How to study adaptation (and why to do it that way)

Quarterly Review of Biology

Volumn 90, Issue 2, 2015, Pages 167-191

  Olson, Mark E ^a   Arroyo Santos, Alfonso ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL AUTÓNOMA DE MÉXICO   (Mexico)

^b Centro de Información Geoprospectiva   (Mexico)

Author keywords

Abduction; Bayesianism; Comparative methods; Deduction; Optimality models; Population biology

Indexed keywords

ADAPTATION; ANIMAL; BAYES THEOREM; EVOLUTION;

ADAPTATION, PHYSIOLOGICAL; ANIMALS; BAYES THEOREM; BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION;

EID: 84930034737     PISSN: 00335770     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1086/681438     Document Type: Article

References (156)

1. Alberch P. 1989. The logic of monsters: evidence for internal constraint in development and evolution. Geobios 22 (Supplement 2):21-57.
2. Alcock J. 1998. Unpunctuated equilibrium in the Natural History essays of Stephen Jay Gould. Evolution and Human Behavior 19:321-336.
3. Amundson R. 1994. Two concepts of constraint: adaptationism and the challenge from developmental biology. Philosophy of Science 61:556-578.
4. Anelli C. M. 2006. Darwininan theory in historical context and its defense by B. D. Walsh: what is past is prologue. American Entomologist 52:11-19.
5. Arnold S. J. 2005. The ultimate causes of phenotypic integration: lost in translation. Evolution 59:2059-2061.
6. Ayala F. J. 2009. Darwin and the scientific method. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 106:10033-10039.
7. Badyaev A. V. 2011. Origin of the fittest: link between emergent variation and evolutionary change as a critical question in evolutionary biology. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 278: 1921-1929.
8. Baum D. A., Donoghue M. J. 2001. A likelihood framework for the phylogenetic analysis of adaptation. Pages 24-44 in Adaptationism and Optimality, edited by S. H. Orzack and E. Sober. Cambridge (United Kingdom): Cambridge University Press.
9. Bell G. 1989. A comparative method. American Naturalist 133:553-571.
10. Bell G. 2008. Selection: The Mechanism of Evolution. Second edition. Oxford (United Kingdom): Oxford University Press.
11. Bettiati D., Petit G., Anfodillo T. 2012. Testing the equi-resistance principle of the xylem transport system in a small ash tree: empirical support from anatomical analyses. Tree Physiology 32:171-177.
12. Blackstone N. W. 1995. Perspective: a units-of evolution perspective on the endosymbiont theory of the origin of the mitochondrion. Evolution 49: 785-796.
13. Blomberg S. P., Garland T. Jr., Ives A. R. 2003. Testing for phylogenetic signal in comparative data: behavioral traits are more labile. Evolution 57:717-745.
14. Bock W. J. 1988. The nature of explanations in morphology. American Zoologist 28:205-215.
15. Bock W. J. 1994. Concepts and methods in ecomorphology. Journal of Biosciences 19:403-413.
16. Bowler P. J. 1984. Evolution: The History of an Idea Berkeley (California): University of California Press.
17. Brandon R., Fleming L. 2014. Drift sometimes dominates selection, and vice versa: a reply to Clatterbuck, Sober and Lewontin. Biology and Philosophy 29:577-585.
18. Brandon R. N. 1990. Adaptation and Environment. Princeton (New Jersey): Princeton University Press.
19. Bromberger S. 1966. Why questions. Pages 86-111 in Mind and Cosmos: Essays in Contemporary Science and Philosophy, edited by R. G. Colodny. Pittsburgh (Pennsylvania): University of Pittsburgh Press.
20. Calow P. 1987. Towards a definition of functional ecology. Functional Ecology 1:57-61.
21. Campbell R., Robert J. S. 2005. The structure of evolution by natural selection. Biology and Philosophy 20:673-696.
22. Christiansen P. 1999. Scaling of the limb long bones to body mass in terrestrial mammals. Journal of Morphology 239:167-190.
23. Darwin C. 1876. On the Origin of Species, sixth edition, edited by J. Endersby. [2009 reprint.] Cambridge (United Kingdom): Cambridge University Press.
