Strategies for design and application of enteric viral vaccines

Annual Review of Animal Biosciences

Volumn 3, Issue , 2015, Pages 375-395

  Chattha, Kuldeep S ^a   Roth, James A ^b   Saif, Linda J ^c  

^a CANADIAN FOOD INSPECTION AGENCY   (Canada)

^b IOWA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

gut mammary gland sIgA axis; lactogenic immunity; mucosal adjuvants; porcine epidemic diarrhea virus; rotavirus; transmissible gastroenteritis virus

Indexed keywords

ANIMALIA; CORONAVIRUS; PORCINE EPIDEMIC DIARRHEA VIRUS; ROTAVIRUS; SUIDAE; TRANSMISSIBLE GASTROENTERITIS VIRUS;

VIRUS VACCINE;

ANIMAL; CORONAVIRIDAE; CORONAVIRUS INFECTIONS; IMMUNOLOGY; INTESTINAL DISEASES; LIVESTOCK; NEWBORN; PASSIVE IMMUNIZATION; PIG; PROCEDURES; ROTAVIRUS; ROTAVIRUS INFECTIONS; SWINE DISEASES; VACCINATION; VETERINARY; VIROLOGY;

ANIMALS; ANIMALS, NEWBORN; CORONAVIRUS; CORONAVIRUS INFECTIONS; IMMUNITY, MATERNALLY-ACQUIRED; INTESTINAL DISEASES; LIVESTOCK; ROTAVIRUS; ROTAVIRUS INFECTIONS; SWINE; SWINE DISEASES; VACCINATION; VIRAL VACCINES;

EID: 84923207326     PISSN: 21658102     EISSN: 21658110     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1146/annurev-animal-022114-111038     Document Type: Article

References (126)

1. US Dep. Agric. 2014. National Animal Health Monitoring System. Washington, DC: US Dep. Agric. http://www.aphis.usda.gov/animal-health/nahms/
2. Saif LJ, Jackwood D. 1990. Enteric virus vaccines: theoretical considerations, current status, and future approaches. In Viral Diarrheas of Man and Animals, ed. LJ Saif, KW Theil, pp. 313-32. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press
3. Cima G. 2013. Fighting a deadly pig disease. Industry, veterinarians trying to contain PED virus, new to the US. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 243:469-70
4. Andersen JK, Takamatsu H, Oura CA, Brookes SM, Pullen L, Parkhouse RE. 1999. Systematic characterization of porcine ileal Peyer's patch, I. Apoptosis-sensitive immature B cells are the predominant cell type. Immunology 98:612-21
5. Lucier MR, Thompson RE, Waire J, Lin AW, Osborne BA, Goldsby RA. 1998. Multiple sites of Vl diversification in cattle. J. Immunol. 161:5438-44
6. Parng CL, Hansal S, Goldsby RA, Osborne BA. 1996. Gene conversion contributes to Ig light chain diversity in cattle. J. Immunol. 157:5478-86
7. Reynaud CA, Garcia C, HeinWR,Weill JC. 1995. Hypermutation generating the sheep immunoglobulin repertoire is an antigen-independent process. Cell 80:115-25
8. Butler JE, Lager KM, Splichal I, Francis D, Kacskovics I, et al. 2009. The piglet as a model for B cell and immune system development. Vet. Immunol. Immunopathol. 128:147-70
9. Chu RM, Liu CH. 1984. Morphological and functional comparisons of Peyer's patches in different parts of the swine small intestine. Vet. Immunol. Immunopathol. 6:391-403
10. Yasuda M, Jenne CN, Kennedy LJ, Reynolds JD. 2006. The sheep and cattle Peyer's patch as a site of B-cell development. Vet. Res. 37:401-15
11. Pabst O, Herbrand H, Worbs T, FriedrichsenM, YanS, et al. 2005. Cryptopatches and isolated lymphoid follicles: dynamic lymphoid tissues dispensable for the generation of intraepithelial lymphocytes. Eur. J. Immunol. 35:98-107
12. Iwasaki A, Medzhitov R. 2004. Toll-like receptor control of the adaptive immune responses. Nat. Immunol. 5:987-95
13. TohnoM, Shimosato T,MoueM,AsoH,WatanabeK, et al. 2006. Toll-like receptor 2 and 9 are expressed and functional in gut-associated lymphoid tissues of presuckling newborn swine. Vet. Res. 37:791-812
