Francisella tularensis (Tularemia)

Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett's Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases

Volumn 2, Issue , 2014, Pages 2590-2602

  Penn, Robert L ^a,b  

^a Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center at Shreveport   (United States)

^b OVERTON BROOKS VA MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

Bioterrorism; Francisella tularensis; Pharyngeal tularemia; Pneumonic tularemia; Rabbit fever; Tick borne disease; Tularemia; Typhoidal tularemia; Ulceroglandular tularemia

Indexed keywords

EID: 84924463481     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1016/B978-1-4557-4801-3.00229-0     Document Type: Chapter

References (231)

1. Penn RL, Kinasewitz GT Factors associated with a poor outcome in tularemia. Arch Intern Med 1987, 147:265-268.
2. Tärnvik A, Berglund L Tularaemia. Eur Respir J 2003, 21:361-373.
3. Asano S, Mori K, Yamazaki K, et al. Temporal differences of onset between primary skin lesions and regional lymph node lesions for tularemia in Japan: a clinicopathologic and immunohistochemical study of 19 skin cases and 54 lymph node cases. Virchows Arch 2012, 460:651-658.
4. McCoy GW, Chapin CW Further observations on a plaguelike disease of rodents with a preliminary note on the causative agent Bacterium tularense. J Infect Dis 1912, 10:61-72.
5. Vail DT Bacillus tularense infection of the eye. Opthalmol Rec 1914, 23:487.
6. Wherry WB, Lamb BH Infection of man with Bacterium tularense. J Infect Dis 1914, 15:331-340.
7. Sandström G, Löfgren S, Tärnvik A A capsule-deficient mutant of Francisella tularensis LVS exhibits enhanced sensitivity to killing by serum but diminished sensitivity to killing by polymorphonuclear leukocytes. Infect Immun 1988, 56:1194-1202.
8. Huber B, Escudero R, Busse HJ, et al. Description of Francisella hispaniensis sp. nov., isolated from human blood, reclassification of Francisella novicida (Larson et al. 1955) Olsufiev et al. 1959 as Francisella tularensis subsp. novicida comb. nov. and emended description of the genus Francisella. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 2010, 60(pt 8):1887-1896.
9. Petersen JM, Schriefer ME, Araj GF Francisella and Brucella. Manual of Clinical Microbiology 2011, Vol 1:751-769. ASM Press, Washington, DC. 10th ed.
10. Sjöstedt AB Francisella. Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology 2005, Vol 2:200-210. Springer-Verlag, New York. 2nd ed.
11. Keim P, Johansson A, Wagner DM Molecular epidemiology, evolution, and ecology of Francisella. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2007, 1105:30-66.
12. Cora MC, Neel JA, Tarigo J, et al. Francisella philomiragia septicemia in a dog. J Vet Med 2010, 24:969-972.
13. Verhoeven AB, Durham-Colleran MW, Pierson T, et al. Francisella philomiragia biofilm formation and interaction with the aquatic protist Acanthamoeba castellanii. Biol. Bull 2010, 219:178-188.
14. Sicherer SH, Asturias EJ, Winkelstein JA, et al. Francisella philomiragia sepsis in chronic granulomatous disease. Pediatr Infect Dis J 1997, 16:420-422.
15. Georgi E, Schacht E, Scholz HC, et al. Standardized broth microdilution antimicrobial susceptibility testing of Francisella tularensis subsp. holarctica strains from Europe and rare Francisella species. J Antimicrob Chemother 2012, 67:2429-2433.
16. Toth M, Vakulenko V, Antunes NT, et al. Class A carbapenemase FPH-1 from Francisella philomiragia. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2012, 56:2852-2857.
17. Zeytun A, Malfatti SA, Vergez LM, et al. Complete genome sequence of Francisella philomiragia ATCC 25017. J Bacteriol 2012, 194:3266.
18. Escudero R, Elia M, Saez-Nieto JA, et al. A possible novel Francisella genomic species isolated from blood and urine of a patient with severe illness. Clin Microbiol Infect 2010, 16:1026-1030.
19. Larsson P, Oyston PC, Chain P, et al. The complete genome sequence of Francisella tularensis, the causative agent of tularemia. Nat Genet 2005, 37:153-159.
20. Larsson P, Svensson K, Karlsson L, et al. Canonical insertion-deletion markers for rapid DNA typing of Francisella tularensis. Emerg Infect Dis 2007, 13:1725-1732.
21. Pandya GA, Holmes MH, Petersen JM, et al. Whole genome single nucleotide polymorphism based phylogeny of Francisella tularensis and its application to the development of a strain typing assay. BMC Microbiol 2009, 9:213.
22. Titball RW, Petrosino JF Francisella tularensis genomics and proteomics. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2007, 1105:98-121.
23. Johansson A, Farlow J, Larsson P, et al. Worldwide genetic relationships among Francisella tularensis isolates determined by multiple-locus variable-number tandem repeat analysis. J Bacteriol 2004, 186:5808-5818.
24. Petersen JM, Molins CR Subpopulations of Francisella tularensis ssp. tularensis and holarctica: identification and associated epidemiology. Future Microbiol 2010, 5:649-661.
25. Svensson K, Larsson P, Johansson D, et al. Evolution of subspecies of Francisella tularensis. J Bacteriol 2005, 187:3903-3908.
26. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, American Society for Microbiology, Association of Public Health Laboratories Sentinel Level Clinical Microbiology Laboratory Guidelines for suspected Agents of Bioterrorism and Emerging Infectious Diseases: Francisella tularensis Available at, Accessed December 9, 2012. http://www.asm.org/images/pdf/Clinical/Protocols/tularemia.pdf.
27. Antunes NT, Frase H, Toth M, et al. The class A beta-lactamase FTU-1 is native to Francisella tularensis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2012, 56:666-671.
28. Ancuta P, Pedron T, Girard R, et al. Inability of the Francisella tularensis lipopolysaccharide to mimic or to antagonize the induction of cell activation by endotoxins. Infect Immun 1996, 64:2041-2046.
29. Gunn JS, Ernst RK The structure and function of Francisella lipopolysaccharide. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2007, 1105:202-218.
30. Noah CE, Malik M, Bublitz DC, et al. GroEL and lipopolysaccharide from Francisella tularensis live vaccine strain synergistically activate human macrophages. Infect Immun 2010, 78:1797-1806.
31. Rahhal RM, Vanden Bush TJ, McLendon MK, et al. Differential effects of Francisella tularensis lipopolysaccharide on B lymphocytes. J Leukoc Biol 2007, 82:813-820.
32. Salomonsson EN, Forslund AL, Forsberg A Type IV pili in Francisella-a virulence trait in an intracellular pathogen. Front Microbiol 2011, 2:29.
33. Kilmury SL, Twine SM The Francisella tularensis proteome and its recognition by antibodies. Front Microbiol 2010, 1:143.
34. Bandara AB, Champion AE, Wang X, et al. Isolation and mutagenesis of a capsule-like complex (CLC) from Francisella tularensis, and contribution of the CLC to F. tularensis virulence in mice. PloS One 2011, 6:e19003.
35. Dai S, Mohapatra NP, Schlesinger LS, et al. The acid phosphatase AcpA is secreted in vitro and in macrophages by Francisella spp. Infect Immun 2012, 80:1088-1097.
36. Mohapatra NP, Soni S, Reilly TJ, et al. Combined deletion of four Francisella novicida acid phosphatases attenuates virulence and macrophage vacuolar escape. Infect Immun 2008, 76:3690-3699.
37. Child R, Wehrly TD, Rockx-Brouwer D, et al. Acid phosphatases do not contribute to the pathogenesis of type A Francisella tularensis. Infect Immun 2010, 78:59-67.
38. Ramakrishnan G, Sen B, Johnson R Paralogous outer membrane proteins mediate uptake of different forms of iron and synergistically govern virulence in Francisella tularensis tularensis. J Biol Chem 2012, 287:25191-25202.
39. Su J, Yang J, Zhao D, et al. Genome-wide identification of Francisella tularensis virulence determinants. Infect Immun 2007, 75:3089-3101.
40. Barker JR, Klose KE Molecular and genetic basis of pathogenesis in Francisella tularensis. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2007, 1105:138-159.
41. Nano FE, Schmerk C The Francisella pathogenicity island. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2007, 1105:122-137.
42. Bröms JE, Sjöstedt A, Lavander M The role of the Francisella tularensis pathogenicity island in Type VI secretion, intracellular survival, and modulation of host cell signaling. Front Microbiol 2010, 1:136.
43. Dai S, Mohapatra NP, Schlesinger LS, et al. Regulation of Francisella tularensis virulence. Front Microbiol 2010, 1:144.
44. Barker JR, Chong A, Wehrly TD, et al. The Francisella tularensis pathogenicity island encodes a secretion system that is required for phagosome escape and virulence. Mol Microbiol 2009, 74:1459-1470.
45. de Bruin OM, Duplantis BN, Ludu JS, et al. The biochemical properties of the Francisella pathogenicity island (FPI)-encoded proteins IglA, IglB, IglC, PdpB and DotU suggest roles in type VI secretion. Microbiology 2011, 157(pt 12):3483-3491.
46. Meibom KL, Charbit A The unraveling panoply of Francisella tularensis virulence attributes. Curr Opin Microbiol 2010, 13:11-17.
47. Sjödin A, Svensson K, Öhrman C, et al. Genome characterisation of the genus Francisella reveals insight into similar evolutionary paths in pathogens of mammals and fish. BMC Genomics 2012, 13:268.
48. Kugeler KJ, Mead PS, McGowan KL, et al. Isolation and characterization of a novel Francisella sp. from human cerebrospinal fluid and blood. J Clin Microbiol 2008, 46:2428-2431.
49. Barns SM, Grow CC, Okinaka RT, et al. Detection of diverse new Francisella-like bacteria in environmental samples. Appl Environ Microbiol 2005, 71:5494-5500.
50. Ottem KF, Nylund A, Karlsbakk E, et al. Elevation of Francisella philomiragia subsp. noatunensis Mikalsen et al. (2007) to Francisella noatunensis comb. nov. [syn. Francisella piscicida Ottem et al. (2008) syn. nov.] and characterization of Francisella noatunensis subsp. orientalis subsp. nov., two important fish pathogens. J Appl Microbiol 2009, 106:1231-1243.
51. Beier CL, Horn M, Michel R, et al. The genus Caedibacter comprises endosymbionts of Paramecium spp. related to the Rickettsiales (Alphaproteobacteria) and to Francisella tularensis (Gammaproteobacteria). Appl Environ Microbiol 2002, 68:6043-6050.
