Insights into aortic sclerosis and its relationship with coronary artery disease

Journal of the American Heart Association

Volumn 3, Issue 5, 2014, Pages

  Milin, Alexandra C ^a   Vorobiof, Gabriel ^a   Aksoy, Olcay ^a   Ardehali, Reza ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

Aortic stenosis; aortic valve calcification; atherosclerosis; cardiovascular outcomes; Cardiovascular pathophysiology

Indexed keywords

ANGIOTENSIN RECEPTOR ANTAGONIST; DIPEPTIDYL CARBOXYPEPTIDASE INHIBITOR; HYDROXYMETHYLGLUTARYL COENZYME A REDUCTASE INHIBITOR; NONSTEROID ANTIINFLAMMATORY AGENT;

AORTA ATHEROSCLEROSIS; AORTA DISEASE; AORTIC VALVE SCLEROSIS; CARDIAC IMAGING; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; CLINICAL EFFECTIVENESS; CORONARY ARTERY DISEASE; DIAGNOSTIC IMAGING; DISEASE ACTIVITY; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DISEASE COURSE; DISEASE SEVERITY; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG MECHANISM; DRUG RESPONSE; ECHOCARDIOGRAPHY; HUMAN; IMAGE ANALYSIS; MEDICAL RESEARCH; MOLECULAR PATHOLOGY; OUTCOME ASSESSMENT; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK FACTOR; AGE DISTRIBUTION; AORTA VALVE; AORTIC VALVE STENOSIS; ARTERIOSCLEROSIS; COMORBIDITY; CORONARY ANGIOGRAPHY; CORONARY STENOSIS; ECHOGRAPHY; FEMALE; MALE; PATHOLOGY; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PREVALENCE; PROCEDURES; PROGNOSIS; PROSPECTIVE STUDY; RADIOGRAPHY; RETROSPECTIVE STUDY; SEVERITY OF ILLNESS INDEX; SEX RATIO; SURVIVAL ANALYSIS; TRANSESOPHAGEAL ECHOCARDIOGRAPHY; UNITED STATES;

AGE DISTRIBUTION; AORTIC VALVE; AORTIC VALVE STENOSIS; ARTERIOSCLEROSIS; COMORBIDITY; CORONARY ANGIOGRAPHY; CORONARY STENOSIS; DISEASE PROGRESSION; ECHOCARDIOGRAPHY, TRANSESOPHAGEAL; FEMALE; HUMANS; MALE; PREVALENCE; PROGNOSIS; PROSPECTIVE STUDIES; RETROSPECTIVE STUDIES; RISK ASSESSMENT; SEVERITY OF ILLNESS INDEX; SEX DISTRIBUTION; SURVIVAL ANALYSIS; UNITED STATES;

EID: 84930375703     PISSN: None     EISSN: 20479980     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1161/JAHA.114.001111     Document Type: Review

References (91)

1. Stewart BF, Siscovick D, Lind BK, Gardin JM, Gottdiener JS, Smith VE, Kitzman DW, Otto CM. Clinical factors associated with calcific aortic valve disease. Cardiovascular Health Study. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1997;29:630-634.
2. Freeman RV, Otto CM. Spectrum of calcific aortic valve disease: pathogenesis, disease progression, and treatment strategies. Circulation. 2005;111:3316-3326.
3. Losi MA, Brevetti G, Schiano V, Barbati G, Parisi V, Contaldi C, Chiacchio E, Cavallaro M, Carpinella G, Fundaliotis A, Betocchi S, Brevetti L, Chiariello M. Aortic valve sclerosis in patients with peripheral and/or coronary arterial disease. Echocardiography. 2010;27:608-612.
4. Chandra HR, Goldstein JA, Choudhary N, O'Neill CS, George PB, Gangasani SR, Cronin L, Marcovitz PA, Hauser AM, O'Neill WW. Adverse outcome in aortic sclerosis is associated with coronary artery disease and inflammation. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2004;43:169-175.