14. Guzylack-Piriou L, Balmelli C, McCullough KC, Summerfield A. 2004. Type-A CpG oligonucleotides activate exclusively porcine natural interferon-producing cells to secrete interferon-a, tumour necrosis factor-a and interleukin-12. Immunology 112:28-37
15. Bailey M, Plunkett FJ, Rothkotter HJ, Vega-Lopez MA, Haverson K, Stokes CR. 2001. Regulation of mucosal immune responses in effector sites. Proc. Nutr. Soc. 60:427-35
16. Burkey TE, Skjolaas KA, Minton JE. 2009. Board-invited review: porcine mucosal immunity of the gastrointestinal tract. J. Anim. Sci. 87:1493-501
17. Saif LJ. 1999. Comparative pathogenesis of enteric viral infections of swine. In Mechanisms in the Pathogenesis ofEntericDiseases2, ed. P Paul,DFrancis, pp. 47-59.NewYork:KluwerAcad./PlenumPubl.
18. Saif LJ. 1999. Enteric viral infections of pigs and strategies for induction of mucosal immunity. Adv. Vet. Med. 41:429-46
19. Bohl EH, Gupta RK, Olquin MV, Saif LJ. 1972. Antibody responses in serum, colostrum, and milk of swine after infection or vaccination with transmissible gastroenteritis virus. Infect. Immun. 6:289-301
20. Saif LJ, Bohl EH, Gupta RK. 1972. Isolation of porcine immunoglobulins and determination of the immunoglobulin classes of transmissible gastroenteritis viral antibodies. Infect. Immun. 6:600-9
21. Roux ME, McWilliams M, Phillips-Quagliata JM, Weisz-Carrington P, Lamm ME. 1977. Origin of IgA-secreting plasma cells in the mammary gland. J. Exp. Med. 146:1311-22
22. Saif LJ, van Cott JL, Brim TA. 1994. Immunity to transmissible gastroenteritis virus and porcine respiratory coronavirus infections in swine. Vet. Immunol. Immunopathol. 43:89-97
23. Berri M, Meurens F, Lefevre F, Chevaleyre C, Zanello G, et al. 2008. Molecular cloning and functional characterization of porcine CCL28: possible involvement in homing of IgA antibody secreting cells into the mammary gland. Mol. Immunol. 45:271-77
24. Salmon H, Berri M, Gerdts V, Meurens F. 2009. Humoral and cellular factors of maternal immunity in swine. Dev. Comp. Immunol. 33:384-93
25. Moxley RA, Olson LD. 1989. Clinical evaluation of transmissible gastroenteritis virus vaccines and vaccination procedures for inducing lactogenic immunity in sows. Am. J. Vet. Res. 50:111-18
26. Saif LJ, Pensaert M, Sestak K, Yeo SG, Jung K. 2012. Coronaviruses. In Diseases of Swine, ed. JJ Zimmerman, LA Karriken, A Ramirez, KJ Schwartz, GW Stevenson, pp. 501-24. Ames, IA: Wiley Blackwell
27. Song D, Park B. 2012. Porcine epidemic diarrhoea virus: a comprehensive review of molecular epidemiology, diagnosis, and vaccines. Virus Genes 44:167-75
28. Saif LJ, FernandezFM. 1996.Group A rotavirus veterinary vaccines. J. Infect.Dis. 174(Suppl. 1):S98-106
29. Park S, Sestak K, Hodgins DC, Shoup DI, Ward LA, et al. 1998. Immune response of sows vaccinated with attenuated transmissible gastroenteritis virus (TGEV) and recombinant TGEV spike protein vaccines and protection of their suckling pigs against virulent TGEVchallenge exposure. Am. J. Vet. Res. 59:1002-8
30. Saif LJ. 1985. Passive immunity to coronavirus and rotavirus infections in swine and cattle: enhancement bymaternal vaccination. Presented at Int. Semin. Diarrhoeal Dis. South EastAsiaWest. Pac.Reg.,Geelong, Australia
31. Yuan L, Geyer A, Saif LJ. 2001. Short-term immunoglobulin A B-cell memory resides in intestinal lymphoid tissues but not in bone marrow of gnotobiotic pigs inoculated with Wa human rotavirus. Immunology 103:188-98