52. Lau KW, Ren J, Fung MC, et al. Fangia hongkongensis gen. nov., sp. nov., a novel gammaproteobacterium of the order Thiotrichales isolated from coastal seawater of Hong Kong. Int J Syst Evol Microbiol 2007, 57(pt 11):2665-2669.
53. Whipp MJ, Davis JM, Lum G, et al. Characterization of a novicida-like subspecies of Francisella tularensis isolated in Australia. J Med Microbiol 2003, 52(pt 9):839-842.
54. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Tularemia-United States, 2001-2010. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2013, 62:963-966.
55. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Summary of notifiable diseases-United States, 2010. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2012, 59:1-111.
56. Nakazawa Y, Williams R, Peterson AT, et al. Climate change effects on plague and tularemia in the United States. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2007, 7:529-540.
57. Eisen RJ, Mead PS, Meyer AM, et al. Ecoepidemiology of tularemia in the southcentral United States. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2008, 78:586-594.
58. Farlow J, Wagner DM, Dukerich M, et al. Francisella tularensis in the United States. Emerg Infect Dis 2005, 11:1835-1841.
59. Kugeler KJ, Mead PS, Janusz AM, et al. Molecular epidemiology of Francisella tularensis in the United States. Clin Infect Dis 2009, 48:863-870.
60. Svensson K, Bäck E, Eliasson H, et al. Landscape epidemiology of tularemia outbreaks in Sweden. Emerg Infect Dis 2009, 15:1937-1947.
61. Staples JE, Kubota KA, Chalcraft LG, et al. Epidemiologic and molecular analysis of human tularemia, United States, 1964-2004. Emerg Infect Dis 2006, 12:1113-1118.
62. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Tularemia transmitted by insect bites-Wyoming, 2001-2003. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2005, 54:170-173.
63. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Outbreak of tularemia among commercially distributed prairie dogs, 2002. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2002, 51:688.
64. Perez-Castrillon JL, Bachiller-Luque P, Martin-Luquero M, et al. Tularemia epidemic in northwestern Spain: clinical description and therapeutic response. Clin Infect Dis 2001, 33:573-576.
65. Matyas BT, Nieder HS, Telford SR Pneumonic tularemia on Martha's Vineyard: clinical, epidemiologic, and ecological characteristics. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2007, 1105:351-377.
66. Berrada ZL, Goethert HK, Telford SR Raccoons and skunks as sentinels for enzootic tularemia. Emerg Infect Dis 2006, 12:1019-1021.
67. Padeshki PI, Ivanov IN, Popov B, et al. The role of birds in dissemination of Francisella tularensis: first direct molecular evidence for bird-to-human transmission. Epidemiol Infect 2010, 138:376-379.
68. Grunow R, Kalaveshi A, Kühn A, et al. Surveillance of tularaemia in Kosovo, 2001 to 2010. Euro Surveill 2012, 17(28).
69. Reintjes R, Dedushaj I, Gjini A, et al. Tularemia outbreak investigation in Kosovo: case control and environmental studies. Emerg Infect Dis 2002, 8:69-73.
70. Leblebicioglu H, Esen S, Turan D, et al. Outbreak of tularemia: a case-control study and environmental investigation in Turkey. Int J Infect Dis 2008, 12:265-269.
71. Abd H, Johansson T, Golovliov I, et al. Survival and growth of Francisella tularensis in Acanthamoeba castellanii. Appl Environ Microbiol 2003, 69:600-606.
72. El-Etr SH, Margolis JJ, Monack D, et al. Francisella tularensis type A strains cause the rapid encystment of Acanthamoeba castellanii and survive in amoebal cysts for three weeks postinfection. Appl Environ Microbiol 2009, 75:7488-7500.
73. Geyer SJ, Burkey A, Chandler FW Tularemia. Pathology of Infectious Diseases 1997, 869-873. Appleton & Lange, Stamford, CT. D.H. Connor (Ed.).
74. Bokhari SM, Kim KJ, Pinson DM, et al. NK cells and gamma interferon coordinate the formation and function of hepatic granulomas in mice infected with the Francisella tularensis live vaccine strain. Infect Immun 2008, 76:1379-1389.
75. Forestal CA, Malik M, Catlett SV, et al. Francisella tularensis has a significant extracellular phase in infected mice. J Infect Dis 2007, 196:134-137.
76. Horzempa J, O'Dee DM, Stolz DB, et al. Invasion of erythrocytes by Francisella tularensis. J Infect Dis 2011, 204:51-59.
77. Clemens DL, Horwitz MA Uptake and intracellular fate of Francisella tularensis in human macrophages. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2007, 1105:160-186.
78. Hall JD, Craven RR, Fuller JR, et al. Francisella tularensis replicates within alveolar type II epithelial cells in vitro and in vivo following inhalation. Infect Immun 2007, 75:1034-1039.
79. Dai S, Rajaram MV, Curry HM, et al. Fine tuning inflammation at the front door: macrophage complement receptor 3-mediates phagocytosis and immune suppression for Francisella tularensis. PLoS Pathog 2013, 9:e1003114.
80. Geier H, Celli J Phagocytic receptors dictate phagosomal escape and intracellular proliferation of Francisella tularensis. Infect Immun 2011, 79:2204-2214.
81. Wickstrum JR, Bokhari SM, Fischer JL, et al. Francisella tularensis induces extensive caspase-3 activation and apoptotic cell death in the tissues of infected mice. Infect Immun 2009, 77:4827-4836.
