Current management of alcoholic liver disease

Current Drug Abuse Reviews

Volumn 7, Issue 1, 2014, Pages 18-28

  Singal, Ashwani K ^a   Jampana, Sarat C ^b  

^a University of Alabama at Birmingham   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS MEDICAL BRANCH   (United States)

Author keywords

Alcoholic liver disease; Antioxidants; Caspase inhibitors; Interlukins; Intestinal decontamination; Liver transplantation

Indexed keywords

ANTIOXIDANT; CASPASE INHIBITOR; CORTICOSTEROID; ETANERCEPT; INFLIXIMAB; PENTOXIFYLLINE; IMMUNOGLOBULIN G; MONOCLONAL ANTIBODY; RIFAMYCIN; RIFAXIMIN; TNFR-FC FUSION PROTEIN; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR RECEPTOR;

ALCOHOL ABSTINENCE; ALCOHOL LIVER DISEASE; ARTICLE; CLINICAL FEATURE; DIAGNOSTIC IMAGING; DIET SUPPLEMENTATION; DISEASE SEVERITY; END STAGE LIVER DISEASE; HISTOLOGY; HUMAN; LABORATORY TEST; LIVER TRANSPLANTATION; META ANALYSIS (TOPIC); METABOLIC SYNDROME X; MORTALITY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW (TOPIC); TREATMENT PLANNING; HEPATITIS, ALCOHOLIC;

ADRENAL CORTEX HORMONES; ANTIBODIES, MONOCLONAL; ANTIOXIDANTS; CASPASE INHIBITORS; HEPATITIS, ALCOHOLIC; HUMANS; IMMUNOGLOBULIN G; LIVER TRANSPLANTATION; PENTOXIFYLLINE; RECEPTORS, TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR; RIFAMYCINS;

EID: 84925879231     PISSN: 18744737     EISSN: 18744745     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2174/1874473707666141015215602     Document Type: Article

References (140)

1. [1] Singal AAB. Epidemiology of alcoholic liver disease. Clin Liv Dis 2013; 2: 53-6.
2. [2] Mandayam S, Jamal MM, Morgan TR. Epidemiology of alcoholic liver disease. Semin liver dis 2004; 24: 217-32.
3. [3] Jewell J, Sheron N. Trends in European liver death rates: implications for alcohol policy. Clin Med 2010; 10: 259-63.
4. [4] Dunn W, Zeng Z, O'Neil M, et al. The interaction of rs738409, obesity, and alcohol: a population-based autopsy study. Am J Gastroenterol 2012; 107: 1668-74.
5. [5] Mendenhall CL. Anabolic steroid therapy as an adjunct to diet in alcoholic hepatic steatosis. Am J Digest Dis 1968; 13: 783-91.
6. [6] Teli MR, Day CP, Burt AD, Bennett MK, James OF. Determinants of progression to cirrhosis or fibrosis in pure alcoholic fatty liver. Lancet 1995; 346: 987-90.
7. [7] Becker U, Deis A, Sorensen TI, et al. Prediction of risk of liver disease by alcohol intake, sex, and age: a prospective population study. Hepatology 1996; 23: 1025-9.
8. [8] Norberg A, Jones AW, Hahn RG, Gabrielsson JL. Role of variability in explaining ethanol pharmacokinetics: research and forensic applications. Clin Pharmacokinetics 2003; 42: 1-31.
9. [9] Singal AK, Anand BS. Mechanisms of synergy between alcohol and hepatitis C virus. J Clin Gastroenterol 2007; 41: 761-72.
10. [10] Raynard B, Balian A, Fallik D, et al. Risk factors of fibrosis in alcohol-induced liver disease. Hepatol 2002; 35: 635-8.
11. [11] Girela E, Villanueva E, Hernandez-Cueto C, Luna JD. Comparison of the CAGE questionnaire versus some biochemical markers in the diagnosis of alcoholism. Alcohol 1994; 29: 337-43.