5. Owens DS, Budoff MJ, Katz R, Takasu J, Shavelle DM, Carr JJ, Heckbert SR, Otto CM, Probstfield JL, Kronmal RA, O'Brien KD. Aortic valve calcium independently predicts coronary and cardiovascular events in a primary prevention population. JACC Cardiovasc Imaging. 2012;5:619-625.
6. Otto CM, Lind BK, Kitzman DW, Gersh BJ, Siscovick DS. Association of aorticvalve sclerosis with cardiovascular mortality and morbidity in the elderly. N Engl J Med. 1999;341:142-147.
7. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Leading causes of death. 2010. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/lcod.htm. Accessed January 12, 2014.
8. Nabel EG, Braunwald E. A tale of coronary artery disease and myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med. 2012;366:54-63.
9. Hansson GK. Inflammation, atherosclerosis, and coronary artery disease. N Engl J Med. 2005;352:1685-1695.
10. Mohler ER III. Mechanisms of aortic valve calcification. Am J Cardiol. 2004;94:1396-1402.
11. Goldbarg SH, Elmariah S, Miller MA, Fuster V. Insights into degenerative aortic valve disease. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2007;50:1205-1213.
12. Nistri S, Basso C, Marzari C, Mormino P, Thiene G. Frequency of bicuspid aortic valve in young male conscripts by echocardiogram. Am J Cardiol. 2005;96:718-721.
13. Laforest B, Nemer M. Genetic insights into bicuspid aortic valve formation. Cardiol Res Pract. 2012;2012:180297.
14. Huntington K, Hunter AG, Chan KL. A prospective study to assess the frequency of familial clustering of congenital bicuspid aortic valve. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1997;30:1809-1812.
15. Roberts WC, Ko JM. Frequency by decades of unicuspid, bicuspid, and tricuspid aortic valves in adults having isolated aortic valve replacement for aortic stenosis, with or without associated aortic regurgitation. Circulation. 2005;111:920-925.
16. Robicsek F, Thubrikar MJ, Cook JW, Fowler B. The congenitally bicuspid aortic valve: how does it function? Why does it fail? Ann Thorac Surg. 2004;77:177-185.
17. Otto CM, Kuusisto J, Reichenbach DD, Gown AM, O'Brien KD. Characterization of the early lesion of 'degenerative' valvular aortic stenosis. Histological and immunohistochemical studies. Circulation. 1994;90:844-853.
18. Stary HC, Chandler AB, Glagov S, Guyton JR, Insull W Jr, Rosenfeld ME, Schaffer SA, Schwartz CJ, Wagner WD, Wissler RW. A definition of initial, fatty streak, and intermediate lesions of atherosclerosis: a report from the Committee on Vascular Lesions of the Council on Arteriosclerosis, American Heart Association. Circulation. 1994;89:2462-2478.
19. Skálèn K, Gustafsson M, Rydberg EK, Hultèn LM, Wiklund O, Innerarity TL, Borèn J. Subendothelial retention of atherogenic lipoproteins in early atherosclerosis. Nature. 2002;417:750-754.
20. Leitinger N. Oxidized phospholipids as modulators of inflammation in atherosclerosis. Curr Opin Lipidol. 2003;14:421-430.
21. Otto CM. Why is aortic sclerosis associated with adverse clinical outcomes? J Am Coll Cardiol. 2004;43:176-178.
22. Butcher JT, Penrod AM, García AJ, Nerem RM. Unique morphology and focal adhesion development of valvular endothelial cells in static and fluid flow environments. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2004;24:1429-1434.
23. Jonasson L, Holm J, Skalli O, Bondjers G, Hansson GK. Regional accumulations of T cells, macrophages, and smooth muscle cells in the human atherosclerotic plaque. Arteriosclerosis. 1986;6:131-138.