82. Kirimanjeswara GS, Golden JM, Bakshi CS, et al. Prophylactic and therapeutic use of antibodies for protection against respiratory infection with Francisella tularensis. J Immunol 2007, 179:532-539.
83. McCaffrey RL, Schwartz JT, Lindemann SR, et al. Multiple mechanisms of NADPH oxidase inhibition by type A and type B Francisella tularensis. J Leukoc Biol 2010, 88:791-805.
84. Schwartz JT, Barker JH, Kaufman J, et al. Francisella tularensis inhibits the intrinsic and extrinsic pathways to delay constitutive apoptosis and prolong human neutrophil life-span. J Immunol 2012, 188:3351-3363.
85. Cowley SC, Elkins KL Immunity to Francisella. Front Microbiol 2011, 2:26.
86. Elkins KL, Cowley SC, Bosio CM Innate and adaptive immunity to Francisella. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2007, 1105:284-324.
87. Edwards JA, Rockx-Brouwer D, Nair V, et al. Restricted cytosolic growth of Francisella tularensis subsp. tularensis by IFN-gamma activation of macrophages. Microbiology 2010, 156(pt 2):327-339.
88. Malik M, Bakshi CS, McCabe K, et al. Matrix metalloproteinase 9 activity enhances host susceptibility to pulmonary infection with type A and B strains of Francisella tularensis. J Immunol 2007, 178:1013-1020.
89. Bosio CM, Bielefeldt-Ohmann H, Belisle JT Active suppression of the pulmonary immune response by Francisella tularensis Schu4. J Immunol 2007, 178:4538-4547.
90. Mares CA, Ojeda SS, Morris EG, et al. Initial delay in the immune response to Francisella tularensis is followed by hypercytokinemia characteristic of severe sepsis and correlating with upregulation and release of damage-associated molecular patterns. Infect Immun 2008, 76:3001-3010.
91. Lembo A, Pelletier M, Iyer R, et al. Administration of a synthetic TLR4 agonist protects mice from pneumonic tularemia. J Immunol 2008, 180:7574-7581.
92. Crane DD, Scott DP, Bosio CM Generation of a convalescent model of virulent Francisella tularensis infection for assessment of host requirements for survival of tularemia. PloS One 2012, 7:e33349.
93. Kirimanjeswara GS, Olmos S, Bakshi CS, et al. Humoral and cell-mediated immunity to the intracellular pathogen Francisella tularensis. Immunol Rev 2008, 225:244-255.
94. Sebastian S, Pinkham JT, Lynch JG, et al. Cellular and humoral immunity are synergistic in protection against types A and B Francisella tularensis. Vaccine 2009, 27:597-605.
95. Eneslätt K, Rietz C, Rydén P, et al. Persistence of cell-mediated immunity three decades after vaccination with the live vaccine strain of Francisella tularensis. Eur J Immunol 2011, 41:974-980.
96. Jones CL, Napier BA, Sampson TR, et al. Subversion of host recognition and defense systems by Francisella spp. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 2012, 76:383-404.
97. Woolard MD, Hensley LL, Kawula TH, et al. Respiratory Francisella tularensis live vaccine strain infection induces Th17 cells and prostaglandin E2, which inhibits generation of gamma interferon-positive T cells. Infect Immun 2008, 76:2651-2659.
98. Kroca M, Tarnvik A, Sjostedt A The proportion of circulating γδ T cells increases after the first week of onset of tularaemia and remains elevated for more than a year. Clin Exp Immunol 2000, 120:280-284.
99. Ericsson M, Kroca M, Johansson T, et al. Long-lasting recall response of CD4+ and CD8+ αβ T cells, but not γδ T cells, to heat shock proteins of Francisella tularensis. Scand J Infect Dis 2001, 33:145-152.
100. Eliasson H, Bäck E Tularaemia in an emergent area in Sweden: an analysis of 234 cases in five years. Scand J Infect Dis 2007, 39:880-889.
101. Evans ME, Gregory DW, Schaffner W, et al. Tularemia: a 30-year experience with 88 cases. Medicine (Baltimore) 1985, 64:251-269.
102. Dienst FT Tularemia: a perusal of three hundred thirty-nine cases. J La State Med Soc 1963, 115:114-124.
103. Byington CL, Bender JM, Ampofo K, et al. Tularemia with vesicular skin lesions may be mistaken for infection with herpes viruses. Clin Infect Dis 2008, 47:e4-e6.
104. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Tularemia-Missouri, 2000-2007. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2009, 58:744-748.
105. Weber IB, Turabelidze G, Patrick S, et al. Clinical recognition and management of tularemia in Missouri: a retrospective records review of 121 cases. Clin Infect Dis 2012, 55:1283-1290.
106. Altuntaş EE, Polat K, Durmuş K, et al. Tularemia and the oculoglandular syndrome of Parinaud. Braz J Infect Dis 2012, 16:90-91.
107. Willke A, Meric M, Grunow R, et al. An outbreak of oropharyngeal tularaemia linked to natural spring water. J Med Microbiol 2009, 58(pt 1):112-116.
108. Siret V, Barataud D, Prat M, et al. An outbreak of airborne tularaemia in France, August 2004. Euro Surveill 2006, 11:58-60.
109. Scofield RH, Lopez EJ, McNabb SJ Tularemia pneumonia in Oklahoma, 1982-1987. J Okla State Med Assoc 1992, 85:165-170.