24. de Querioz K., Poe S. 2003. Failed refutations: further comments on parsimony and likelihood methods and their relationship to Popper’s degree of corroboration. Systematic Biology 52:352-367.
25. Dietrich M. R., Skipper R. A. Jr. 2007. Manipulating underdetermination in scientific controversy: the case of the molecular clock. Perspectives on Science 15:295-326.
26. Douven I. 2011. Abduction. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, spring 2011 edition, edited by E. N. Zalta. http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2011/entries/abduction/. (Accessed 15 August 2011.)
27. Durrant R., Haig B. D. 2001. How to pursue the adaptationist program in psychology. Philosophical Psychology 14:357-380.
28. Eldredge N. 2006. Confessions of a Darwinist. Virginia Quarterly Review 82:32-53.
29. Endler J. A. 1986. Natural Selection in the Wild. Princeton (New Jersey): Princeton University Press.
30. Falconer D. S., Mackay T. F. C. 1996. Introduction to Quantitative Genetics. Fourth edition. Essex (United Kingdom): Pearson.
31. Fisher D. C. 1985. Evolutionary morphology: beyond the analogous, the anecdotal, and the ad hoc. Paleobiology 11:120-138.
32. Forber P. 2009. Spandrels and a pervasive problem of evidence. Biology and Philosophy 24:247-266.
33. Forber P. 2010. Confirmation and explaining how possible. Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part C: Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences 41:32-40.
34. Forber P. 2011. Reconceiving eliminative inference. Philosophy of Science 78:185-208.
35. Forber P., Griffith E. 2011. Historical reconstruction: gaining epistemic access to the deep past. Philosophy and Theory in Biology 3:e203.
36. Franco-Vizcaíno E., Goldstein G., Ting I. P. 1990. Comparative gas exchange of leaves and bark in three stem succulents of Baja California. American Journal of Botany 77:1272-1278.
37. Frankino W. A., Emlen D. J., Shingleton A. W. 2009. Experimental approaches to studying the evolution of animal form: the shape of things to come. Pages 419-478 in Experimental Evolution: Concepts, Methods, and Applications of Selection Experiments, edited by T. R. Garland Jr. and M. R. Rose. Berkeley (California): University of California Press.
38. Frost-Arnold G. 2010. The no-miracles argument for realism: inference to an unacceptable explanation. Philosophy of Science 77:35-58.
39. Fusco G. 2001. How many processes are responsible for phenotypic evolution? Evolution and Development 3:279-286.
40. Ghiselin M. T. 1966. On psychologism in the logic of taxonomic controversies. Systematic Zoology 15:207-215.
41. Ghiselin M. T. 1969. The Triumph of the Darwinian Method. Berkeley (California): University of California Press.
42. Ghiselin M. T. 1984. The Triumph of the Darwinian Method. Chicago (Illinois): University of Chicago Press.
43. Gould S. J. 1977. The return of hopeful monsters. Natural History 86:22-30.
44. Gould S. J. 1978. Sociobiology: the art of storytelling. New Scientist 16 November:530-533.
45. Gould S. J. 1980. The promise of paleobiology as a nomothetic, evolutionary discipline. Paleobiology 6:96-118.
46. Gould S. J. 1996. The tallest tale. Natural History 105: 18-23 and 54-57.
47. Gould S. J. 1997. The exaptive excellence of spandrels as a term and prototype. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 94:10750-10755.
48. Gould S. J. 2002. The Structure of Evolutionary Theory. Cambridge (Massachusetts): Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
49. Gould S. J., Lewontin R. 1979. The spandrels of San Marco and the Panglossian paradigm: a critique of the adaptionist programme. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences 205:581-598.
50. Griffiths P. E. 1996. The historical turn in the study of adaptation. British Journal for the Philosophy of Science 47:511-532.
51. Haberlandt G. 1914. Physiological Plant Anatomy. London (United Kingom): Macmillan.
52. Hacking I. 1976. Logic of Statistical Inference. Cambridge (United Kingdom): Cambridge University Press.