24. Hansson GK, Holm J, Jonasson L. Detection of activated T lymphocytes in the human atherosclerotic plaque. Am J Pathol. 1989;135:169-175.
25. Branch KR, O'Brien KD, Otto CM. Aortic valve sclerosis as a marker of active atherosclerosis. Curr Cardiol Rep. 2002;4:111-117.
26. Jian B, Narula N, Li QY, Mohler ER III, Levy RJ. Progression of aortic valve stenosis: TGF-beta1 is present in calcified aortic valve cusps and promotes aortic valve interstitial cell calcification via apoptosis. Ann Thorac Surg. 2003;75:457-465.
27. Seneviratne AN, Sivagurunathan B, Monaco C. Toll-like receptors and macrophage activation in atherosclerosis. Clin Chim Acta. 2012;413:3-14.
28. van der Wal AC, Becker AE, van der Loos CM, Tigges AJ, Das PK. Fibrous and lipid-rich atherosclerotic plaques are part of interchangeable morphologies related to inflammation: a concept. Coron Artery Dis. 1994 Jun;5:463-469.
29. Ghattas A, Griffiths HR, Devitt A, Lip GY, Shantsila E. Monocytes in coronary artery disease and atherosclerosis: where are we now? J Am Coll Cardiol. 2013;62:1541-1551.
30. Kaden JJ, Dempfle CE, Grobholz R, Tran HT, Kiliç R, Sarikoç A, Brueckmann M, Vahl C, Hagl S, Haase KK, Borggrefe M. Interleukin-1 beta promotes matrix metalloproteinase expression and cell proliferation in calcific aortic valve stenosis. Atherosclerosis. 2003;170:205-211.
31. Clark-Greuel JN, Connolly JM, Sorichillo E, Narula NR, Rapoport HS, Mohler ER III, Gorman JH III, Gorman RC, Levy RJ. Transforming growth factor-beta1 mechanisms in aortic valve calcification: increased alkaline phosphatase and related events. Ann Thorac Surg. 2007;83:946-953.
32. Walker GA, Masters KS, Shah DN, Anseth KS, Leinwand LA. Valvular myofibroblast activation by transforming growth factor-beta: implications for pathological extracellular matrix remodeling in heart valve disease. Circ Res. 2004;95:253-260.
33. O'Brien KD, Shavelle DM, Caulfield MT, McDonald TO, Olin-Lewis K, Otto CM, Probstfield JL. Association of angiotensin-converting enzyme with low-density lipoproteins in aortic valvular lesions and in human plasma. Circulation. 2002;106:2224-2230.
34. Shetty R, Pepin A, Charest A, Perron J, Doyle D, Voisine P, Dagenais F, Pibarot P, Mathieu P. Expression of bone-regulatory proteins in human valve allografts. Heart. 2006;92:1303-1308.
35. Acharya A, Hans CP, Koenig SN, Nichols HA, Galindo CL, Garner HR, Merrill WH, Hinton RB, Garg V. Inhibitory role of Notch1 in calcific aortic valve disease. PLoS One. 2011;6:e27743.
36. Garg V, Muth AN, Ransom JF, Schluterman MK, Barnes R, King IN, Grossfeld PD, Srivastava D. Mutations in NOTCH1 cause aortic valve disease. Nature. 2005;437:270-274.
37. Hilton MJ, Tu X, Wu X, Bai S, Zhao H, Kobayashi T, Kronenberg HM, Teitelbaum SL, Ross FP, Kopan R, Long F. Notch signaling maintains bone marrow mesenchymal progenitors by suppressing osteoblast differentiation. Nat Med. 2008;14:306-314.
38. Soydinc S, Davutoglu V, Dundar A, Aksoy M. Relationship between aortic valve sclerosis and the extent of coronary artery disease in patients undergoing diagnostic coronary angiography. Cardiology. 2006;106:277-282.