110. Roy TM, Fleming D, Anderson WH Tularemic pneumonia mimicking legionnaires' disease with false-positive direct fluorescent antibody stains for Legionella. South Med J 1989, 82:1429-1431.
111. Pettersson T, Nyberg P, Nordstrom D, et al. Similar pleural fluid findings in pleuropulmonary tularemia and tuberculous pleurisy. Chest 1996, 109:572-575.
112. Jounio U, Renko M, Uhari M An outbreak of holarctica-type tularemia in pediatric patients. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2010, 29:160-162.
113. Syrjälä H, Karvonen J, Salminen A Skin manifestations of tularemia: a study of 88 cases in northern Finland during 16 years (1967-1983). Acta Derm Venereol 1984, 64:513-516.
114. Polat M, Parlak AH, Örs i, et al. Erythema nodosum and Sweet's syndrome in patients with glandular tularemia. Int J Dermatol 2011, 50:866-869.
115. Leelaporn A, Yongyod S, Limsrivanichakorn S, et al. Emergence of Francisella novicida bacteremia, Thailand. Emerg Infect Dis 2008, 14:1935-1937.
116. Brett M, Doppalapudi A, Respicio-Kingry LB, et al. Francisella novicida bacteremia after a near-drowning accident. J Clin Microbiol 2012, 50:2826-2829.
117. Hand J, Scott-Waldron C, Balsamo G Outbreak of Francisella novicida infections among occupants at a long-term residential facility-Louisiana, April-July, 2011. Louisiana Morb Rep 2012, 23:1.
118. Mailman TL, Schmidt MH Francisella philomiragia adenitis and pulmonary nodules in a child with chronic granulomatous disease. Can J Infect Dis Med Microbiol 2005, 16:245-248.
119. Dennis DT, Inglesby TV, Henderson DA, et al. Tularemia as a biological weapon: medical and public health management. JAMA 2001, 285:2763-2773.
120. Patt HA, Feigin RD Diagnosis and management of suspected cases of bioterrorism: a pediatric perspective. Pediatrics 2002, 109:685-692.
121. Gürkov R, Kisser U, Splettstösser W, et al. Tularaemia of middle ear with suppurative lymphadenopathy and retropharyngeal abscess. J Laryngol Otol 2009, 123:1252-1257.
122. Tancik CA, Dillaha JA Francisella tularensis endocarditis. Clin Infect Dis 2000, 30:399-400.
123. Cooper CL, Van Caeseele P, Canvin J, et al. Chronic prosthetic device infection with Francisella tularensis. Clin Infect Dis 1999, 29:1589-1591.
124. Han XY, Ho LX, Safdar A Francisella tularensis peritonitis in stomach cancer patient. Emerg Infect Dis 2004, 10:2238-2240.
125. Hofinger DM, Cardona L, Mertz GJ, et al. Tularemic meningitis in the United States. Arch Neurol 2009, 66:523-527.
126. Gangat N Cerebral abscesses complicating tularemia meningitis. Scand J Infect Dis 2007, 39:258-261.
127. Chitadze N, Kuchuloria T, Clark DV, et al. Water-borne outbreak of oropharyngeal and glandular tularemia in Georgia: investigation and follow-up. Infection 2009, 37:514-521.
128. Tärnvik A, Chu MC New approaches to diagnosis and therapy of tularemia. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2007, 1105:378-404.
129. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention National Select Agent Registry Available at, Accessed February 23, 2013. http://www.selectagents.gov.
130. Euler M, Wang Y, Otto P, et al. Recombinase polymerase amplification assay for rapid detection of Francisella tularensis. J Clin Microbiol 2012, 50:2234-2238.
131. Kuroda M, Sekizuka T, Shinya F, et al. Detection of a possible bioterrorism agent, Francisella sp., in a clinical specimen by use of next-generation direct DNA sequencing. J Clin Microbiol 2012, 50:1810-1812.
132. Maurin M, Castan B, Roch N, et al. Real-time PCR for diagnosis of oculoglandular tularemia. Emerg Infect Dis 2010, 16:152-153.
133. Cunningham SA, Patel R Importance of using Bruker's security relevant library for biotype identification of Burkholderia pseudomallei, Brucella species and Francisella tularensis. J Clin Microbiol 2013, 51:1639-1640.
134. Molins CR, Carlson JK, Coombs J, et al. Identification of Francisella tularensis subsp. tularensis A1 and A2 infections by real-time polymerase chain reaction. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2009, 64:6-12.
135. Seibold E, Maier T, Kostrzewa M, et al. Identification of Francisella tularensis by whole-cell matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry: fast, reliable, robust, and cost-effective differentiation on species and subspecies levels. J Clin Microbiol 2010, 48:1061-1069.
136. Eliasson H, Olcen P, Sjöstedt A, et al. Kinetics of the immune response associated with tularemia: comparison of an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, a tube agglutination test, and a novel whole-blood lymphocyte stimulation test. Clin Vaccine Immunol 2008, 15:1238-1243.
137. Kiliç S, Çelebi B, Yeşilyurt M Evaluation of a commercial immunochromatographic assay for the serologic diagnosis of tularemia. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2012, 74:1-5.
138. Andersson H, Hartmanova B, Bäck E, et al. Transcriptional profiling of the peripheral blood response during tularemia. Genes Immun 2006, 7:503-513.
