Vegetarian diets across the lifecycle: Impact on zinc intake and status

Advances in Food and Nutrition Research

Volumn 74, Issue , 2015, Pages 93-131

  Foster, Meika ^a   Samman, Samir ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF OTAGO   (New Zealand)

Author keywords

Diet; Requirement; Vegetarian; Zinc biomarker; Zinc status

Indexed keywords

CALCIUM INTAKE; PHYTIC ACID; ZINC;

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; AGED; BIOAVAILABILITY; BLOOD; CALCIUM INTAKE; CHILD; COMPARATIVE STUDY; DEFICIENCY; DIET; FEMALE; HOMEOSTASIS; HUMAN; INFANT; LACTATION; MALE; MIDDLE AGED; NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENT; NUTRITIONAL STATUS; PREGNANCY; PRESCHOOL CHILD; VEGETARIAN DIET; VERY ELDERLY;

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; AGED; AGED, 80 AND OVER; BIOLOGICAL AVAILABILITY; CALCIUM, DIETARY; CHILD; CHILD, PRESCHOOL; DIET; DIET, VEGETARIAN; FEMALE; HOMEOSTASIS; HUMANS; INFANT; LACTATION; MALE; MIDDLE AGED; NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS; NUTRITIONAL STATUS; PHYTIC ACID; PREGNANCY; ZINC;

EID: 84921527842     PISSN: 10434526     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1016/bs.afnr.2014.11.003     Document Type: Chapter

References (148)

1. Abraham R., Campbell-Brown M., Haines A.P., North W.R., Hainsworth V., McFadyen I.R. Diet during pregnancy in an Asian community in Britain-Energy, protein, zinc, copper, fibre and calcium. Human Nutrition: Applied Nutrition 1985, 39(1):23-35.
2. Abu-Assal M.J., Craig W.J. The zinc status of pregnant vegetarian women. Nutrition Reports International 1984, 29(2):485-494.
3. Aksglaede L., Olsen L.W., Sorensen T.I.A., Juul A. Forty years trends in timing of pubertal growth spurt in 157,000 Danish school children. PLoS One 2008, 3:e2728.
4. Alexander D., Ball M.J., Mann J. Nutrient intake and haematological status of vegetarians and age sex matched omnivores. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1994, 48(8):538-546.
5. American Dietetic Association & Dietitians of Canada Position of the American Dietetic Association & Dietitians of Canada: Vegetarian diets. Canadian Journal of Dietetic Practice and Research 2003, 64(2):62-81.
6. Ball M.J., Ackland M.L. Zinc intake and status in Australian vegetarians. British Journal of Nutrition 2000, 83(1):27-33.
7. Beardsworth A., Bryman A. Meat consumption and vegetarianism among young adults in the UK. British Food Journal 1999, 101(4):289-300.
8. Beardsworth A., Bryman A., Keil T., Goode J., Haslam C., Lancashire E., et al. Women, men and food. The significance of gender for nutritional attitudes and choices. British Food Journal 2002, 104(7):470-491.
9. Bindra G.S., Gibson R.S., Thompson U.L. [Phytate][calcium]/[zinc] ratios in Asian immigrant lacto-ovo vegetarian diets and their relationship to zinc nutriture. Nutrition Research 1986, 6(5):475-483.
10. Bingham S. High-meat diets and cancer risk. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 1999, 58(2):243-248.
11. Braun L.A., Rosenfeldt F. Pharmaco-nutrient interactions-A systematic review of zinc and antihypertensive therapy. International Journal of Clinical Practice 2013, 67(8):717-725.
12. Briefel R.R., Bialostosky K., Kennedy-Stephenson J., McDowell M.A., Ervin R.B., Wright J.D. Zinc intake of the U.S. population: Findings from the third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988-1994. Journal of Nutrition 2000, 130(5S Suppl.):1367S-1373S.
13. Bunker V.W., Clayton B.E. Research review: Studies in the nutrition of elderly people with particular reference to essential trace elements. Age & Ageing 1989, 18(6):422-429.
14. Butterworth C.E., Tamura T. Folic acid safety and toxicity: A brief review. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1989, 50(2):353-358.
15. Campbell-Brown M., Ward R.J., Haines A.P., North W.R., Abraham R., McFadyen I.R., et al. Zinc and copper in Asian pregnancies-Is there evidence for a nutritional deficiency?. British Journal of Obstetrics & Gynaecology 1985, 92(9):875-885.