32. Knipe DM, Howley PM. 2007. Fields' Virology. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
33. Amimo JO, Vlasova AN, Saif LJ. 2013. Prevalence and genetic heterogeneity of porcine group C rotaviruses in nursing and weaned piglets in Ohio, USA and identification of a potential new VP4 genotype. Vet. Microbiol. 164:27-38
34. Martella V, Banyai K, Lorusso E, Bellacicco AL, Decaro N, et al. 2007. Prevalence of groupCrotaviruses in weaning and post-weaning pigs with enteritis. Vet. Microbiol. 123:26-33
35. Amimo JO, Vlasova AN, Saif LJ. 2013. Detection and genetic diversity of porcine group A rotaviruses in historic (2004) and recent (2011 and 2012) swine fecal samples in Ohio: predominance of the G9P[13] genotype in nursing piglets. J. Clin. Microbiol. 51:1142-51
36. Barrington GM, Parish SM. 2001. Bovine neonatal immunology. Vet. Clin. North Am. Food Anim. Pract. 17:463-76
37. Chattha KS, VlasovaAN, Kandasamy S, EsseiliMA,Siegismund C, et al. 2013. Probiotics and colostrum/ milk differentially affect neonatal humoral immune responses to oral rotavirus vaccine. Vaccine 31:1916-23
38. Hodgins DC, Kang SY, deArriba L, Parreno V, Ward LA, et al. 1999. Effects of maternal antibodies on protection and development of antibody responses to human rotavirus in gnotobiotic pigs. J. Virol. 73:186-97
39. Nguyen TV, Yuan L, Azevedo MS, Jeong KI, Gonzalez AM, et al. 2006. High titers of circulating maternal antibodies suppress effector and memory B-cell responses induced by an attenuated rotavirus priming and rotavirus-like particle-immunostimulating complex boosting vaccine regimen. Clin. Vaccine Immunol. 13:475-85
40. Kitikoon P, Nilubol D, Erickson BJ, Janke BH, Hoover TC, et al. 2006. The immune response and maternal antibody interference to a heterologous H1N1 swine influenza virus infection following vaccination. Vet. Immunol. Immunopathol. 112:117-28
41. Loeffen WL, Heinen PP, Bianchi AT, Hunneman WA, Verheijden JH. 2003. Effect of maternally derived antibodies on the clinical signs and immune response in pigs after primary and secondary infection with an influenza H1N1 virus. Vet. Immunol. Immunopathol. 92:23-35
42. Kimman TG, Westenbrink F, Schreuder BE, Straver PJ. 1987. Local and systemic antibody response to bovine respiratory syncytial virus infection and reinfection in calves with and without maternal antibodies. J. Clin. Microbiol. 25:1097-106
43. Ellis J, West K, Cortese V, Konoby C, Weigel D. 2001. Effect of maternal antibodies on induction and persistence of vaccine-induced immune responses against bovine viral diarrhea virus type II in young calves. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 219:351-56
44. Platt R, Widel PW, Kesl LD, Roth JA. 2009. Comparison of humoral and cellular immune responses to a pentavalent modified live virus vaccine in three age groups of calves with maternal antibodies, before and after BVDV type 2 challenge. Vaccine 27:4508-19
45. Brar JS, Johnson DW, Muscoplat CC, Shope RE Jr, Meiske JC. 1978. Maternal immunity to infectious bovine rhinotracheitis and bovine viral diarrhea viruses: duration and effect on vaccination in young calves. Am. J. Vet. Res. 39:241-44
46. Besser TE, Gay CC, McGuire TC, Evermann JF. 1988. Passive immunity to bovine rotavirus infection associated with transfer of serum antibody into the intestinal lumen. J. Virol. 62:2238-42
47. Besser TE, McGuire TC, Gay CC, Pritchett LC. 1988. Transfer of functional immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibody into the gastrointestinal tract accounts for IgG clearance in calves. J. Virol. 62:2234-37