139. Kaya A, Uysal iÖ, Güven AS, et al. Treatment failure of gentamicin in pediatric patients with oropharyngeal tularemia. Med Sci Monit 2011, 17:CR376-CR380.
140. Hassoun A, Spera R, Dunkel J Tularemia and once-daily gentamicin. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2006, 50:824.
141. Pittman T, Williams D, Friedman AD A shunt infection caused by Francisella tularensis. Pediatr Neurosurg 1996, 24:50-51.
142. Contentin L, Soret J, Zamfir O, et al. Francisella tularensis meningitis. Med Mal Infect 2011, 41:556-558.
143. Page J, Wittler RR An 8-year-old boy with fever, axillary ulcerative lesion, and altered mental status. Clin Infect Dis 2009, 48:1266-1267.
144. Urich SK, Petersen JM In vitro susceptibility of isolates of Francisella tularensis types A and B from North America. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2008, 52:2276-2278.
145. Valade E, Vaissaire J, Merens A, et al. Susceptibility of 71 French isolates of Francisella tularensis subsp. holarctica to eight antibiotics and accuracy of the Etest method. J Antimicrob Chemother 2008, 62:208-210.
146. Meric M, Willke A, Finke EJ, et al. Evaluation of clinical, laboratory, and therapeutic features of 145 tularemia cases: the role of quinolones in oropharyngeal tularemia. APMIS 2008, 116:66-73.
147. Eliasson H, Broman T, Forsman M, et al. Tularemia: current epidemiology and disease management. Infect Dis Clin North Am 2006, 20:289-311.
148. Johansson A, Berglund L, Gothefors L, et al. Ciprofloxacin for treatment of tularemia in children. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2000, 19:449-453.
149. Maurin M, Pelloux I, Brion JP, et al. Human tularemia in France, 2006-2010. Clin Infect Dis 2011, 53:e133-e141.
150. Snowden J, Stovall S Tularemia: retrospective review of 10 years' experience in Arkansas. Clin Pediatr 2011, 50:64-68.
151. American Academy of Pediatrics Tularemia. Red Book: 2012 Report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases 2012, 768-769. American Academy of Pediatrics, Elk Grove Village, IL. L.K. Pickering, C.J. Baker, D.W. Kimberlin, S.S. Long (Eds.).
152. Friis-Møller A, Lemming LE, Valerius NH, et al. Problems in identification of Francisella philomiragia associated with fatal bacteremia in a patient with chronic granulomatous disease. J Clin Microbiol 2004, 42:1840-1842.
153. Cross JT, Jacobs RF Tularemia: treatment failures with outpatient use of ceftriaxone. Clin Infect Dis 1993, 17:976-980.
154. Maurin M, Mersali NF, Raoult D Bactericidal activities of antibiotics against intracellular Francisella tularensis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2000, 44:3428-3431.
155. World Health Organization WHO Guidelines on Tularaemia Available at, Accessed February 23, 2013. http://www.CDC.gov/tularemia/resources/whotularemiamanual.pdf.
156. Harrell RE, Simmons HF Pleuropulmonary tularemia: successful treatment with erythromycin. South Med J 1990, 83:1363-1364.
157. Kiliç S, Çelebi B, Acar B, et al. In vitro susceptibility of isolates of Francisella tularensis from Turkey. Scand J Infect Dis 2013, 45:337-341.
158. Ikaheimo I, Syrjala H, Karhukorpi J, et al. In vitro anti-biotic susceptibility of Francisella tularensis isolated from humans and animals. J Antimicrob Chemother 2000, 46:287-290.
159. Pullen RL, Stuart BM Tularemia: analysis of 22 cases. JAMA 1945, 129:495-500.
160. Yeşilyurt M, Kiliç S, Çelebi B, et al. Tularemia during pregnancy: report of four cases. Scand J Infect Dis 2013, 45:324-328.
161. Yilmaz GR, Guven T, Gruner R, et al. Tularemia during pregnancy: three cases. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2014, 14:171-173.
162. Dentan C, Pavese P, Pelloux I, et al. Treatment of tularemia in pregnant woman, France. Emerg Infect Dis 2013, 19:996-998.
163. Khoury JA, Bohl DL, Hersh MJ, et al. Tularemia in a kidney transplant recipient: an unsuspected case and literature review. Am J Kidney Dis 2005, 45:926-929.
164. Limaye AP, Hooper CJ Treatment of tularemia with fluoroquinolones: two cases and review. Clin Infect Dis 1999, 29:922-924.
165. Naughton M, Brown R, Adkins D, et al. Tularemia-an unusual cause of a solitary pulmonary nodule in the post-transplant setting. Bone Marrow Transpl 1999, 24:197-199.
166. Ozkok A, Karadenizli A, Odabas AR Tularemia in a kidney transplant recipient. Am J Kidney Dis 2012, 60:679.
167. Kubelkova K, Krocova Z, Balonova L, et al. Specific antibodies protect gamma-irradiated mice against Francisella tularensis infection. Microb Pathog 2012, 53:259-268.
168. Savitt AG, Mena-Taboada P, Monsalve G, et al. Francisella tularensis infection-derived monoclonal antibodies provide detection, protection, and therapy. Clin Vaccine Immunol 2009, 16:414-422.
169. Lu Z, Roche MI, Hui JH, et al. Generation and characterization of hybridoma antibodies for immunotherapy of tularemia. Immunol Lett 2007, 112:92-103.