16. Cavan K.R., Gibson R.S., Grazioso C.F., Isalgue A.M., Ruz M., Solomons N.W. Growth and body composition of peri-urban Guatemalan children in relation to zinc status: A cross-sectional study. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1993, 57(3):334-343.
17. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC] National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), 2009-2010 data documentation, codebook, and frequencies. Diet behaviour and nutrition [online] Available from, Accessed 4 December 2013. http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/nhanes/nhanes2009-2010/DBQ_F.htm#DBQ915.
18. Chen X.C., Yin T.A., He J.S., Ma Q.Y., Han Z.M., Li L.X. Low levels of zinc in hair and blood, pica, anorexia, and poor growth in Chinese preschool children. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1985, 42(4):694-700.
19. Committee on Medical Aspects of Food Policy Dietary reference values for food energy and nutrients for the United Kingdom. Report of the Panel on Dietary Reference Values of the Committee on Medical Aspects of Food Policy. Reports on Health and Social Subjects (London) 1991, 41:1-210.
20. Davey G.K., Spencer E.A., Appleby P.N., Allen N.E., Knox K.H., Key T.J. EPIC-Oxford: Lifestyle characteristics and nutrient intakes in a cohort of 33 883 meat-eaters and 31 546 non meat-eaters in the UK. Public Health Nutrition 2003, 6(3):259-269.
21. Department of Health and Food Standards Agency (FSA) National Diet and Nutrition Survey Headline results from years 1 and 2 (combined) of the Rolling Programme (2008/2009-2009/10) [online] Available from, Accessed 28 November 2013. https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/216484/dh_128550.pdf.
22. Deriemaeker P., Aerenhouts D., De Ridder D., Hebbelinck M., Clarys P. Health aspects, nutrition and physical characteristics in matched samples of institutionalized vegetarian and non-vegetarian elderly (>65yrs). Nutrition & Metabolism 2011, 8(1):37.
23. Deriemaeker P., Alewaeters K., Hebbelinck M., Lefevre J., Philippaerts R., Clarys P. Nutritional status of Flemish vegetarians compared with non-vegetarians: A matched samples study. Nutrients 2010, 2(7):770-780.
24. Donovan U.M., Gibson R.S. Iron and zinc status of young women aged 14 to 19 years consuming vegetarian and omnivorous diets. Journal of the American College of Nutrition 1995, 14(5):463-472.
25. Donovan U.M., Gibson R.S. Dietary intakes of adolescent females consuming vegetarian, semi-vegetarian, and omnivorous diets. Journal of Adolescent Health 1996, 18(4):292-300.
26. Drake R., Reddy S., Davies J. Nutrition intake during pregnancy and pregnancy outcome of lacto-ovo-vegetarian, fish-eaters and non-vegetarians. Vegetarian Nutrition: An International Journal 1998, 2:45-52.
27. European Vegetarian Union "How many veggies...?" [online] Available from, Accessed 4 December 2013. http://www.euroveg.eu/lang/en/info/howmany.php.
28. Faber M., Gouws E., Benade A.J., Labadarios D. Anthropometric measurements, dietary intake and biochemical data of South African lacto-ovovegetarians. South African Medical Journal 1986, 69(12):733-738.
29. Fargerli R.A., Wandel M. Gender differences in opinions and practices with regard to a "healthy diet". Appetite 1999, 32(2):171-190.
30. Farmer B., Larson B.T., Fulgoni V.L., Rainville A.J., Liepa G.U. A vegetarian dietary pattern as a nutrient-dense approach to weight management: An analysis of the national health and nutrition examination survey 1999-2004. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 2011, 111(6):819-827.
31. 12, selenium and zinc in young women. Journal of Human Nutrition & Dietetics 2013, 27(Suppl. 2):135-142. 10.1111/jhn.12092.
32. Ferguson E.L., Gibson R.S., Thompson L.U., Ounpuu S. The dietary calcium, phytate and zinc intakes, and the calcium, phytate and zinc molar ratios of a selected group of East African children. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1989, 50(6):1450-1456.
33. Fischer Walker C.L., Ezzati M., Black R.E. Global and regional child mortality and burden of disease attributable to zinc deficiency. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2009, 63(1):591-597.