12. [12] Menon KV, Gores GJ, Shah VH. Pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment of alcoholic liver disease. Mayo Clinic proceedings Mayo Clinic 2001; 76: 1021-9.
13. [13] Fiellin DA, Reid MC, O'Connor PG. Screening for alcohol problems in primary care: a systematic review. Arch Intern Med 2000; 160: 1977-89.
14. [14] Wechsler H, Davenport A, Dowdall G, Moeykens B, Castillo S. Health and behavioral consequences of binge drinking in college. A national survey of students at 140 campuses. Jama 1994; 272: 1672-7.
15. [15] de Bruyn G, Graviss EA. A systematic review of the diagnostic accuracy of physical examination for the detection of cirrhosis. BMC Med Inform Decis Mak 2001; 1: 6.
16. [16] Mendenhall CL. Alcoholic hepatitis. Clin Gastroenterol 1981; 10: 417-41.
17. [17] Lucey MR, Mathurin P, Morgan TR. Alcoholic hepatitis. The New England journal of medicine 2009; 360: 2758-69.
18. [18] Anton RF, Lieber C, Tabakoff B. Carbohydrate-deficient transferrin and gamma-glutamyltransferase for the detection and monitoring of alcohol use: results from a multisite study. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2002; 26: 1215-22.
19. [19] Dunn W, Angulo P, Sanderson S, et al. Utility of a new model to diagnose an alcohol basis for steatohepatitis. Gastroenterology 2006; 131: 1057-63.
20. [20] Staufer K, Andresen H, Vettorazzi E, Tobias N, Nashan B, Sterneck M. Urinary ethyl glucuronide as a novel screening tool in patients pre- and post-liver transplantation improves detection of alcohol consumption. Hepatology 2011; 54: 1640-9.
21. [21] Sterneck MSK, Schulz, K, et al. Ethyl glucuronide determination in hair for evaluation of long-term alcohol abstention in liver transplant candidates. Hepatology 2012; 56: A624.
22. [22] Ceccanti M, Attili A, Balducci G, et al. Acute alcoholic hepatitis. J Clin Gastroenterol 2006; 40: 833-41.
23. [23] Hardy T, Kendrick, S, Wells, C, et al. White cell count and plateelt count associate with histological alcoholic hepatitis in jaundiced harmful drinkers. Hepatology 2009; 50: A652.
24. [24] Grant A, Neuberger J. Guidelines on the use of liver biopsy in clinical practice. Br Soc Gastroenterol Gut 1999; 45 Suppl 4:41-411.
25. [25] Louvet A, Naveau S, Abdelnour M, et al. The Lille model: a new tool for therapeutic strategy in patients with severe alcoholic hepatitis treated with steroids. Hepatology 2007; 45: 1348-54.
26. [26] Rockey DC, Caldwell SH, Goodman ZD, Nelson RC, Smith AD. Liver biopsy. Hepatology 2009; 49: 1017-44.
27. [27] Lefkowitch JH. Morphology of alcoholic liver disease. Clinics in liver disease 2005; 9: 37-53.
28. [28] Alcoholic liver disease: morphological manifestations. Review by an international group. Lancet 1981; 1: 707-11.
29. [29] Tilg H, Day CP. Management strategies in alcoholic liver disease. Nat Clin Practice Gastroenterol Hepatol 2007; 4: 24-34.
30. [30] Powell WJ, Klatskin G. Duration of survival in patients with Laennec's cirrhosis. Influence of alcohol withdrawal, and possible effects of recent changes in general management of the disease. Am J Med 1968; 44: 406-20.
31. [31] Potts JR, Goubet S, Heneghan MA, Verma S. Determinants of long-term outcome in severe alcoholic hepatitis. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2013; 38: 584-95.
32. [32] Wang T, Zhu D, Xu X, Xu Y. The amelioration of AH by abstinence and the attenuation of oxidative stress. Hepatogastroenterology 2012; 59: 73-6.
33. [33] Heydtmann M. The GABA-B agonist Baclofen improves alcohol consumption, psychometrics and may have effect on hospital admission rates in patients with alcoholic liver disease. Hepatology 2012; 56: A1932.