39. Sui SJ, Ren MY, Xu FY, Zhang Y. A high association of aortic valve sclerosis detected by transthoracic echocardiography with coronary arteriosclerosis. Cardiology. 2007;108:322-330.
40. Conte L, Rossi A, Cicoira M, Bonapace S, Amado EA, Golia G, Zardini P, Vassanelli C. Aortic valve sclerosis: a marker of significant obstructive coronary artery disease in patients with chest pain? J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2007;20:703-708.
41. Roy GC, Rahman F, Hoque MH, Habib MA, Banerjee SK, Siddique MA, Barua UK, Hossain AS, Bhuiyan GR, Haider MS. Aortic valve sclerosis is an indicator of coronary artery diseases. Mymensingh Med J. 2012;21:226-232.
42. Aronow WS, Ahn C, Shirani J, Kronzon I. Comparison of frequency of new coronary events in older subjects with and without valvular aortic sclerosis. Am J Cardiol. 1999;83:599-600.
43. Shah SJ, Ristow B, Ali S, Na BY, Schiller NB, Whooley MA. Acute myocardial infarction in patients with versus without aortic valve sclerosis and effect of statin therapy (from the Heart and Soul Study). Am J Cardiol. 2007;99:1128-1133.
44. Kim DB, Jung HO, Jeon DS, Park CS, Jang SW, Park HJ, Kim PJ, Baek SH, Seung KB, Rho TH, Kim JH, Choi KB. Aortic valve sclerosis on echocardiography is a good predictor of coronary artery disease in patients with an inconclusive treadmill exercise test. Korean Circ J. 2009;39:275-279.
45. Schönenberger A, Winkelspecht B, Köhler H, Girndt M. High prevalence of aortic valve alterations in haemodialysis patients is associated with signs of chronic inflammation. Nephron Clin Pract. 2004;96:48-55.
46. Straumann E, Meyer B, Misteli M, Blumberg A, Jenzer HR. Aortic and mitral valve disease in patients with end stage renal failure on long-term haemodialysis. Br Heart J. 1992;67:236-239.
47. Pohle K, Mäffert R, Ropers D, Moshage W, Stilianakis N, Daniel WG, Achenbach S. Progression of aortic valve calcification: association with coronary atherosclerosis and cardiovascular risk factors. Circulation. 2001;104:1927-1932.
48. Aronow WS, Ahn C, Shirani J, Kronzon I. Comparison of frequency of new coronary events in older persons with mild, moderate, and severe valvular aortic stenosis with those without aortic stenosis. Am J Cardiol. 1998;81:647-649.
49. Raitakari OT, Celermajer DS. Flow-mediated dilatation. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2000;50:397-404.
50. Poggianti E, Venneri L, Chubuchny V, Jambrik Z, Baroncini LA, Picano E. Aortic valve sclerosis is associated with systemic endothelial dysfunction. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2003;41:136-141.
51. Erdoğan T, Cetin M, Kocaman SA, Durakoğlugil ME, Ergül E, Canga A. Aortic valve sclerosis is a high predictive marker of systemic endothelial dysfunction in hypertensive patients. Herz. 2013;38:915-921.
52. Ali OA, Chapman M, Nguyen TH, Chirkov YY, Heresztyn T, Mundisugih J, Horowitz JD. Interactions between inflammatory activation and endothelial dysfunction selectively modulate valve disease progression in patients with bicuspid aortic valve. Heart. 2014;100:800-805.