34. Foster M., Chu A., Petocz P., Samman S. Effect of vegetarian diets on zinc status: A systematic review and meta-analysis of studies in humans. Journal of the Science of Food & Agriculture 2013, 93(10):2362-2371.
35. Foster M., Hancock D., Petocz P., Samman S. Zinc transporter genes are coordinately expressed in men and women independently of dietary or plasma zinc. Journal of Nutrition 2011, 141(6):1195-1201.
36. Foster M., Karra M., Picone T., Chu A., Hancock D., Petocz P. Dietary fiber intake increases the risk of zinc deficiency in healthy and diabetic women. Biological Trace Element Research 2012, 149(2):135-142.
37. Foster M., Petocz P., Samman S. Inflammation markers predict zinc transporter gene expression in women with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry 2013, 24(9):1655-1661.
38. Foster M., Samman S. Zinc and redox signaling: Perturbations associated with cardiovascular disease and diabetes mellitus. Antioxidants & Redox Signaling 2010, 13(10):1549-1573.
39. Freeland-Graves J.H., Bodzy P.W., Eppright M.A. Zinc status of vegetarians. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 1980, 77(6):655-661.
40. Fung E.B., Ritchie L.D., Woodhouse L.R., Roehl R., King J.C. Zinc absorption in women during pregnancy and lactation: A longitudinal study. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1997, 66(1):80-88.
41. Gibson R.S. Content and bioavailability of trace elements in vegetarian diets. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1994, 59(Suppl. 5):1223S-1232S.
42. Gibson R.S. Principles of nutritional assessment 2005, Oxford University Press, New York. 2nd ed.
43. Gibson R.S., Donovan U.M., Heath A.L. Dietary strategies to improve the iron and zinc nutriture of young women following a vegetarian diet. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition 1997, 51(1):1-16.
44. Gibson R.S., Perlas L.A., Hotz C. Improving the bioavailability of nutrients in plant foods at the household level. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 2006, 65(2):160-168.
45. Gibson R.S., Vanderkooy P.D., MacDonald A.C., Goldman A., Ryan B.A., Berry M. A growth-limiting, mild zinc-deficiency syndrome in some southern Ontario boys with low height percentiles. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1989, 49(6):1266-1273.
46. Gorczyca D., Prescha A., Szeremeta K. Impact of vegetarian diet on serum immunoglobulin levels in children. Clinical Pediatrics 2013, 52(3):241-246.
47. Haase H., Rink L. The immune system and the impact of zinc during aging. Immunity & Ageing 2009, 6:9.
48. Haddad E.H., Berk L.S., Kettering J.D., Hubbard R.W., Peters W.R. Dietary intake and biochemical, hematologic, and immune status of vegans compared with nonvegetarians. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1999, 70(3 Suppl.):586S-593S.
49. Haddad E.H., Tanzman J.S. What do vegetarians in the United States eat?. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2003, 78(3 Suppl.):626S-632S.
50. Hambidge K.M., Droegemueller W. Changes in plasma and hair concentrations of zinc, copper, chromium and manganese during pregnancy. Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 1974, 44(5):666-672.
51. Hambidge K.M., Hambidge C., Jacobs M., Baum J.D. Low levels of zinc in hair, anorexia, poor growth, and hypogeusia in children. Pediatric Research 1972, 6(12):868-874.
52. Hambidge M., Krebs N.F. Interrelationships of key variables of human zinc homeostasis: Relevance to dietary zinc requirements. Annual Review of Nutrition 2001, 21(1):429-452.
53. Hansen M., Samman S., Madsen L., Jensen M., Sorensen S., Sandström B. Folic acid enrichment of bread does not appear to affect zinc absorption in young women. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2001, 74(1):125-129.
54. Harland B.F., Smith S.A., Howard M.P., Ellis R., Smith J.C. Nutritional status and phytate:zinc and phytate x calcium:zinc dietary molar ratios of lacto-ovo vegetarian Trappist monks: 10 years later. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 1988, 88(12):1562-1566.
55. Health Canada Dietary reference intakes: Reference values for elements [online] Available from, Accessed 30 October 2013. http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/fn-an/nutrition/reference/table/ref_elements_tbl-eng.php.
56. Hunt J.R. Bioavailability of iron, zinc, and other trace minerals from vegetarian diets. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2003, 78(3 Suppl.):633S-639S.