48. Sasaki M, Davis CL, Larson BL. 1977. Immunoglobulin IgG1 metabolism in new born calves. J. Dairy Sci. 60:623-26
49. Chase CC, Hurley DJ, Reber AJ. 2008. Neonatal immune development in the calf and its impact on vaccine response. Vet. Clin. North Am. Food Anim. Pract. 24:87-104
50. Siegrist CA. 2001. Neonatal and early life vaccinology. Vaccine 19:3331-46
51. Munoz-Zanzi CA, Thurmond MC, Johnson WO, Hietala SK. 2002. Predicted ages of dairy calves when colostrum-derived bovine viral diarrhea virus antibodies would no longer offer protection against disease or interfere with vaccination. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 221:678-85
52. Chappuis G. 1998. Neonatal immunity and immunisation in early age: lessons from veterinary medicine. Vaccine 16:1468-72
53. Hjelm F, Carlsson F, Getahun A, Heyman B. 2006. Antibody-mediated regulation of the immune response. Scand. J. Immunol. 64:177-84
54. Nguyen TV, Yuan L, Azevedo MS, Jeong KI, Gonzalez AM, et al. 2006. Low titer maternal antibodies can both enhance and suppress B cell responses to a combined live attenuated human rotavirus and VLPISCOM vaccine. Vaccine 24:2302-16
55. Richter MY, Jakobsen H, Haeuw JF, Power UF, Jonsdottir I. 2005. Protective levels of polysaccharide-specific maternal antibodies may enhance the immune response elicited by pneumococcal conjugates in neonatal and infant mice. Infect. Immun. 73:956-64
56. Hodgins DC, Shewen PE. 2012. Vaccination of neonates: problem and issues. Vaccine 30:1541-59
57. Siegrist CA. 2003. Mechanisms by which maternal antibodies influence infant vaccine responses: review of hypotheses and definition of main determinants. Vaccine 21:3406-12
58. Siegrist CA, Cordova M, Brandt C, Barrios C, Berney M, et al. 1998. Determinants of infant responses to vaccines in presence of maternal antibodies. Vaccine 16:1409-14
59. Ellis J, Gow S, West K, Waldner C, Rhodes C, et al. 2007. Response of calves to challenge exposure with virulent bovine respiratory syncytial virus following intranasal administration of vaccines formulated for parenteral administration. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 230:233-43
60. Kimman TG, Westenbrink F, Straver PJ. 1989. Priming for local and systemic antibody memory responses to bovine respiratory syncytial virus: effect of amount of virus, virus replication, route of administration and maternal antibodies. Vet. Immunol. Immunopathol. 22:145-60
61. Morein B, Abusugra I, Blomqvist G. 2002. Immunity in neonates. Vet. Immunol. Immunopathol. 87:207-13
62. Zimmerman AD, Boots RE, Valli JL, Chase CC. 2006. Evaluation of protection against virulent bovine viral diarrhea virus type 2 in calves that had maternal antibodies and were vaccinated with a modified-live vaccine. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 228:1757-61
63. Firth MA, Prando Moore D, Pei Y, Shewen PE, Lo RY, et al. 2006. Cloning of a gene fragment encoding bovine complement component C3d with expression and characterization of derived fusion proteins. Vet. Immunol. Immunopathol. 114:61-71
64. Kim D, Niewiesk S. 2014. Synergistic induction of interferon a through TLR-3 and TLR-9 agonists stimulates immune responses against measles virus in neonatal cotton rats. Vaccine 32:265-70
65. Hoare CM, DeBouck P, Wiseman A. 1997. Immunogenicity of a low-passage, high-titer modified live canine parvovirus vaccine in pups with maternally derived antibodies. Vaccine 15:273-75