170. Loveless BM, Yermakova A, Christensen DR, et al. Identification of ciprofloxacin resistance by SimpleProbe, High Resolution Melt and Pyrosequencing nucleic acid analysis in biothreat agents: Bacillus anthracis, Yersinia pestis and Francisella tularensis. Mol Cell Probes 2010, 24:154-160.
171. O'Connell HA, Rose LJ, Shams AM, et al. Chlorine disinfection of Francisella tularensis. Lett Appl Microbiol 2011, 52:84-86.
172. Shams AM, O'Connell H, Arduino MJ, et al. Chlorine dioxide inactivation of bacterial threat agents. Lett Appl Microbiol 2011, 53:225-230.
173. Conlan JW, Oyston PC Vaccines against Francisella tularensis. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2007, 1105:325-350.
174. Hepburn MJ, Purcell BK, Lawler JV, et al. Live vaccine strain Francisella tularensis is detectable at the inoculation site but not in blood after vaccination against tularemia. Clin Infect Dis 2006, 43:711-716.
175. Conlan JW Tularemia vaccines: recent developments and remaining hurdles. Future Microbiol 2011, 6:391-405.
176. Pasetti MF, Cuberos L, Horn TL, et al. An improved Francisella tularensis live vaccine strain (LVS) is well tolerated and highly immunogenic when administered to rabbits in escalating doses using various immunization routes. Vaccine 2008, 26:1773-1785.
177. Marohn ME, Barry EM Live attenuated tularemia vaccines: recent developments and future goals. Vaccine 2013, 31:3485-3491.
178. McMurry JA, Gregory SH, Moise L, et al. Diversity of Francisella tularensis Schu4 antigens recognized by T lymphocytes after natural infections in humans: identification of candidate epitopes for inclusion in a rationally designed tularemia vaccine. Vaccine 2007, 25:3179-3191.
179. Twine S, Shen H, Harris G, et al. BALB/c mice, but not C57BL/6 mice immunized with a DeltaclpB mutant of Francisella tularensis subspecies tularensis are protected against respiratory challenge with wild-type bacteria: association of protection with post-vaccination and post-challenge immune responses. Vaccine 2012, 30:3634-3645.
180. El Sahly HM, Atmar RL, Patel SM, et al. Safety, reactogenicity and immunogenicity of Francisella tularensis live vaccine strain in humans. Vaccine 2009, 27:4905-4911.
181. Peterson JW, Moen ST, Healy D, et al. Protection afforded by fluoroquinolones in animal models of respiratory infections with Bacillus anthracis, Yersinia pestis, and Francisella tularensis. Open Microbiol J 2010, 4:34-46.
182. Rotem S, Bar-Haim E, Cohen H, et al. Consequences of delayed ciprofloxacin and doxycycline treatment regimens against Francisella tularensis airway infection. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2012, 56:5406-5408.
183. Penn RL, Kinasewitz GT Factors associated with a poor outcome in tularemia. Arch Intern Med 1987, 147:265-268.
184. Tärnvik A, Berglund L Tularaemia. Eur Respir J 2003, 21:361-373.
185. Petersen JM, Schriefer ME, Araj GF Francisella and Brucella. Manual of Clinical Microbiology 2011, Vol 1:751-769. ASM Press, Washington, DC. 10th ed.
186. Sjöstedt AB Francisella. Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology 2005, Vol 2:200-210. Springer-Verlag, New York. 2nd ed.
187. Keim P, Johansson A, Wagner DM Molecular epidemiology, evolution, and ecology of Francisella. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2007, 1105:30-66.
188. Georgi E, Schacht E, Scholz HC, et al. Standardized broth microdilution antimicrobial susceptibility testing of Francisella tularensis subsp. holarctica strains from Europe and rare Francisella species. J Antimicrob Chemother 2012, 67:2429-2433.
189. Petersen JM, Molins CR Subpopulations of Francisella tularensis ssp. tularensis and holarctica: identification and associated epidemiology. Future Microbiol 2010, 5:649-661.
190. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, American Society for Microbiology, Association of Public Health Laboratories Sentinel Level Clinical Microbiology Laboratory Guidelines for suspected Agents of Bioterrorism and Emerging Infectious Diseases: Francisella tularensis Available at, Accessed December 9, 2012. http://www.asm.org/images/pdf/Clinical/Protocols/tularemia.pdf.
191. Barker JR, Klose KE Molecular and genetic basis of pathogenesis in Francisella tularensis. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2007, 1105:138-159.
192. Nano FE, Schmerk C The Francisella pathogenicity island. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2007, 1105:122-137.
193. Meibom KL, Charbit A The unraveling panoply of Francisella tularensis virulence attributes. Curr Opin Microbiol 2010, 13:11-17.
194. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Tularemia-United States, 2001-2010. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2013, 62:963-966.
195. Farlow J, Wagner DM, Dukerich M, et al. Francisella tularensis in the United States. Emerg Infect Dis 2005, 11:1835-1841.
196. Kugeler KJ, Mead PS, Janusz AM, et al. Molecular epidemiology of Francisella tularensis in the United States. Clin Infect Dis 2009, 48:863-870.
197. Staples JE, Kubota KA, Chalcraft LG, et al. Epidemiologic and molecular analysis of human tularemia, United States, 1964-2004. Emerg Infect Dis 2006, 12:1113-1118.
198. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Outbreak of tularemia among commercially distributed prairie dogs, 2002. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2002, 51:688.