53. Hadfield J. D., Nakagawa S. 2010. General quantitative genetic methods for comparative biology: phylogenies, taxonomies and multi-trait models for continuous and categorical characters. Journal of Evolutionary Biology 23:494-508.
54. Haig B. D., Durrant R. 2002. Adaptationism and inference to the best explanation. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 25:520-521.
55. Hall W. 2002. Taking Darwin seriously: more than telling just so stories. Addiction 97:472-473.
56. Harvey P. H., Pagel M. D. 1991. The Comparative Method in Evolutionary Biology. Oxford (United Kingdom): Oxford University Press.
57. Hempel C. G. 1965. Aspects of Scientific Explanation, and Other Essays in the Philosophy of Science. New York: Free Press.
58. Holcomb H. R. III. 1996. Just so stories and inference to the best explanation in evolutionary psychology. Minds and Machines 6:525-540.
59. Hull D. L. 1967. Certainty and circularity in evolutionary taxonomy. Evolution 21:174-189.
60. Hull D. L. 1969. What philosophy of biology is not. Journal of the History of Biology 2:241-268.
61. Hull D. L. 1973. Darwin and His Critics: The Reception of Darwin’s Theory of Evolution by the Scientific Community. Cambridge (Massachusetts): Harvard University Press.
62. Hull D. L. 2001. Science and Selection: Essays on Biological Evolution and the Philosophy of Science. Cambridge (United Kingdom): Cambridge University Press.
63. Jablonka E., Lamb M. J. 2005. Evolution in Four Dimensions: Genetic, Epigenetic, Behavioral, and Symbolic Variation in the History of Life. Cambridge (Massachusetts): MIT Press.
64. Jaksić F. M. 1981. Recognition of morphological adaptations in animals: the hypothetico-deductive method. BioScience 31:667-670.
65. Kilbourne B. M., Makovicky P. J. 2012. Postnatal long bone growth in terrestrial placental mammals: allometry, life history, and organismal traits. Journal of Morphology 273:1111-1126.
66. Kipling R. J. 1902. Just So Stories. Garden City (New York): Doubleday Page and Company.
67. Kreidberg L., Bean J. L., Désert J.-M., Benneke B., Deming D., Stevenson K. B., Seager S., Berta-Thompson Z., Seifahrt A., Homeier D. 2014. Clouds in the atmosphere of the super-Earth exoplanet GJ 1214b. Nature 505:69-72.
68. Ladyman J. 2002. Understanding the Philosophy of Science. London (United Kingdom): Routledge.
69. Lancaster J. A. T. 2011. The semantic structure of evolutionary biology as an argument against intelligent design. Zygon 46:26-46.
70. Lande R., Arnold S. J. 1983. The measurement of selection on correlated characters. Evolution 37: 1210-1226.
71. Landres P. B., Verner J., Thomas J. W. 1988. Ecological uses of vertebrate indicator species: a critique. Conservation Biology 2:316-328.
72. Larson A., Losos J. B. 1996. Phylogenetic systematics of adaptation. Pages 187-219 in Adaptation, edited by M. R. Rose and G. V. Lauder. San Diego (California): Academic Press.
73. Lennox J. G. 1991. Darwinian thought experiments: a function for just-so stories. Pages 223-245 in Thought Experiments in Science and Philosophy, edited by T. Horowitz and G. J. Massey. Savage (Maryland): Rowman and Littlefield.
74. Leroi A. M., Rose M. R., Lauder G. V. 1994. What does the comparative method reveal about adaptation? American Naturalist 143:381-402.
75. Lev-Yadun S., Ne’eman G., Shanas U. 2009. A sheep in wolf’s clothing: do carrion and dung odours of flowers not only attract pollinators but also deter herbivores? BioEssays 31:84-88.
76. Lipton P. 2008. Inference to the best explanation. Pages 193-202 in The Routledge Companion to the Philosophy of Science, edited by S. Psillos and M. Curd. London (United Kingdom): Routledge.
77. Lloyd E. A. 2005. The Case of the Female Orgasm: Bias in the Science of Evolution. Cambridge (Massachusetts): Harvard University Press.
78. Losos J. B. 2011. Convergence, adaptation, and constraint. Evolution 65:1827-1840.