66. Yuan L, Azevedo MS, Gonzalez AM, Jeong KI, Van Nguyen T, et al. 2005. Mucosal and systemic antibody responses and protection induced by a prime/boost rotavirus-DNAvaccine in a gnotobiotic pig model. Vaccine 23:3925-36
67. +, and γδ T cells in calves vaccinated with one dose of a modified live BHV-1 vaccine. Viral Immunol. 15:385-93
68. Endsley JJ, Ridpath JF, Neill JD, Sandbulte MR, Roth JA. 2004. Induction of T lymphocytes specific for bovine viral diarrhea virus in calves with maternal antibody. Viral Immunol. 17:13-23
69. Siegrist CA. 2000. Vaccination in the neonatal period and early infancy. Int. Rev. Immunol. 19:195-219
70. Firth MA, Shewen PE, Hodgins DC. 2005. Passive and active components of neonatal innate immune defenses. Anim. Health Res. Rev. 6:143-58
71. Hodgins DC, Shewen PE. 2000. Vaccination of neonatal colostrum-deprived calves against Pasteurella haemolytica A1. Can. J. Vet. Res. 64:3-8
72. Husband AJ, Lascelles AK. 1975. Antibody responses to neonatal immunisation in calves. Res. Vet. Sci. 18:201-7
73. Yuan L, Saif LJ. 2002. Induction of mucosal immune responses and protection against enteric viruses: rotavirus infection of gnotobiotic pigs as a model. Vet. Immunol. Immunopathol. 87:147-60
74. Siegrist CA, Aspinall R. 2009. B-cell responses to vaccination at the extremes of age. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 9:185-94
75. Chattha KS, Firth MA, Hodgins DC, Shewen PE. 2009. Age related variation in expression of CD21 and CD32 on bovine lymphocytes: a cross-sectional study. Vet. Immunol. Immunopathol. 130:70-78
76. Chattha KS, FirthMA,Hodgins DC, Shewen PE. 2010. Variation in expression of membrane IgM,CD21 (CR2) and CD32 (Fcg RIIB) on bovine lymphocytes with age: a longitudinal study. Dev. Comp. Immunol. 34:510-17
77. Chattha KS, Firth MA, Hodgins DC, Shewen PE. 2010. Expression of complement receptor 2 (CD21), membrane IgM and the inhibitory receptor CD32 (FcgRIIb) in the lymphoid tissues of neonatal calves. Vet. Immunol. Immunopathol. 137:99-108
78. McCauley I, Hartmann PE. 1984. Changes in piglet leucocytes, B lymphocytes and plasma cortisol from birth to three weeks after weaning. Res. Vet. Sci. 37:234-41
79. Nagahata H, Kojima N, Higashitani I, Ogawa H, Noda H. 1991. Postnatal changes in lymphocyte function of dairy calves. Zentralblatt Vet. B 38:49-54
80. Chattha KS, Hodgins DC, DeLay J, Antoine N, Shewen PE. 2010. Immunohistochemical investigation of cells expressing CD21, membrane IgM, CD32 and a follicular dendritic cell marker in the lymphoid tissues of neonatal calves. Vet. Immunol. Immunopathol. 137:284-90
81. Filipp D, Alizadeh-Khiavi K, Richardson C, Palma A, Paredes N, et al. 2001. Soluble CD14 enriched in colostrum and milk induces B cell growth and differentiation. PNAS 98:603-8
82. Nguyen TV, Yuan L, Azevedo MS, Jeong KI, Gonzalez AM, Saif LJ. 2007. Transfer of maternal cytokines to suckling piglets: in vivo and in vitro models with implications for immunomodulation of neonatal immunity. Vet. Immunol. Immunopathol. 117:236-48
83. Saif LJ, Ward LA, Yuan L, Rosen BI, To TL. 1996. The gnotobiotic piglet as a model for studies of disease pathogenesis and immunity to human rotaviruses. Arch. Virol. Suppl. 12:153-61
84. Saif L, Yuan L, Ward L, To T. 1997. Comparative studies of the pathogenesis, antibody immune responses, and homologous protection to porcine and human rotaviruses in gnotobiotic piglets. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 412:397-403