57. Hunt J.R., Beiseigel J.M. Dietary calcium does not exacerbate phytate inhibition of zinc absorption by women from conventional diets. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2009, 89(3):839-843.
58. Hunt J.R., Beiseigel J.M., Johnson L.K. Adaptation in human zinc absorption as influenced by dietary zinc and bioavailability. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2008, 87(5):1336-1345.
59. Hunter D., Foster M., McArthur J.O., Ojha R., Petocz P., Samman S. Evaluation of the micronutrient composition of plant foods produced by organic and conventional agricultural methods. Critical Reviews in Food Science & Nutrition 2011, 51(6):571-582.
60. Institute of Medicine Nutrition during lactation 1992, The National Academies Press, Washington, DC.
61. Institute of Medicine Dietary reference intakes for vitamin A, vitamin K, arsenic, boron, chromium, copper, iodine, iron, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, silicon, vanadium, and zinc 2001, The National Academies Press, Washington, DC.
62. International Zinc Nutrition Consultative Group, Brown K.H., Rivera J.A., Bhutta Z.A., Gibson R.S., Hotz C., et al. International Zinc Nutrition Consultative Group (IZiNCG) technical document # 1. Assessment of the risk of zinc deficiency in populations and options for its control. Food & Nutrition Bulletin 2004, 25(1 Suppl. 2):S94-S203.
63. Jackson M.J., Jones D.A., Edwards R.H., Swainbank I.G., Coleman M.L. Zinc homeostasis in man: Studies using a new stable isotope-dilution technique. British Journal of Nutrition 1984, 51(2):199-208.
64. Jameson S. Effects of zinc deficiency in human reproduction. Acta Medica Scandinavica. Supplementum 1976, 593:1.
65. Jameson S. Variations in maternal serum zinc during pregnancy and correlation to congenital malformations, dysmaturity, and abnormal parturition. Acta Medica Scandinavica. Supplementum 1976, 593:21-37.
66. Jameson S. Zinc and copper in pregnancy: Correlations to fetal and maternal complications. Acta Medica Scandinavica. Supplementum 1976, 593:5-20.
67. Janelle K.C., Barr S.I. Nutrient intakes and eating behavior scores of vegetarian and nonvegetarian women. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 1995, 95(2):180-186.
68. Kadrabova J., Madaric A., Kovacikova Z., Ginter E. Selenium status, plasma zinc, copper, and magnesium in vegetarians. Biological Trace Element Research 1995, 50(1):13-24.
69. Kelsay J.L., Frazier C.W., Prather E.S., Canary J.J., Clark W.M., Powell A.S. Impact of variation in carbohydrate intake on mineral utilization by vegetarians. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1988, 48(3 Suppl.):875-879.
70. Key T., Fraser G., Thorogood M., Appleby P.N., Beral V., Reeves G., et al. Mortality in vegetarians and non-vegetarians: A collaborative analysis of 8300 deaths among 76,000 men and women in five prospective studies. Public Health Nutrition 1998, 1(1):33-41.
71. Khokhar S., Pushpanjali, Fenwick G.R. Phytate content of Indian foods and intakes by vegetarian Indians of Hisar Region, Haryana State. Journal of Agricultural & Food Chemistry 1994, 42(11):2440-2444.
72. Kim M.H., Choi M.K., Sung C.J. Bone mineral density of Korean postmenopausal women is similar between vegetarians and nonvegetarians. Nutrition Research 2007, 27(10):612-617.
73. King J.C. Determinants of maternal zinc status during pregnancy. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2000, 71(5 Suppl.):1334S-1343S.
74. King J.C., Cousins R.J. Zinc. Modern nutrition in health and disease 2006, 271-285. Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore, MD. M.E. Shils, M. Shike, A.C. Ross, B. Caballero, R.J. Cousins (Eds.).
75. King J.C., Shames D.M., Lowe N.M., Woodhouse L.R., Sutherland B., Abrams S.A., et al. Effect of acute zinc depletion in men on zinc homeostasis and plasma zinc kinetics. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2001, 74(1):116-124.
76. King J.C., Shames D.M., Woodhouse L.R. Zinc homeostasis in humans. Journal of Nutrition 2000, 130(5 Suppl.):1360S-1366S.