79. MacColl A. D. C. 2011. The ecological causes of evolution. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 26:514-522.
80. Maddison W. P., FitzJohn R. G. 2015. The unsolved challenge to phylogenetic correlation tests for categorical characters. Systematic Biology 64:127-136.
81. Malagón J. N., Ahuja A., Sivapatham G., Hung J., Lee J., Muñoz-Gómez S. A., Atallah J., Singh R. S., Larsen E. 2014. Evolution of Drosophila sex comb length illustrates the inextricable interplay between selection and variation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 111:E4103-E4109.
82. Martins E. P. 2000. Adaptation and the comparative method. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 15:296-299.
83. Matos M., Simões P., Duarte A., Rego C., Avelar T., Rose M. R. 2004. Convergence to a novel environment: comparative method versus experimental evolution. Evolution 58:1503-1510.
84. Mayr E. 1982. The Growth of Biological Thought: Diversity, Evolution, and Inheritance. Cambridge (Massachusetts): Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
85. McKnight S. L. 2009. Unconventional wisdom. Cell 138:817-819.
86. Medawar P. B. 1967. The Art of the Soluble. London (United Kingdom): Methuen and Company.
87. Minelli A. 2009. Forms of Becoming: The Evolutionary Biology of Development. Princeton (New Jersey): Princeton University Press.
88. Morange M. 2009. Articulating different modes of explanation: the present boundary in biological research. Pages 15-26 in Mapping the Future of Biology: Evolving Concepts and Theories, edited by A. Barberousse, M. Morange, and T. Pradeu. Berlin (Germany): Springer Science.
89. Murray B. G. Jr. 1992. The evolution of clutch size: a reply to Wootton, Young, and Winkler. Evolution 46:1581-1584.
90. Nagel E. 1961. The Structure of Science: Problems in the Logic of Scientific Explanation. New York: Harcourt, Brace and World.
91. Neal P. R., Dafni A., Giurfa M. 1998. Floral symmetry and its role in plant-pollinator systems: terminology, distribution, and hypotheses. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 29:345-373.
92. Nielsen R. 2009. Adaptionism-30 years after Gould and Lewontin. Evolution 63:2487-2490.
93. Oakley T. H. 2009. A critique of experimental phylogenetics. Pages 659-669 in Experimental Evolution: Concepts, Methods, and Applications of Selection Experiments, edited by T. Garland Jr. and M. R. Rose. Berkeley (California): University of California Press.
94. Okasha S. 2000. Van Fraassen’s critique of inference to the best explanation. Studies in History and Philosophy of Science 31:691-710.
95. Olson M. E. 2012. The developmental renaissance in adaptationism. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 27: 278-287.
96. Olson M. E., Anfodillo T., Rosell J. A., Petit G., Crivellaro A., Isnard S., León-Gómez C., Alvarado-Cárdenas L. O., Castorena M. 2014. Universal hydraulics of the flowering plants: vessel diameter scales with stem length across angiosperm lineages, habits and climates. Ecology Letters 17:988-997.
97. O’Malley M. A., Koonin E. V. 2011. How stands the Tree of Life a century and a half after The Origin? Biology Direct 6:32.
98. Orzack S. H., Sober E. 1994. Optimality models and the test of adaptationism. American Naturalist 143: 361-380.
99. Panchen A. L. 1992. Classification, Evolution, and the Nature of Biology. Cambridge (United Kingdom): Cambridge University Press.
100. Parker G. A., Maynard Smith J. 1990. Optimality theory in evolutionary biology. Nature 348:27-33.
101. Peirce C. S. 1903. Harvard Lectures on Pragmatism. CP 5.189 in Collected Papers of Charles Sanders Peirce, edited by C. Hartshorne, P. Weiss, and A. Burks. Cambridge (Massachusetts): Harvard University Press.
102. Pennington R. T., Richardson J. E., Lavin M. 2006. Insights into the historical construction of speciesrich biomes from dated plant phylogenies, neutral ecological theory and phylogenetic community structure. New Phytologist 172:605-616.