53. American College of Cardiology; American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines (writing committee to revise the 1998 guidelines for the management of patients with valvular heart disease); Society of Cardiovascular Anesthesiologists, Bonow RO, Carabello BA, Chatterjee K, de Leon ACJr, Faxon DP, Freed MD, Gaasch WH, Lytle BW, Nishimura RA, O'Gara PT, O'Rourke RA, Otto CM, Shah PM, Shanewise JS, Smith SC Jr, Jacobs AK, Adams CD, Anderson JL, Antman EM, Fuster V, Halperin JL, Hiratzka LF, Hunt SA, Lytle BW, Nishimura R, Page RL, Riegel B. ACC/AHA 2006 guidelines for the management of patients with valvular heart disease: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines (writing committee to revise the 1998 guidelines for the management of patients with valvular heart disease) developed in collaboration with the Society of Cardiovascular Anesthesiologists endorsed by the Society for Cardiovascular Angiography and Interventions and the Society of Thoracic Surgeons. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2006;48:1-148.
54. Novaro GM, Katz R, Aviles RJ, Gottdiener JS, Cushman M, Psaty BM, Otto CM, Griffin BP. Clinical factors, but not C-reactive protein, predict progression of calcific aortic-valve disease: the Cardiovascular Health Study. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2007;50:1992-1998.
55. Faggiano P, Aurigemma GP, Rusconi C, Gaasch WH. Progression of valvular aortic stenosis in adults: literature review and clinical implications. Am Heart J. 1996;132:408-417.
56. Tolstrup K, Crawford M, Roldan CA. Morphologic characteristics of aortic valve sclerosis by transesophageal echocardiography: importance for the prediction of coronary artery disease. Cardiology. 2002;98:154-158.
57. Ridker PM, Danielson E, Fonseca FA, Genest J, Gotto AM Jr, Kastelein JJ, Koenig W, Libby P, Lorenzatti AJ, MacFadyen JG, Nordestgaard BG, Shepherd J, Willerson JT, Glynn RJ; JUPITER Study Group. Rosuvastatin to prevent vascular events in men and women with elevated C-reactive protein. N Engl J Med. 2008;359:2195-2207.
58. Ardehali R, Leeper NJ, Wilson AM, Heidenreich PA. The effect of angiotensinconverting enzyme inhibitors and statins on the progression of aortic sclerosis and mortality. J Heart Valve Dis. 2012;21:337-343.
59. Aronow WS, Ahn C, Kronzon I, Goldman ME. Association of coronary risk factors and use of statins with progression of mild valvular aortic stenosis in older persons. Am J Cardiol. 2001;88:693-695.
60. Novaro GM, Tiong IY, Pearce GL, Lauer MS, Sprecher DL, Griffin BP. Effect of hydroxymethylglutaryl coenzyme a reductase inhibitors on the progression of calcific aortic stenosis. Circulation. 2001;104:2205-2209.
61. Shavelle DM, Takasu J, Budoff MJ, Mao S, Zhao XQ, O'Brien KD. HMG CoA reductase inhibitor (statin) and aortic valve calcium. Lancet. 2002;359:1125-1126.
62. Bellamy MF, Pellikka PA, Klarich KW, Tajik AJ, Enriquez-Sarano M. Association of cholesterol levels, hydroxymethylglutaryl coenzyme-A reductase inhibitor treatment, and progression of aortic stenosis in the community. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2002;40:1723-1730.
63. Rosenhek R, Rader F, Loho N, Gabriel H, Heger M, Klaar U, Schemper M, Binder T, Maurer G, Baumgartner H. Statins but not angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors delay progression of aortic stenosis. Circulation. 2004;110:1291-1295.
64. Antonini-Canterin F, Popescu BA, Huang G, Korcova-Miertusova R, Rivaben D, Faggiano P, Pavan D, Piazza R, Bolis A, Ciavattone A, Ruggiero A, Nicolosi GL. Progression of aortic valve sclerosis and aortic valve stenosis: what is the role of statin treatment? Ital Heart J. 2005;6:119-124.
65. Rossebø AB, Pedersen TR, Boman K, Brudi P, Chambers JB, Egstrup K, Gerdts E, Gohlke-Bärwolf C, Holme I, Kesäniemi YA, Malbecq W, Nienaber CA, Ray S, Skjaerpe T, Wachtell K, Willenheimer R; SEAS Investigators. Intensive lipid lowering with simvastatin and ezetimibe in aortic stenosis. N Engl J Med. 2008;359:1343-1356.
