 35, L24705, doi:10.1029/2008GL035900.
83. Sud, Y. C., E. Wilcox, W.-M. Lau, G. K. Walker, X.-H. Liu, A. Nenes, D. Lee, K.-M. Kim, Y. Zhou, and P. Bhattacharjee (2009), Sensitivity of Boreal-Summer Circulation and Precipitation to Atmospheric Aerosols in Selected Regions—Part 1: Africa and India, vol. 27, 3989-4007.
84. Sultan, B., and S. Janicot (2000), Abrupt shift of the ITCZ overWest Africa and intra-seasonal variability, Geophys. Res. Lett., 27(20), 3353-3356, doi:10.1029/1999GL011285.
85. Suzuki, T. (2011), Seasonal variation of the ITCZ and its characteristics over Central Africa, Theor. Appl. Climatol., 103(1-2), 39-60, doi:10.1007/s00704-010-0276-9.
86. Textor, C., et al. (2006), Analysis and quantification of the diversities of aerosol life cycles within Aero Com, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6(7), 1777-1813, doi:10.5194/acp-6-1777-2006.
87. Thorncroft, C. (1995), An idealized study of African easterly waves. III: More realistic basic states, Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 121(527), 1589-1614, doi:10.1002/qj.49712152706.
88. Thorncroft, C., and M. Blackburn (1999), Maintenance of the African easterly jet, Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 125(555), 763-786, doi:10.1002/qj.49712555502.
89. Thorncroft, C., and B. Hoskins (1994a), An idealized study of African easterly waves. I: A linear view, Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 120(518), 953-982, doi:10.1002/qj.49712051809.
90. Thorncroft, C., and B. Hoskins (1994b), An idealized study of African easterly waves. II: A nonlinear view, Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 120(518), 983-1015, doi:10.1002/qj.49712051810.
91. Tomas, R. A., J. R. Holton, and P. J. Webster (1999), The influence of cross-equatorial pressure gradients on the location of near-equatorial convection, Q. J. R. Meteorol. Soc., 125(556), 1107-1127, doi:10.1002/qj.1999.49712555603.
92. Tompkins, A., C. Cardinali, J.-J. Morcrette, and M. Rodwell (2005), Influence of aerosol climatology on forecasts of the African easterly jet, Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L10801, doi:10.1029/2004GL022189.
93. Trenberth, K. E., and A. Solomon (1994), The global heat balance: Heat transports in the atmosphere and ocean, Clim. Dyn., 10(3), 107-134, doi:10.1007/BF00210625.
94. Trenberth, K. E., D. P. Stepaniak, and J. M. Caron (2000), The global monsoon as seen through the divergent atmospheric circulation, J. Clim., 13(22), 3969-3993, doi:10.1175/1520-0442(2000)013<3969:TGMAST>2.0.CO;2.
95. Volz, F. E. (1973), Infrared optical constants of ammonium sulfate, Sahara dust, volcanic pumice, and flyash, Appl. Opt., 12(3), 564-568, doi:10.1364/AO.12.000564.
96. Wang, C. (2004), A modeling study on the climate impacts of black carbon aerosols, J. Geophys. Res., 109, D03106, doi:10.1029/2003JD004084.
97. Webster, P. J. (2004), The elementary Hadley circulation, in The Hadley Circulation: Present, Past and Future, edited by H. Diaz and R. Bradley, pp. 9-60, Springer, Cambridge, U. K., doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-2944-8.
98. Wilcox, E. M., K. Lau, and K.-M. Kim (2010), A northward shift of the North Atlantic Ocean Intertropical Convergence Zone in response to summertime Saharan dust outbreaks, Geophys. Res. Lett., 37, L04804, doi:10.1029/2009GL041774.
99. Williams, K., A. Jones, D. Roberts, C. Senior, and M. Woodage (2001), The response of the climate systemto the indirect effects of anthropogenic sulfate aerosol, Clim. Dyn., 17(11), 845-856, doi:10.1007/s003820100150.
100. Yoshioka, M., N.M. Mahowald, A. J. Conley, W. D. Collins, D.W. Fillmore, C. S. Zender, and D. B. Coleman (2007), Impact of desert dust radiative forcing on Sahel precipitation: Relative importance of dust compared to sea surface temperature variations, vegetation changes, and greenhouse gas warming, J. Clim., 20(8), 1445-1467, doi:10.1175/JCLI4056.1.
101. Yu, J.-Y., and J. D. Neelin (1997), Analytic approximations for moist convectively adjusted regions, J. Atmos. Sci., 54 (8), 1054-1063, doi:10.1175/1520-0469(1997)054<1054:AAFMCA>2.0.CO;2.
102. Yue, X., H. Wang, H. Liao, and K. Fan (2010), Direct climatic effect of dust aerosol in the NCAR community atmospheremodel version 3 (CAM3), Adv. Atmos. Sci., 27, 230-242, doi:10.1007/s00376-009-8170-z.
103. Yue, X., H. Liao, H. Wang, S. Li, and J. Tang (2011a), Role of sea surface temperature responses in simulation of the climatic effect of mineral dust aerosol, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11(12), 6049-6062, doi:10.5194/acp-11-6049-2011.
104. Yue, X., H. Wang, H. Liao, and D. Jiang (2011b), Simulation of the direct radiative effect of mineral dust aerosol on the climate at the Last Glacial Maximum, J. Clim., 24(3), 843-858, doi:10.1175/2010JCLI3827.1.
105. Žagar, N., G. Skok, and J. Tribbia (2011), Climatology of the ITCZ derived from era interim reanalyses, J. Geophys. Res., 116, D15103, doi:10.1029/2011JD015695.
106. Zeng, N. (2003), Drought in the Sahel, Science, 302(5647), 999-1000, doi:10.1126/science.1090849.
107. Zhang, R., and T. L. Delworth (2005), Simulated tropical response to a substantial weakening of the Atlantic thermohaline circulation, J. Clim., 18(12), 1853-1860, doi:10.1175/JCLI3460.1.
108. Zhao, M., I. M. Held, S.-J. Lin, and G. A. Vecchi (2009), Simulations of global hurricane climatology, interannual variability, and response to global warming using a 50-km resolution GCM, J. Clim., 22(24), 6653-6678, doi:10.1175/2009JCLI3049.1.