77. King J.C., Stein T., Doyle M. Effect of vegetarianism on the zinc status of pregnant women. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1981, 34(6):1049-1055.
78. Klein C., Moser-Veillon P.B., Douglas L.W., Ruben K.A., Trocki O. A longitudinal study of urinary calcium, magnesium, and zinc excretion in lactating and nonlactating postpartum women. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1995, 61(4):779-786.
79. Krajcovicová-Kudlácková M., Simoncic R., Babinská K., Béderová A., Brtková A., Magálová T., et al. Selected vitamins and trace elements in blood of vegetarians. Annals of Nutrition & Metabolism 1995, 39(6):334-339.
80. Krajcovicová-Kudlácková M., Simoncic R., Béderová A., Magálová T., Grancićová E., Klvanová J. Antioxidative levels in two nutritional population groups. Oncology Reports 1996, 3(6):1119-1123.
81. Krajčovičová-Kudláčková M., Ursínyová M., Blažíček P., Spustová V., Ginter E., Hladíková V., et al. Free radical disease prevention and nutrition. Bratislava Medical Journal-Bratislavske lekarske listy 2003, 104(2):64-68.
82. Krebs N.F. Dietary zinc and iron sources, physical growth and cognitive development of breastfed infants. Journal of Nutrition 2000, 130(2 Suppl.):358S-360S.
83. Krebs N.F., Westcott J.E., Culbertson D.L., Sian L., Miller L.V., Hambidge K.M. Comparison of complementary feeding strategies to meet zinc requirements of older breastfed infants. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2012, 96(1):30-35.
84. Kwun I.S., Kwon C.S. Dietary molar ratios of phytate: Zinc and millimolar ratios of phytate×calcium: Zinc in South Koreans. Biological Trace Element Research 2000, 75(1-3):29-41.
85. Latta D., Liebman M. Iron and zinc status of vegetarian and nonvegetarian males. Nutrition Reports International 1984, 30:141-149.
86. Lee D.Y., Prasad A.S., Hydrick-Adair C., Brewer G., Johnson P.E. Homeostasis of zinc in marginal human zinc deficiency: Role of absorption and endogenous excretion of zinc. Journal of Laboratory & Clinical Medicine 1993, 122(5):549-556.
87. Lehrfeld J. High-performance liquid chromatography analysis of phytic acid on pH-stable, macroporous polymer column. Cereal Chemistry 1989, 66(6):510-515.
88. Levin N., Rattan J., Gilat T. Mineral intake and blood levels in vegetarians. Israel Journal of Medical Sciences 1986, 22(2):105-108.
89. Li D., Sinclair A.J., Mann N.J., Turner A., Ball M.J. Selected micronutrient intake and status in men with differing meat intakes, vegetarians and vegans. Asia Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2000, 9(1):18-23.
90. Lönnerdal B. Dietary factors influencing zinc absorption. Journal of Nutrition 2000, 130(5S Suppl.):1378S-1383S.
91. Lowe N.M., Medina M.W., Stammers A.L., Patel S., Souverein O.W., Dullemeijer C., et al. The relationship between zinc intake and serum/plasma zinc concentration in adults: A systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis by the EURRECA Network. British Journal of Nutrition 2012, 108(11):1962-1971.
92. McArthur J., Petocz P., Caterson I., Samman S. A randomized controlled trial in young women of the effects of consuming pork meat or iron supplements on nutritional status and feeling of well-being. Journal of the American College of Nutrition 2012, 31(3):175-184.
93. McLennan W., Podger A. National Nutrition Survey: Selected highlights, Australia, 1995. ABS cat. no. 4802.0 1995, Australian Bureau of Statistics, Canberra.
94. Miller L.V., Krebs N.F., Hambidge K.M. A mathematical model of zinc absorption in humans as a function of dietary zinc and phytate. Journal of Nutrition 2007, 137(7):135-141.
95. Milne D.B., Canfield W.K., Mahalko J.R., Sandstead H.H. Effect of dietary zinc on whole body surface loss of zinc: Impact on estimation of zinc retention by balance method. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1983, 38(2):181-186.
96. Ministry of Health Food and nutrition guidelines for healthy children and young people (aged 2-18 years): A background paper 2012, Ministry of Health, Wellington, Accessed 7 March 2014. http://www.health.govt.nz/publication/food-and-nutrition-guidelines-healthy-children-and-young-people-aged-2-18-years-background-paper, 1st ed.