34. [34] Addolorato G, Leggio L, Ferrulli A, et al. Effectiveness and safety of baclofen for maintenance of alcohol abstinence in alcohol-dependent patients with liver cirrhosis: randomised, double-blind controlled study. Lancet 2007; 370: 1915-22.
35. [35] Leggio L, Ferrulli A, Zambon A, et al. Baclofen promotes alcohol abstinence in alcohol dependent cirrhotic patients with hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection. Addictive behaviors 2012; 37: 561-4.
36. [36] Garbutt JC, Kampov-Polevoy AB, Gallop R, Kalka-Juhl L, Flannery BA. Efficacy and safety of baclofen for alcohol dependence: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2010; 34: 1849-57.
37. [37] Rösner S, Hackl-Herrwerth A, Leucht S, Lehert P, Vecchi S, Soyka M. Acamprosate for alcohol dependence. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2010: CD004332.
38. [38] Srisurapanont M, Jarusuraisin N. Opioid antagonists for alcohol dependence. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2000: CD001867.
39. [39] Altamirano J, Bataller R, Cardenas A, et al. Predictive factors of abstinence in patients undergoing liver transplantation for alcoholic liver disease. Annals of hepatology 2012; 11: 213-21.
40. [40] Yanm FG JA, Groessl, EA, et al. Quality of care and readmission rates in hospitalzied patients with alcoholic liver disease care in two academic medical centers Hepatology 2012; 56: A1617.
41. [41] Magill M, Ray LA. Cognitive-behavioral treatment with adult alcohol and illicit drug users: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J Stud Alcohol Drugs 2009; 70: 516-27.
42. [42] Anton RF, O'Malley SS, Ciraulo DA, et al. Combined pharmacotherapies and behavioral interventions for alcohol dependence: the COMBINE study: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2006; 295: 2003-17.
43. [43] Singal AK, Charlton MR. Nutrition in alcoholic liver disease. Clinics in liver disease 2012; 16: 805-26.
44. [44] Mendenhall CL, Moritz TE, Roselle GA, et al. Protein energy malnutrition in severe alcoholic hepatitis: diagnosis and response to treatment. The VA Cooperative Study Group #275. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 1995; 19: 258-65.
45. [45] Mendenhall C, Roselle GA, Gartside P, Moritz T. Relationship of protein calorie malnutrition to alcoholic liver disease: a reexamination of data from two Veterans Administration Cooperative Studies. Alcoholism, clinical and experimental research 1995; 19: 635-41.
46. [46] Merli M, Giusto M, Gentili F, et al. Nutritional status: its influence on the outcome of patients undergoing liver transplantation. Liver international: official journal of the International Association for the Study of the Liver 2010; 30: 208-14.
47. [47] Cordoba J, Lopez-Hellin J, Planas M, et al. Normal protein diet for episodic hepatic encephalopathy: results of a randomized study. J Hepatol 2004; 41: 38-43.
48. [48] Baltz JG, Argo CK, Al-Osaimi AM, Northup PG. Mortality after percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy in patients with cirrhosis: a case series. Gastrointestinal Endoscopy 2010; 72: 1072-5.
49. [49] Calvey H, Davis M, Williams R. Controlled trial of nutritional supplementation, with and without branched chain amino acid enrichment, in treatment of acute alcoholic hepatitis. J Hepatol 1985; 1: 141-51.
50. [50] Mendenhall C, Bongiovanni G, Goldberg S, et al. VA Cooperative Study on Alcoholic Hepatitis. III: Changes in protein-calorie malnutrition associated with 30 days of hospitalization with and without enteral nutritional therapy. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 1985; 9: 590-6.
51. [51] Mendenhall CL, Moritz TE, Roselle GA, et al. A study of oral nutritional support with oxandrolone in malnourished patients with alcoholic hepatitis: results of a Department of Veterans Affairs cooperative study. Hepatology 1993; 17: 564-76.