103. Peppe D. J., Royer D. L., Cariglino B., Oliver S. Y., Newman S., Leight E., Enikolopov G., Fernandez-Burgos M., Herrera F., Adams J. M., Correa E., Currano E. D., Erickson J. M., Hinojosa L. F., Hoganson J. W., Iglesias A., Jaramillo C. A., Johnson K. R., Jordan G. J., Kraft N. J. B., Lovelock E. C., Lusk C. H., Niinemets Ü., Peñuelas J., Rapson G., Wing S. L., Wright I. J. 2011. Sensitivity of leaf size and shape to climate: global patterns and paleoclimatic applications. New Phytologist 190: 724-739.
104. Peters R. H. 1976. Tautology in evolution and ecology. American Naturalist 110:1-12.
105. Petit G., Anfodillo T. 2009. Plant physiology in theory and practice: an analysis of the WBE model for vascular plants. Journal of Theoretical Biology 259: 1-4.
106. Petit G., Pfautsch S., Anfodillo T., Adams M. A. 2010. The challenge of tree height in Eucalyptus regnans: when xylem tapering overcomes hydraulic resistance. New Phytologist 187:1146-1153.
107. Pigliucci M., Schlichting C. D. 1997. On the limits of quantitative genetics for the study of phenotypic evolution. Acta Biotheoretica 45:143-160.
108. Platnick N. I., Gaffney E. S. 1978. Evolutionary biology: a Popperian perspective. Systematic Zoology 27: 138-141.
109. Platt J. R. 1964. Strong inference. Science 146:347-353.
110. Popper K. R. 1959. The Logic of Scientific Discovery. London (United Kingdom): Hutchinson.
111. Potochnik A. 2009. Optimality modeling in a suboptimal world. Biology and Philosophy 24:183-197.
112. Raven P. H. 1976. Systematics and plant population biology. Systematic Botany 1:284-316.
113. Rieppel O. 2003. Popper and systematics. Systematic Biology 52:259-271.
114. Ruse M. 1975. Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution: an analysis. Journal of the History of Biology 8:219-241.
115. Ruse M. 1979. Sociobiology: Sense or Nonsense? Second edition. Dordrecht (The Netherlands): D. Reidel Publishing Company.
116. Ruse M. 2005. The Evolution-Creation Struggle. Cambridge (Massachusetts): Harvard University Press.
117. Rzedowski J., Kruse H. 1979. Algunas tendencias evolutiv as en Busera (Burseraceae). Taxon 28:103-116.
118. Sage R. D., Atchley W. R., Capanna E. 1993. House mice as models in systematic biology. Systematic Biology 42:523-561.
119. Salmon W. C. 1989. Four decades of scientific explanation. Pages 3-219 in Scientific Explanation, edited by P. Kitcher and W. C. Salmon. Minneapolis (Minnesota): University of Minnesota Press.
120. Schaefer S. A., Lauder G. V. 1986. Historical transformation of functional design: evolutionary morphology of feeding mechanisms in loricarioid catfishes. Systematic Zoology 35:489-508.
121. Schaffner K. 1993. Discovery and Explanation in Biology and Medicine. Chicago (Illinois): University of Chicago Press.
122. Schwenk K., Wagner G. P. 2004. The relativism of constraints on phenotypic evolution. Pages 390-408 in Phenotypic Integration: Studying the Ecology and Evolution of Complex Phenotypes, edited by M. Pigliucci and K. Preston. Oxford (United Kingdom): Oxford University Press.
123. Scriven M. 1959. Explanation and prediction in evolutionary theory. Science 130:477-482.
124. Simmons R. E., Scheepers L. 1996. Winning by a neck: sexual selection in the evolution of giraffe. American Naturalist 148:771-786.
125. Simpson G. G. 1953. The Major Features of Evolution. New York: Columbia University Press.
126. Sinervo B., Basolo A. L. 1996. Testing adaptation using phenotypic manipulations. Pages 149-185 in Adaptation, edited by M. R. Rose and G. V. Lauder. San Diego (California): Academic Press.
127. Sober E. 1988. Reconstructing the Past: Parsimony, Evolution, and Inference. Cambridge (Masachusetts): MIT Press.
128. Sober E. 1996. Six sayings about adaptationism. Philosophical Exchange 26:41-57.
129. Sober E. 2008. Evidence and Evolution: The Logic Behind the Science. Cambridge (United Kingdom): Cambridge University Press.
130. Sosis R. 2009. The adaptationist-byproduct debate on the evolution of religion: five misunderstandings of the adaptationist program. Journal of Cognition and Culture 9:315-332.