66. Cowell SJ, Newby DE, Prescott RJ, Bloomfield P, Reid J, Northridge DB, Boon NA; Scottish Aortic Stenosis and Lipid Lowering Trial, Impact on Regression (SALTIRE) Investigators. A randomized trial of intensive lipid-lowering therapy in calcific aortic stenosis. N Engl J Med. 2005;352:2389-2397.
67. Moura LM, Ramos SF, Zamorano JL, Barros IM, Azevedo LF, Rocha-Goncálves F, Rajamannan NM. Rosuvastatin affecting aortic valve endothelium to slow the progression of aortic stenosis. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2007;49:554-561.
68. Chan KL, Teo K, Dumesnil JG, Ni A, Tam J; ASTRONOMER Investigators. Effect of lipid lowering with rosuvastatin on progression of aortic stenosis: results of the aortic stenosis progression observation: measuring effects of rosuvastatin (ASTRONOMER) trial. Circulation. 2010;121:306-314.
69. Panahi Y, Sahebkar A, Taghipour HR, Dadjou Y, Pishgoo B, Rakhshankhah AS. Atorvastatin therapy is not associated with slowing the progression of aortic stenosis: findings of a randomized controlled trial. Clin Lab. 2013;59:299-305.
70. De Vecchis R, Di Biase G, Esposito C, Ciccarelli A, Cioppa C, Giasi A, Ariano C, Cantatrione S. Statin use for nonrheumatic calcific aortic valve stenosis: a review with meta-analysis. J Cardiovasc Med. 2013;14:559-567.
71. Teo KK, Corsi DJ, Tam JW, Dumesnil JG, Chan KL. Lipid lowering on progression of mild to moderate aortic stenosis: meta-analysis of the randomized placebo-controlled clinical trials on 2344 patients. Can J Cardiol. 2011;27:800-808.
72. Parolari A, Tremoli E, Cavallotti L, Trezzi M, Kassem S, Loardi C, Veglia F, Ferrari G, Pacini D, Alamanni F. Do statins improve outcomes and delay the progression of non-rheumatic calcific aortic stenosis? Heart. 2011;97:523-529.
73. Helske S, Lindstedt KA, Laine M, Mäyränpää M, Werkkala K, Lommi J, Turto H, Kupari M, Kovanen PT. Induction of local angiotensin II-producing systems in stenotic aortic valves. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2004;44:1859-1866.
74. Sverdlov AL, Ngo DT, Chan WP, Chirkov YY, Gersh BJ, McNeil JJ, Horowitz JD. Determinants of aortic sclerosis progression: implications regarding impairment of nitric oxide signalling and potential therapeutics. Eur Heart J. 2012;33:2419-2425.
75. O'Brien KD, Probstfield JL, Caulfield MT, Nasir K, Takasu J, Shavelle DM, Wu AH, Zhao XQ, Budoff MJ. Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors and change in aortic valve calcium. Arch Intern Med. 2005;165:858-862.
76. Nadir MA, Wei L, Elder DH, Libianto R, Lim TK, Pauriah M, Pringle SD, Doney AD, Choy AM, Struthers AD, Lang CC. Impact of renin-angiotensin system blockade therapy on outcome in aortic stenosis. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2011;58:570-576.
77. Wakabayashi K, Tsujino T, Naito Y, Ezumi A, Lee-Kawabata M, Nakao S, Goda A, Sakata Y, Yamamoto K, Daimon T, Masuyama T. Administration of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors is associated with slow progression of mild aortic stenosis in Japanese patients. Heart Vessels. 2011;26:252-257.
78. Antman EM, Bennett JS, Daugherty A, Furberg C, Roberts H, Taubert KA; American Heart Association. Use of nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs: an update for clinicians: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2007;115:1634-1642.