85. Vajdy M. 2008. Immunity Against Mucosal Pathogens. Dordrecht, Neth.: Springer.
86. Yuan L, Wen K, Azevedo MS, Gonzalez AM, Zhang W, Saif LJ. 2008. Virus-specific intestinal IFN-γ producing T cell responses induced by human rotavirus infection and vaccines are correlated with protection against rotavirus diarrhea in gnotobiotic pigs. Vaccine 26:3322-31
87. Yuan L, Ward LA, Rosen BI, To TL, Saif LJ. 1996. Systematic and intestinal antibody-secreting cell responses and correlates of protective immunity to human rotavirus in a gnotobiotic pig model of disease. J. Virol. 70:3075-83
88. Ward LA, Yuan L, Rosen BI, To TL, Saif LJ. 1996. Development of mucosal and systemic lympho-proliferative responses and protective immunity to human group A rotaviruses in a gnotobiotic pig model. Clin. Diagn. Lab. Immunol. 3:342-50
89. de Arriba ML, Carvajal A, Pozo J, Rubio P. 2002. Mucosal and systemic isotype-specific antibody responses and protection in conventional pigs exposed to virulent or attenuated porcine epidemic diarrhoea virus. Vet. Immunol. Immunopathol. 85:85-97
90. Yuan L, Kang SY, Ward LA, To TL, Saif LJ. 1998. Antibody-secreting cell responses and protective immunity assessed in gnotobiotic pigs inoculated orally or intramuscularly with inactivated human rotavirus. J. Virol. 72:330-38
91. Wang Y, Azevedo M, Saif LJ, Gentsch JR, Glass RI, Jiang B. 2010. Inactivated rotavirus vaccine induces protective immunity in gnotobiotic piglets. Vaccine 28:5432-36
92. Azevedo MS, Yuan L, Pouly S, Gonzales AM, Jeong KI, et al. 2006. Cytokine responses in gnotobiotic pigs after infection with virulent or attenuated human rotavirus. J. Virol. 80:372-82
93. Zhang W, Wen K, Azevedo MS, Gonzalez A, Saif LJ, et al. 2008. Lactic acid bacterial colonization and human rotavirus infection influence distribution and frequencies of monocytes/macrophages and dendritic cells in neonatal gnotobiotic pigs. Vet. Immunol. Immunopathol. 121:222-31
94. Wen K, Azevedo MS, Gonzalez A, Zhang W, Saif LJ, et al. 2009. Toll-like receptor and innate cytokine responses induced by lactobacilli colonization and human rotavirus infection in gnotobiotic pigs. Vet. Immunol. Immunopathol. 127:304-15
95. Wen K, Li G, Zhang W, Azevedo MS, Saif LJ, et al. 2011. Development of gd T cell subset responses in gnotobiotic pigs infected with human rotaviruses and colonized with probiotic lactobacilli. Vet. Immunol. Immunopathol. 141:267-75
96. Gonzalez AM, Azevedo MS, Jung K, Vlasova A, Zhang W, Saif LJ. 2010. Innate immune responses to human rotavirus in the neonatal gnotobiotic piglet disease model. Immunology 131:242-56
97. Gonzalez AM, Nguyen TV, Azevedo MS, Jeong K, Agarib F, et al. 2004. Antibody responses to human rotavirus (HRV) in gnotobiotic pigs following a new prime/boost vaccine strategy using oral attenuated HRV priming and intranasal VP2/6 rotavirus-like particle (VLP) boosting with ISCOM. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 135:361-72