52. [52] Cabre E, Rodriguez-Iglesias P, Caballeria J, et al. Short- and long-term outcome of severe alcohol-induced hepatitis treated with steroids or enteral nutrition: a multicenter randomized trial. Hepatology 2000; 32: 36-42.
53. [53] Moreno C, Langlet P, Hittelet A, et al. Enteral nutrition with or without N-acetylcysteine in the treatment of severe acute alcoholic hepatitis: a randomized multicenter controlled trial. J Hepatol 2010; 53: 1117-22.
54. [54] Cabre E, Gonzalez-Huix F, Abad-Lacruz A, et al. Effect of total enteral nutrition on the short-term outcome of severely malnourished cirrhotics. A randomized controlled trial. Gastroenterology 1990; 98: 715-20.
55. [55] Bunout D, Aicardi V, Hirsch S, et al. Nutritional support in hospitalized patients with alcoholic liver disease. Eur J Clin Nutrit 1989; 43: 615-21.
56. [56] Hirsch S, Bunout D, de la Maza P, et al. Controlled trial on nutrition supplementation in outpatients with symptomatic alcoholic cirrhosis. JPEN J Parenteral Enteral Nutri 1993; 17: 119-24.
57. [57] Kearns PJ, Young H, Garcia G, et al. Accelerated improvement of alcoholic liver disease with enteral nutrition. Gastroenterol 1992; 102: 200-5.
58. [58] Dupont B, Dao T, Joubert C, et al. Randomised clinical trial: enteral nutrition does not improve the long-term outcome of alcoholic cirrhotic patients with jaundice. Alimentary Pharmacol Therap 2012; 35: 1166-74.
59. [59] Galambos JT, Hersh T, Fulenwider JT, Ansley JD, Rudman D. Hyperalimentation in alcoholic hepatitis. Am J Gastroenterol 1979; 72: 535-41.
60. [60] Nasrallah SM, Galambos JT. Aminoacid therapy of alcoholic hepatitis. Lancet 1980; 2: 1276-7.
61. [61] Diehl AM, Boitnott JK, Herlong HF, et al. Effect of parenteral amino acid supplementation in alcoholic hepatitis. Hepatology 1985; 5: 57-63.
62. [62] Naveau S, Pelletier G, Poynard T, et al. A randomized clinical trial of supplementary parenteral nutrition in jaundiced alcoholic cirrhotic patients. Hepatology 1986; 6: 270-4.
63. [63] Achord JL. A prospective randomized clinical trial of peripheral amino acid-glucose supplementation in acute alcoholic hepatitis. Am J Gastroenterol 1987; 82: 871-5.
64. [64] Simon D, Galambos JT. A randomized controlled study of peripheral parenteral nutrition in moderate and severe alcoholic hepatitis. J Hepatol 1988; 7: 200-7.
65. [65] Mezey E, Caballeria J, Mitchell MC, Pares A, Herlong HF, Rodes J. Effect of parenteral amino acid supplementation on short-term and long-term outcomes in severe alcoholic hepatitis: a randomized controlled trial. Hepatology 1991; 14: 1090-6.
66. [66] Charlton M. Branched-chain amino acid-enriched supplements as therapy for liver disease: Rasputin lives. Gastroenterol 2003; 124: 1980-2.
67. [67] Marchesini G, Bianchi G, Merli M, et al. Nutritional supplementation with branched-chain amino acids in advanced cirrhosis: a double-blind, randomized trial. Gastroenterol 2003; 124: 1792-801.
68. [68] Muto Y, Sato S, Watanabe A, et al. Effects of oral branched-chain amino acid granules on event-free survival in patients with liver cirrhosis. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol: Official Clin Practice J Am Gastroenterol Assoc 2005; 3: 705-13.
69. [69] Babineaux MJ, Anand BS. General aspects of the treatment of alcoholic hepatitis. World J Hepatol 2011; 3: 125-9.
70. [70] Singal AK, Shah VH. Alcoholic hepatitis: prognostic models and treatment. Gastroenterol Clin North Am 2011; 40: 611-39.