79. Delaney JA, Lehmann N, Jöckel KH, Elmariah S, Psaty BM, Mahabadi AA, Budoff M, Kronmal RA, Nasir K, O'Brien KD, Möhlenkamp S, Moebus S, Dragano N, Winterstein AG, Erbel R, Kälsch H. Associations between aspirin and other non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and aortic valve or coronary artery calcification: the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis and the Heinz Nixdorf Recall Study. Atherosclerosis. 2013;229:310-316.
80. Skolnick AH, Osranek M, Formica P, Kronzon I. Osteoporosis treatment and progression of aortic stenosis. Am J Cardiol. 2009;104:122-124.
81. Kaden JJ, Bickelhaupt S, Grobholz R, Haase KK, Sarikoç A, Kiliç R, Brueckmann M, Lang S, Zahn I, Vahl C, Hagl S, Dempfle CE, Borggrefe M. Receptor activator of nuclear factor kappaB ligand and osteoprotegerin regulate aortic valve calcification. J Mol Cell Cardiol. 2004;36:57-66.
82. Aksoy O, Cam A, Goel SS, Houghtaling PL, Williams S, Ruiz-Rodriguez E, Menon V, Kapadia SR, Tuzcu EM, Blackstone EH, Griffin BP. Do bisphosphonates slow the progression of aortic stenosis? J Am Coll Cardiol. 2012;59:1452-1459.
83. Samelson EJ, Miller PD, Christiansen C, Daizadeh NS, Grazette L, Anthony MS, Egbuna O, Wang A, Siddhanti SR, Cheung AM, Franchimont N, Kiel DP. RANKL inhibition with denosumab does not influence 3-year progression of aortic calcification or incidence of adverse cardiovascular events in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis and high cardiovascular risk. J Bone Miner Res. 2014;29:450-457.
84. Helas S, Goettsch C, Schoppet M, Zeitz U, Hempel U, Morawietz H, Kostenuik PJ, Erben RG, Hofbauer LC. Inhibition of receptor activator of NF-kappaB ligand by denosumab attenuates vascular calcium deposition in mice. Am J Pathol. 2009;175:473-478.
85. Hsu JJ, Tintut Y, Demer LL. Vitamin D and osteogenic differentiation in the artery wall. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2008;3:1542-1547.
86. Watson KE, Abrolat ML, Malone LL, Hoeg JM, Doherty T, Detrano R, Demer LL. Active serum vitamin D levels are inversely correlated with coronary calcification. Circulation. 1997;96:1755-1760.
87. Drolet MC, Couet J, Arsenault M. Development of aortic valve sclerosis or stenosis in rabbits: role of cholesterol and calcium. J Heart Valve Dis. 2008;17:381-387.
88. Hekimian G, Passefort S, Louedec L, Houard X, Jacob MP, Vahanian A, Michel JB, Messika-Zeitoun D. High-cholesterol + vitamin D2 regimen: a questionable in-vivo experimental model of aortic valve stenosis. J Heart Valve Dis. 2009;18:152-158.
89. Schmidt N, Brandsch C, Kühne H, Thiele A, Hirche F, Stangl GI. Vitamin D receptor deficiency and low vitamin D diet stimulate aortic calcification and osteogenic key factor expression in mice. PLoS One. 2012;7:e35316.
90. Branchetti E, Sainger R, Poggio P, Grau JB, Patterson-Fortin J, Bavaria JE, Chorny M, Lai E, Gorman RC, Levy RJ, Ferrari G. Antioxidant enzymes reduce DNA damage and early activation of valvular interstitial cells in aortic valve sclerosis. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2013;33:66-74.
91. Schoenfeld SR, Kasturi S, Costenbader KH. The epidemiology of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease among patients with SLE: a systematic review. Semin Arthritis Rheum. 2013;43:77-95.