98. Iosef C, Van Nguyen T, Jeong K, Bengtsson K, Morein B, et al. 2002. Systemic and intestinal antibody secreting cell responses and protection in gnotobiotic pigs immunized orally with attenuatedWa human rotavirus and Wa 2/6-rotavirus-like-particles associated with immunostimulating complexes. Vaccine 20:1741-53
99. Yuan L, Geyer A, Hodgins DC, Fan Z, Qian Y, et al. 2000. Intranasal administration of 2/6-rotavirus-like particles with mutant Escherichia coli heat-labile toxin (LT-R192G) induces antibody-secreting cell responses but not protective immunity in gnotobiotic pigs. J. Virol. 74:8843-53
100. Yuan L, Iosef C, Azevedo MS, Kim Y, Qian Y, et al. 2001. Protective immunity and antibody-secreting cell responses elicited by combined oral attenuated Wa human rotavirus and intranasal Wa 2/6-VLPs with mutant Escherichia coli heat-labile toxin in gnotobiotic pigs. J. Virol. 75:9229-38
101. Azevedo MP, Vlasova AN, Saif LJ. 2013. Human rotavirus virus-like particle vaccines evaluated in a neonatal gnotobiotic pig model of human rotavirus disease. Expert Rev. Vaccines 12:169-81
102. Fukushima Y, Kawata Y, Hara H, Terada A, Mitsuoka T. 1998. Effect of a probiotic formula on intestinal immunoglobulin A production in healthy children. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 42:39-44
103. Sanz Y, De Palma G. 2009. Gut microbiota and probiotics in modulation of epithelium and gutassociated lymphoid tissue function. Int. Rev. Immunol. 28:397-413
104. Holscher HD, Czerkies LA, Cekola P, Litov R, Benbow M, et al. 2012. Bifidobacterium lactis Bb12 enhances intestinal antibody response in formula-fed infants: a randomized, double-blind, controlled trial. J. Parenter. Enter. Nutr. 36:106S-17S
105. Mullie C, Yazourh A, Thibault H, Odou MF, Singer E, et al. 2004. Increased poliovirus-specific intestinal antibody response coincides with promotion of Bifidobacterium longum-infantis and Bifidobacterium breve in infants: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Pediatr. Res. 56:791-95
106. Zhang W, Azevedo MS, Wen K, Gonzalez A, Saif LJ, et al. 2008. Probiotic Lactobacillus acidophilus enhances the immunogenicity of an oral rotavirus vaccine in gnotobiotic pigs. Vaccine 26:3655-61
107. Fanaro S, Chierici R, Guerrini P, Vigi V. 2003. Intestinal microflora in early infancy: composition and development. Acta Paediatr. Suppl. 91:48-55
108. Rinne M, Kalliomaki M, Arvilommi H, Salminen S, Isolauri E. 2005. Effect of probiotics and breastfeeding on the Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus/Enterococcus microbiota and humoral immune responses. J. Pediatr. 147:186-91
109. Sjogren YM, Tomicic S, Lundberg A, Bottcher MF, Bjorksten B, et al. 2009. Influence of early gut microbiota on the maturation of childhood mucosal and systemic immune responses. Clin. Exp. Allergy 39:1842-51
110. Chattha KS, Vlasova AN, Kandasamy S, Rajashekara G, Saif LJ. 2013. Divergent immunomodulating effects of probiotics on T cell responses to oral attenuated human rotavirus vaccine and virulent human rotavirus infection in a neonatal gnotobiotic piglet disease model. J. Immunol. 191:2446-56
111. Kumar A, Vlasova AN, Liu Z, Chattha KS, Kandasamy S, et al. 2014. In vivo gut transcriptome responses Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG and Lactobacillus acidophilus in neonatal gnotobiotic piglets. Gut Microbes 5(2):152-64