97. Mocchegiani E., Romeo J., Malavolta M., Costarelli L., Giacconi R., Diaz L.E., et al. Zinc: Dietary intake and impact of supplementation on immune function in elderly. Age 2013, 35(3):839-860.
98. Moser-Veillon P.B. Zinc needs and homeostasis during lactation. Analyst 1995, 120(3):895-897.
99. Nathan I., Hackett A.F., Kirby S. The dietary intake of a group of vegetarian children aged 7-11 years compared with matched omnivores. British Journal of Nutrition 1996, 75(4):533-544.
100. National Health Medical Research Council Nutrient reference values for Australia and New Zealand: Including recommended dietary intakes 2006, National Health and Medical Research Council, Canberra, Australia.
101. Nieman D.C., Underwood B.C., Sherman K.M., Arabatzis K., Barbosa J.C., Johnson M., et al. Dietary status of Seventh-Day Adventist vegetarian and non-vegetarian elderly women. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 1989, 89(12):1763-1769.
102. Oberleas D. The role of phytate in zinc bioavailability and homeostasis. Nutritional bioavailability of zinc 1983, 145-158. American Chemical Society, Washington, DC. G.A. Inglett (Ed.).
103. O'Brien K.O., Zavaleta N., Caulfield L.E., Wen J., Abrams S.A. Prenatal iron supplements impair zinc absorption in pregnant Peruvian women. Journal of Nutrition 2000, 130(9):2251-2255.
104. Perry C.L., Mcguire M.T., Neumark-Sztainer D., Story M. Characteristics of vegetarian adolescents in a multiethnic urban population. Journal of Adolescent Health 2001, 29(6):406-416.
105. Phillips F. Vegetarian nutrition-Briefing paper. British Nutrition Foundation. Nutrition Bulletin 2005, 30(2):132-167.
106. Pohit J., Pal B. Zinc content of the diets of the sedentary Bengalees. International Journal for Vitamin & Nutrition Research 1985, 55(2):223-225.
107. Prasad A.S. Zinc and immunity. Molecular & Cellular Biochemistry 1998, 188(1-2):63-69.
108. Prasad A.S., Fitzgerald J.T., Hess J.W., Kaplan J., Pelen F., Dardenne M. Zinc deficiency in elderly patients. Nutrition 1993, 9(3):218-224.
109. Prasad A.S., Halsted J.A., Nadimi M. Syndrome of iron deficiency anemia, hepatosplenomegaly, hypogonadism, dwarfism and geophagia. American Journal of Medicine 1961, 31(4):532-546.
110. Prasad A.S., Mial A., Farid Z., Schulert A., Sandstead H.H. Zinc metabolism in patients with the syndrome of iron deficiency anemia hypogonadism, and dwarfism. Journal of Laboratory & Clinical Medicine 1963, 61:537-549.
111. Raghunath R., Tripathi R.M., Suseela B., Bhalke S., Shukla V.K., Puranik V.D. Dietary intake of metals by Mumbai adult population. Science of the Total Environment 2006, 356(1-3):62-68.
112. Rangan A., Jones A., Samman S. Zinc supplement use and contribution to zinc intake in Australian children. Public Heath Nutrition 2014, 12:1-7. (in press).
113. Rangan A., Samman S. Zinc intake and its dietary sources: Results of the 2007 Australian National Children's Nutrition and Physical Activity Survey. Nutrients 2012, 4(7):611-624.
114. Rattan J., Levin N., Graff E. A high-fiber diet does not cause mineral and nutrient deficiencies. Journal of Clinical Gastroenterology 1981, 3(4):389-393.
115. Rauma A.L., Torronen R., Hanninen O., Verhagen H., Mykkanen H. Antioxidant status in long-term adherents to a strict uncooked vegan diet. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1995, 62(6):1221-1227.
116. Ruby M.B. Vegetarianism. A blossoming field of study. Appetite 2012, 58(1):141-150.
117. Samman S. Zinc. Essentials of human nutrition 2012, Oxford University Press, Oxford. J. Mann, S. Truswell (Eds.).
118. Sandberg A.S., Anderson H., Carlson N.G., Sandström B. Degradation products of bran phytate formed during digestion in the human small intestine: Effect of extrusion cooking on digestibility. Journal of Nutrition 1987, 117(12):2061-2065.