71. [71] Rincon D, Lo Iacono O, Ripoll C, et al. Prognostic value of hepatic venous pressure gradient for in-hospital mortality of patients with severe acute alcoholic hepatitis. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2007; 25: 841-8.
72. [72] Singal AK, Sagi S, Kuo YF, Weinman S. Impact of hepatitis C virus infection on the course and outcome of patients with acute alcoholic hepatitis. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2011; 23: 204-9.
73. [73] Singal AK, Kuo YF, Anand BS. Hepatitis C virus infection in alcoholic hepatitis: prevalence patterns and impact on in-hospital mortality. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2012; 24: 1178-84.
74. [74] O'Shea RS, Dasarathy S, McCullough AJ, Practice Guideline Committee of the American Association for the Study of Liver D, Practice Parameters Committee of the American College of G. Alcoholic liver disease. Hepatology 2010; 51: 307-28.
75. [75] Sheth M, Riggs M, Patel T. Utility of the Mayo End-Stage Liver Disease (MELD) score in assessing prognosis of patients with alcoholic hepatitis. BMC Gastroenterol 2002; 2: 2.
76. [76] Srikureja W, Kyulo NL, Runyon BA, Hu KQ. MELD score is a better prognostic model than Child-Turcotte-Pugh score or Discriminant Function score in patients with alcoholic hepatitis. J Hepatol 2005; 42: 700-6.
77. [77] Zapata-Irrison L, Jurado-Nunez J, Altamirano-Gomez J. [do MELD or Maddrey?:comparison of 2 forecasting models in patients with hepatitis toxic alcohol.]. Revista de gastroenterologia de Mexico 2008; 73: 57-62.
78. [78] Dunn W, Jamil LH, Brown LS, et al. MELD accurately predicts mortality in patients with alcoholic hepatitis. Hepatology 2005; 41: 353-8.
79. [79] Verma S, Ajudia K, Mendler M, Redeker A. Prevalence of septic events, type 1 hepatorenal syndrome, and mortality in severe alcoholic hepatitis and utility of discriminant function and MELD score in predicting these adverse events. Dig Dis Sci 2006; 51: 1637-43.
80. [80] Jeong JY, Sohn JH, Son BK, et al. [Comparison of model for end-stage liver disease score with discriminant function and child-Turcotte-Pugh scores for predicting short-term mortality in Korean patients with alcoholic hepatitis]. Korean J Gastroenterol 2007; 49: 93-9.
81. [81] Said A, Williams J, Holden J, et al. Model for end stage liver disease score predicts mortality across a broad spectrum of liver disease. J Hepatol 2004; 40: 897-903.
82. [82] Maddrey WC, Boitnott JK, Bedine MS, Weber FL, Jr., Mezey E, White RI, Jr. Corticosteroid therapy of alcoholic hepatitis. Gastroenterology 1978; 75: 193-9.
83. [83] Carithers RL, Jr., Herlong HF, Diehl AM, et al. Methylprednisolone therapy in patients with severe alcoholic hepatitis. A randomized multicenter trial. Ann Int Med 1989; 110: 685-90.
84. [84] Helman RA, Temko MH, Nye SW, Fallon HJ. Alcoholic hepatitis. Natural history and evaluation of prednisolone therapy. Ann In Med 1971; 74: 311-21.
85. [85] Porter HP, Simon FR, Pope CE, 2nd, Volwiler W, Fenster LF. Corticosteroid therapy in severe alcoholic hepatitis. A double-blind drug trial. N Engl J Med 1971; 284: 1350-5.
86. [86] Campra JL, Hamlin EM, Jr., Kirshbaum RJ, Olivier M, Redeker AG, Reynolds TB. Prednisone therapy of acute alcoholic hepatitis. Report of a controlled trial. Ann Int Med 1973; 79: 625-31.
87. [87] Blitzer BL, Mutchnick MG, Joshi PH, Phillips MM, Fessel JM, Conn HO. Adrenocorticosteroid therapy in alcoholic hepatitis. A prospective, double-blind randomized study. Am J Dig Dis 1977; 22: 477-84.