112. Kaufman DR, De Calisto J, Simmons NL, Cruz AN, Villablanca EJ, et al. 2011. Vitamin A deficiency impairs vaccine-elicited gastrointestinal immunity. J. Immunol. 187:1877-83
113. Sommer A, Katz J, Tarwotjo I. 1984. Increased risk of respiratory disease and diarrhea in children with preexisting mild vitamin A deficiency. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 40:1090-95
114. Villamor E, Fawzi WW. 2005. Effects of vitamin A supplementation on immune responses and correlation with clinical outcomes. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 18:446-64
115. Mora JR, Iwata M, Eksteen B, Song SY, Junt T, et al. 2006. Generation of gut-homing IgA-secreting B cells by intestinal dendritic cells. Science 314:1157-60
116. Sun CM, Hall JA, Blank RB, Bouladoux N, Oukka M, et al. 2007. Small intestine lamina propria dendritic cells promote de novo generation of Foxp3 T reg cells via retinoic acid. J. Exp. Med. 204:1775-85
117. Iwata M, Hirakiyama A, Eshima Y, Kagechika H, Kato C, Song SY. 2004. Retinoic acid imprints guthoming specificity on T cells. Immunity 21:527-38
118. Vlasova AN, Chattha KS, Kandasamy S, Siegismund CS, Saif LJ. 2013. Prenatally acquired vitamin A deficiency alters innate immune responses to human rotavirus in a gnotobiotic pig model. J. Immunol. 190:4742-53
119. Chattha KS, Kandasamy S, Vlasova AN, Saif LJ. 2013. Vitamin A deficiency impairs adaptive B and T cell responses to a prototype monovalent attenuated human rotavirus vaccine and virulent human rotavirus challenge in a gnotobiotic piglet model. PLOS ONE 8:e82966
120. Jee J, Hoet AE, Azevedo MP, Vlasova AN, Loerch SC, et al. 2013. Effects of dietary vitaminA content on antibody responses of feedlot calves inoculated intramuscularly with an inactivated bovine coronavirus vaccine. Am. J. Vet. Res. 74:1353-62
121. Huang YW, Dickerman AW, Piñeyro P, Li L, Fang L, et al. 2013. Origin, evolution, and genotyping of emergent porcine epidemic diarrhea virus strains in the United States. mBio 4:e00737-13
122. StevensonGW, Hoang H, Schwartz KJ, Burrough ER, Sun D, et al. 2013. Emergence of porcine epidemic diarrhea virus in the United States: clinical signs, lesions, and viral genomic sequences. J. Vet. Diagn. Investig. 25:649-54
123. Hill RE Jr, Foley PL, Carr MY, Elsken LA, Gatewood DM, et al. 2003. Regulatory considerations for emergency use of non-USDA licensed vaccines in the United States. Dev. Biol. 114:31-52
124. Schwartz K, Henry S, Tokach L, Potter M, Davidson D, Egnor C. 2014. Exposing sows to PEDV to build herd immunity. Natl. Hog Farmer, March 13
125. StevensonGW, Hoang H, Schwartz KJ, Burrough ER, Sun D, et al. 2013. Emergence of porcine epidemic diarrhea virus in the United States: clinical signs, lesions, and viral genomic sequences. J. Vet. Diagn. Investig. 25(5):649-54
126. Sueyoshi M, Tsuda T, Yamazaki K, Yoshida K, Nakazawa M, et al. 1995. An immunohistochemical investigation of porcine epidemic diarrhoea. J. Comp. Pathol. 113(1):59-67