131. Sterenly K., Griffiths P. E. 1999. Sex and Death: An Introduction to Philosophy of Biology. Chicago (Illinois): University of Chicago Press.
132. Stevens G. C. 1987. Lianas as structural parasites: the Bursera simaruba example. Ecology 68:77-81.
133. Stevens P. F. 1980. Evolutionary polarity of character states. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 11: 333-358.
134. Strevens M. 2008. Depth: An Account of Scientific Explanation. Cambridge (Massachusetts): Harvard University Press.
135. Sulloway F. J. 2009. Why Darwin rejected intelligent design. Journal of Biosciences 34:173-183.
136. Swartz S. M., Middleton K. M. 2008. Biomechanics of the bat limb skeleton: scaling, material properties and mechanics. Cells Tissues Organs 187:59-84.
137. Tattersall I., Eldredge N. 1977. Fact, theory, and fantasy in human paleontology: controversy in the study of human evolution reflects inadequacies in the formulation of hypotheses more than it does the supposed inadequacies of the fossil record. American Scientist 65:204-211.
138. Templeton A. R. 2009. Statistical hypothesis testing in intraspecific phylogeography: nested clade phylogeographical analysis vs. approximate Bayesian computation. Molecular Ecology 18:319-331.
139. Thornhill R. 1996. The study of adpatation. Pages 107-127 in Readings in Animal Cognition, edited by M. Bekoff and D. Jamieson. Cambridge (Massachusetts): MIT Press.
140. Travers S. E., Temeles E. J., Pan I. 2003. The relationship between nectar spur curvature in jewelweed (Impatiens capensis) and pollen removal by hummingbird pollinators. Canadian Journal of Botany 81:164-170.
141. Travis C. B. 2003. Talking evolution and selling difference. Pages 3-27 in Evolution, Gender, and Rape, edited by C. B. Travis. Cambridge (Massachusetts): MIT Press.
142. Tyler G. W. 1986. Operational research and evolution. Journal of the Operational Research Society 37: 725-733.
143. Uebel T. 2007. Vienna Circle. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, edited by E. N. Zalta. http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/vienna-circle/. (Accessed 4 February 2009.)
144. van der Steen W. J., Boontje W. 1973. Phylogenetic versus phenetic taxonomy: a reappraisal. Systematic Zoology 22:55-63.
145. Vedel V., Apostolou Z., Arthur W., Akam M., Brena C. 2010. An early temperature-sensitive period for the plasticity of segment number in the centipede Strigamia maritima. Evolution and Development 12:347-352.
146. Vincent T. L., Brown J. S. 2005. Evolutionary Game Theory, Natural Selection, and Darwinian Dynamics. Cambridge (United Kingdom): Cambridge University Press.
147. Wake D. B., Larson A. 1987. Multidimensional analysis of an evolving lineage. Science 238:42-48.
148. Waterman T. H. 1962. Revolution for biology. American Scientist 50:548-569.
149. Waters J. M., Craw D. 2006. Goodbye Gondwana? New Zealand biogeography, geology, and the problem of circularity. Systematic Biology 55:351-356.
150. West G. B., Brown J. H., Enquist B. J. 1997. A general model for the origin of allometric scaling laws in biology. Science 276:122-126.
151. West G. B., Brown J. H., Enquist B. J. 1999. A general model for the structure and allometry of plant vascular systems. Nature 400:664-667.
152. West G. B., Woodruff W. H., Brown J. H. 2002. Allometric scaling of metabolic rate from molecules and mitochondria to cells and mammals. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 99:2473-2478.
153. West-Eberhard M. J. 2003. Developmental Plasticity and Evolution. Oxford (United Kingdom): Oxford University Press.
154. Wiley E. O. 1975. Karl R. Popper, systematics, and classification: a reply to Walter Bock and other evolutionary taxonomists. Systematic Zoology 24:233-243.
155. Williams M. B. 1970. Deducing the consequences of evolution: a mathematical model. Journal of Theoretical Biology 29:343-385.
156. Zimmermann M. H. 1983. Xylem Structure and the Ascent of Sap. Berlin (Germany): Springer-Verlag.