199. Matyas BT, Nieder HS, Telford SR Pneumonic tularemia on Martha's Vineyard: clinical, epidemiologic, and ecological characteristics. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2007, 1105:351-377.
200. Pathology of Infectious Diseases 1997, 869-873. Appleton & Lange, Stamford, CT. S.J. Geyer, A. Burkey, F.W. Chandler, Tularemia, D.H. Connor (Eds.).
201. Clemens DL, Horwitz MA Uptake and intracellular fate of Francisella tularensis in human macrophages. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2007, 1105:160-186.
202. Cowley SC, Elkins KL Immunity to Francisella. Front Microbiol 2011, 2:26.
203. Elkins KL, Cowley SC, Bosio CM Innate and adaptive immunity to Francisella. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2007, 1105:284-324.
204. Kirimanjeswara GS, Olmos S, Bakshi CS, et al. Humoral and cell-mediated immunity to the intracellular pathogen Francisella tularensis. Immunol Rev 2008, 225:244-255.
205. Evans ME, Gregory DW, Schaffner W, et al. Tularemia: a 30-year experience with 88 cases. Medicine (Baltimore) 1985, 64:251-269.
206. Dienst FT Tularemia: a perusal of three hundred thirty-nine cases. J La State Med Soc 1963, 115:114-124.
207. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Tularemia-Missouri, 2000-2007. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2009, 58:744-748.
208. Weber IB, Turabelidze G, Patrick S, et al. Clinical recognition and management of tularemia in Missouri: a retrospective records review of 121 cases. Clin Infect Dis 2012, 55:1283-1290.
209. Scofield RH, Lopez EJ, McNabb SJ Tularemia pneumonia in Oklahoma, 1982-1987. J Okla State Med Assoc 1992, 85:165-170.
210. Syrjälä H, Karvonen J, Salminen A Skin manifestations of tularemia: a study of 88 cases in northern Finland during 16 years (1967-1983). Acta Derm Venereol 1984, 64:513-516.
211. Dennis DT, Inglesby TV, Henderson DA, et al. Tularemia as a biological weapon: medical and public health management. JAMA 2001, 285:2763-2773.
212. Hofinger DM, Cardona L, Mertz GJ, et al. Tularemic meningitis in the United States. Arch Neurol 2009, 66:523-527.
213. Tärnvik A, Chu MC New approaches to diagnosis and therapy of tularemia. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2007, 1105:378-404.
214. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention National Select Agent Registry Available at, Accessed February 23, 2013. http://www.selectagents.gov.
215. Hassoun A, Spera R, Dunkel J Tularemia and once-daily gentamicin. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2006, 50:824.
216. Urich SK, Petersen JM In vitro susceptibility of isolates of Francisella tularensis types A and B from North America. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2008, 52:2276-2278.
217. Valade E, Vaissaire J, Merens A, et al. Susceptibility of 71 French isolates of Francisella tularensis subsp. holarctica to eight antibiotics and accuracy of the Etest method. J Antimicrob Chemother 2008, 62:208-210.
218. Meric M, Willke A, Finke EJ, et al. Evaluation of clinical, laboratory, and therapeutic features of 145 tularemia cases: the role of quinolones in oropharyngeal tularemia. APMIS 2008, 116:66-73.
219. Eliasson H, Broman T, Forsman M, et al. Tularemia: current epidemiology and disease management. Infect Dis Clin North Am 2006, 20:289-311.
220. Johansson A, Berglund L, Gothefors L, et al. Ciprofloxacin for treatment of tularemia in children. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2000, 19:449-453.
221. Maurin M, Pelloux I, Brion JP, et al. Human tularemia in France, 2006-2010. Clin Infect Dis 2011, 53:e133-e141.
222. Snowden J, Stovall S Tularemia: retrospective review of 10 years' experience in Arkansas. Clin Pediatr 2011, 50:64-68.
223. American Academy of Pediatrics Tularemia. Red Book: 2012 Report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases 2012, 768-769. American Academy of Pediatrics, Elk Grove Village, IL. L.K. Pickering, C.J. Baker, D.W. Kimberlin, S.S. Long (Eds.).
224. Cross JT, Jacobs RF Tularemia: treatment failures with outpatient use of ceftriaxone. Clin Infect Dis 1993, 17:976-980.
225. World Health Organization WHO Guidelines on Tularaemia Available at, Accessed February 23, 2013. http://www.CDC.gov/tularemia/resources/whotularemiamanual.pdf.
226. Yeşilyurt M, Kiliç S, Çelebi B, et al. Tularemia during pregnancy: report of four cases. Scand J Infect Dis 2013, 45:324-328.
227. Yilmaz GR, Guven T, Gruner R, et al. Tularemia during pregnancy: three cases. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2014, 14:171-173.
228. Dentan C, Pavese P, Pelloux I, et al. Treatment of tularemia in pregnant woman, France. Emerg Infect Dis 2013, 19:996-998.
229. Conlan JW Tularemia vaccines: recent developments and remaining hurdles. Future Microbiol 2011, 6:391-405.
230. Marohn ME, Barry EM Live attenuated tularemia vaccines: recent developments and future goals. Vaccine 2013, 31:3485-3491.
231. El Sahly HM, Atmar RL, Patel SM, et al. Safety, reactogenicity and immunogenicity of Francisella tularensis live vaccine strain in humans. Vaccine 2009, 27:4905-4911.