88. [88] Shumaker JB, Resnick RH, Galambos JT, Makopour H, Iber FL. A controlled trial of 6-methylprednisolone in acute alcoholic hepatitis. With a note on published results in encephalopathic patients. Am J Gastroenterol 1978; 69: 443-9.
89. [89] Lesesne HR, Bozymski EM, Fallon HJ. Treatment of alcoholic hepatitis with encephalopathy. Comparison of prednisolone with caloric supplements. Gastroenterology 1978; 74: 169-73.
90. [90] Depew W, Boyer T, Omata M, Redeker A, Reynolds T. Double-blind controlled trial of prednisolone therapy in patients with severe acute alcoholic hepatitis and spontaneous encephalopathy. Gastroenterology 1980; 78: 524-9.
91. [91] Theodossi A, Eddleston AL, Williams R. Controlled trial of methylprednisolone therapy in severe acute alcoholic hepatitis. Gut 1982; 23: 75-9.
92. [92] Mendenhall CL, Anderson S, Garcia-Pont P, et al. Short-term and long-term survival in patients with alcoholic hepatitis treated with oxandrolone and prednisolone. N Engl J Med 1984; 311: 1464-70.
93. [93] Ramond MJ, Poynard T, Rueff B, et al. A randomized trial of prednisolone in patients with severe alcoholic hepatitis. N Engl J Med 1992; 326: 507-12.
94. [94] Mathurin P, Mendenhall CL, Carithers RL, Jr., et al. Corticosteroids improve short-term survival in patients with severe alcoholic hepatitis (AH): individual data analysis of the last three randomized placebo controlled double blind trials of corticosteroids in severe AH. J Hepatol 2002; 36: 480-7.
95. [95] Rambaldi A, Saconato HH, Christensen E, Thorlund K, Wetterslev J, Gluud C. Systematic review: glucocorticosteroids for alcoholic hepatitis--a Cochrane Hepato-Biliary Group systematic review with meta-analyses and trial sequential analyses of randomized clinical trials. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2008; 27: 1167-78.
96. [96] Spahr L, Rubbia-Brandt L, Pugin J, et al. Rapid changes in alcoholic hepatitis histology under steroids: correlation with soluble intercellular adhesion molecule-1 in hepatic venous blood. J Hepatol 2001; 35: 582-9.
97. [97] Taieb J, Mathurin P, Elbim C, et al. Blood neutrophil functions and cytokine release in severe alcoholic hepatitis: effect of corticosteroids. J Hepatol 2000; 32: 579-86.
98. [98] Mathurin P, Duchatelle V, Ramond MJ, et al. Survival and prognostic factors in patients with severe alcoholic hepatitis treated with prednisolone. Gastroenterology 1996; 110: 1847-53.
99. [99] Kendrick SF, Henderson E, Palmer J, Jones DE, Day CP. Theophylline improves steroid sensitivity in acute alcoholic hepatitis. Hepatology 2010; 52: 126-31.
100. [100] Louvet A, Wartel F, Castel H, et al. Infection in patients with severe alcoholic hepatitis treated with steroids: early response to therapy is the key factor. Gastroenterology 2009; 137: 541-8.
101. [101] Mathurin P, Abdelnour M, Ramond MJ, et al. Early change in bilirubin levels is an important prognostic factor in severe alcoholic hepatitis treated with prednisolone. Hepatology 2003; 38: 1363-9.
102. [102] Reuter BK, Wallace JL. Phosphodiesterase inhibitors prevent NSAID enteropathy independently of effects on TNF-alpha release. The American journal of physiology 1999; 277: G847-54.
103. [103] Akriviadis E, Botla R, Briggs W, Han S, Reynolds T, Shakil O. Pentoxifylline improves short-term survival in severe acute alcoholic hepatitis: a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Gastroenterology 2000; 119: 1637-48.
104. [104] Whitfield K, Rambaldi A, Wetterslev J, Gluud C. Pentoxifylline for alcoholic hepatitis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2009: CD007339.
105. [105] De BK, Gangopadhyay S, Dutta D, Baksi SD, Pani A, Ghosh P. Pentoxifylline versus prednisolone for severe alcoholic hepatitis: a randomized controlled trial. World J Gastroenterol 2009; 15: 1613-9.
106. [106] Louvet A, Diaz E, Dharancy S, et al. Early switch to pentoxifylline in patients with severe alcoholic hepatitis is inefficient in non-responders to corticosteroids. J Hepatol 2008; 48: 465-70.
107. [107] Petrowsky H, Breitenstein S, Slankamenac K, et al. Effects of pentoxifylline on liver regeneration: a double-blinded, randomized, controlled trial in 101 patients undergoing major liver resection. Ann Surgery 2010; 252: 813-22.
108. [108] Lebrec D, Thabut D, Oberti F, et al. Pentoxifylline does not decrease short-term mortality but does reduce complications in patients with advanced cirrhosis. Gastroenterology 2010; 138: 1755-62.
109. [109] Strieter RM, Kunkel SL, Bone RC. Role of tumor necrosis factor-alpha in disease states and inflammation. Crit Care Med 1993; 21: S447-63.
110. [110] Spahr L, Rubbia-Brandt L, Frossard JL, et al. Combination of steroids with infliximab or placebo in severe alcoholic hepatitis: a randomized controlled pilot study. J Hepatol 2002; 37: 448-55.
111. [111] Naveau S, Chollet-Martin S, Dharancy S, et al. A double-blind randomized controlled trial of infliximab associated with prednisolone in acute alcoholic hepatitis. Hepatology 2004; 39: 1390-7.
112. [112] Menon KV, Stadheim L, Kamath PS, et al. A pilot study of the safety and tolerability of etanercept in patients with alcoholic hepatitis. Am J Gastroenterol 2004; 99: 255-60.
113. [113] Boetticher NC, Peine CJ, Kwo P, et al. A randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled multicenter trial of etanercept in the treatment of alcoholic hepatitis. Gastroenterol 2008; 135: 1953-60.
114. [114] Yamada Y, Kirillova I, Peschon JJ, Fausto N. Initiation of liver growth by tumor necrosis factor: deficient liver regeneration in mice lacking type I tumor necrosis factor receptor. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA 1997; 94: 1441-6.
115. [115] Loguercio C, Federico A. Oxidative stress in viral and alcoholic hepatitis. Free Radic Biol Med 2003; 34: 1-10.
116. [116] Singal AK, Jampana SC, Weinman SA. Antioxidants as therapeutic agents for liver disease. Liver Int: Official J Int Assoc Study Liver 2011; 31: 1432-48.
117. [117] Nguyen-Khac E, Thevenot T, Piquet MA, et al. Glucocorticoids plus N-acetylcysteine in severe alcoholic hepatitis. N Engl J Med 2011; 365: 1781-9.
118. [118] Bjarnason I, Peters TJ, Wise RJ. The leaky gut of alcoholism: possible route of entry for toxic compounds. Lancet 1984; 1: 179-82.
119. [119] Mandrekar P, Szabo G. Signalling pathways in alcohol-induced liver inflammation. J Hepatol 2009; 50: 1258-66.
120. [120] Gillis JC, Brogden RN. Rifaximin. A review of its antibacterial activity, pharmacokinetic properties and therapeutic potential in conditions mediated by gastrointestinal bacteria. Drugs 1995; 49: 467-84.
121. [121] Vlachogiannakos J, Saveriadis AS, Viazis N, et al. Intestinal decontamination improves liver haemodynamics in patients with alcohol-related decompensated cirrhosis. Aliment Pharmacol Therap 2009; 29: 992-9.
122. [122] Rasaratnam B, Kaye D, Jennings G, Dudley F, Chin-Dusting J. The effect of selective intestinal decontamination on the hyperdynamic circulatory state in cirrhosis. A randomized trial. Ann Int Med 2003; 139: 186-93.
123. [123] Stadlbauer V, Mookerjee RP, Hodges S, Wright GA, Davies NA, Jalan R. Effect of probiotic treatment on deranged neutrophil function and cytokine responses in patients with compensated alcoholic cirrhosis. J Hepatol 2008; 48: 945-51.
124. [124] Kirpich IA, Solovieva NV, Leikhter SN, et al. Probiotics restore bowel flora and improve liver enzymes in human alcohol-induced liver injury: a pilot study. Alcohol 2008; 42: 675-82.
125. [125] Bantel H, Lügering A, Heidemann J, et al. Detection of apoptotic caspase activation in sera from patients with chronic HCV infection is associated with fibrotic liver injury. Hepatol 2004; 40: 1078-87.
126. [126] Shiffman ML, Pockros P, McHutchison JG, Schiff ER, Morris M, Burgess G. Clinical trial: the efficacy and safety of oral PF-03491390, a pancaspase inhibitor - a randomized placebo-controlled study in patients with chronic hepatitis C. Alim Pharmacol Ther 2010; 31: 969-78.
127. [127] Morris JM, Dickson S, Neilson M, Hodgins P, Forrest EH. Granulocytapheresis in the treatment of severe alcoholic hepatitis: a case series. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2010; 22: 457-60.
128. [128] Spahr L, Lambert JF, Rubbia-Brandt L, et al. Granulocyte-colony stimulating factor induces proliferation of hepatic progenitors in alcoholic steatohepatitis: a randomized trial. Hepatol 2008; 48: 221-9.
129. [129] Jalan R, Sen S, Steiner C, Kapoor D, Alisa A, Williams R. Extracorporeal liver support with molecular adsorbents recirculating system in patients with severe acute alcoholic hepatitis. J Hepatol 2003; 38: 24-31.
130. [130] Sen S, Mookerjee RP, Cheshire LM, Davies NA, Williams R, Jalan R. Albumin dialysis reduces portal pressure acutely in patients with severe alcoholic hepatitis. J Hepatol 2005; 43: 142-8.
131. [131] Kammuller ME. Recombinant human interleukin-6: safety issues of a pleiotropic growth factor. Toxicology 1995; 105: 91-107.
132. [132] Ki SH, Park O, Zheng M, et al. Interleukin-22 treatment ameliorates alcoholic liver injury in a murine model of chronic-binge ethanol feeding: role of signal transducer and activator of transcription 3. Hepatology 2010; 52: 1291-300.
133. [133] Patouraux S, Bonnafous S, Voican CS, et al. The osteopontin level in liver, adipose tissue and serum is correlated with fibrosis in patients with alcoholic liver disease. PloS one 2012; 7: e35612.
134. [134] Tirnitz-Parker JE, Viebahn CS, Jakubowski A, et al. Tumor necrosis factor-like weak inducer of apoptosis is a mitogen for liver progenitor cells. Hepatology 2010; 52: 291-302.
135. [135] Lucey MR. Liver transplantation in patients with alcoholic liver disease. Liver Transplantation: official publication of the Am Assoc Study Liver Diseas Int Liver Transpl Soc 2011; 17: 751-9.
136. [136] Cannesson ABE, Louvet, A, et al. Prevalence and natural history of recurrent alcoholic cirrhosis after liver transplantation. Hepatology 2012; 56: A652.
137. [137] Watt KD, Pedersen RA, Kremers WK, Heimbach JK, Sanchez W, Gores GJ. Long-term probability of and mortality from de novo malignancy after liver transplantation. Gastroenterol 2009; 137: 2010-7.
138. [138] Singal AK, Duchini A. Liver transplantation in acute alcoholic hepatitis: Current status and future development. World J Hepatol 2011; 3: 215-8.
139. [139] Mathurin P, Moreno C, Samuel D, et al. Early liver transplantation for severe alcoholic hepatitis. N Engl J Med 2011; 365: 1790-800.
140. [140] Singal AK, Bashar H, Anand BS, Jampana SC, Singal V, Kuo YF. Outcomes after liver transplantation for alcoholic hepatitis are similar to alcoholic cirrhosis: exploratory analysis from the UNOS database. Hepatology 2012; 55: 1398-405.