119. Sandberg A.S., Hasselblad C., Hasselblad K., Hultén L. The effect of wheat bran on the absorption of minerals in the small intestine. British Journal of Nutrition 1982, 48(2):185-191.
120. Sandström B. Bioavailability of zinc. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1997, 51(Suppl. 1):S17-S19.
121. Sandström B., Sandberg A.-S. The effects of penta- and tetra-inositol phosphates on zinc absorption in humans. FASEB Journal 1989, 3:3090.
122. Sazawal S., Black R.E., Bhan M.K., Bhandari N., Sinha A., Jalla S. Zinc supplementation in young children with acute diarrhea in India. New England Journal of Medicine 1995, 333(13):839-844.
123. Sian L., Mingyan X., Miller L.V., Tong L., Krebs N.F., Hambidge K.M. Zinc absorption and intestinal losses of endogenous zinc in young Chinese women with marginal zinc intakes. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1996, 63(3):348-353.
124. Siega-Riz A.M., Deming D.M., Reidy K.C., Fox M.K., Condon E., Briefel R.R. Food consumption patterns of infants and toddlers: Where are we now?. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 2010, 110:S38-S51.
125. Simmer K., Ahmed S., Carlsson L., Thompson R.P.H. Breast milk zinc and copper concentrations in Bangladesh. British Journal of Nutrition 1990, 63(1):91-96.
126. Simpson C.J., Wise A. Binding of zinc and calcium to inositol phosphates (phytate) in vitro. British Journal of Nutrition 1990, 64(1):225-232.
127. Smit Vanderkooy P.D., Gibson R.S. Food consumption patterns of Canadian preschool children in relation to zinc and growth status. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1987, 45(3):609-616.
128. Solomons N.W. Competitive interaction of iron and zinc in the diet: Consequences for human nutrition. Journal of Nutrition 1986, 116(6):927-935.
129. Srikumar T.S., Ockerman P.A., Akesson B. Trace element status in vegetarians from Southern India. Nutrition Research 1992, 12(2):187-198.
130. Stewart-Knox B.J., Simpson E.E., Parr H., Rae G., Polito A., Intorre F., et al. Zinc status and taste acuity in older Europeans: The ZENITH study. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2005, 59(Suppl. 2):S31-S36.
131. Tamura T., Goldenberg R.L. Zinc nutriture and pregnancy outcome. Nutrition Research 1996, 16(1):139-181.
132. Taylor C.M., Bacon J.R., Aggett P.J., Bremner I. Homeostatic regulation of zinc absorption and endogenous losses in zinc-deprived men. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1991, 53(3):755-763.
133. Taylor A., Redworth E.W., Morgan J.B. Influence of diet on iron, copper, and zinc status in children under 24 months of age. Biological Trace Element Research 2004, 97(3):197-214.
134. Thane C.W., Bates C.J. Dietary intakes and nutrient status of vegetarian preschool children from a British national survey. Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics 2000, 13(3):149-162.
135. Treuherz J. Possible inter-relationship between zinc and dietary fibre in a group of lacto-ovo vegetarian adolescents. Journal of Plant Foods 1982, 4(2):89-93.
136. University of Otago and Ministry of Health A focus on nutrition: Key findings of the 2008/09 New Zealand Adult Nutrition Survey 2011, Ministry of Health, Wellington, [online]. Available from, Accessed 4 December 2013. http://www.health.govt.nz/publication/2008-09-new-zealand-adult-nutrition-survey-data-tables.
137. Vegetarian Society Vegetarian fact sheets, statistics [online] Available from, Accessed 7 March 2014. https://www.vegsoc.org/sslpage.aspx?pid=753#.
138. Vegetarian Times Vegetarianism in America [online] Available from, Accessed 5 December 2013. http://www.vegetariantimes.com/article/vegetarianism-in-america/.
139. Wada L., Turnlund J.R., King J.C. Zinc utilization in young men fed adequate and low zinc intakes. Journal of Nutrition 1985, 115(10):1345-1354.
140. Walravens P.A., Krebs N.F., Hambidge K.M. Linear growth of low income preschool children receiving a zinc supplement. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1983, 38(2):195-201.
141. Ward R.J., Abraham R., McFadyen I.R., Haines A.D., North W.R.S., Patel M., et al. Assessment of trace metal intake and status in a Gujarati pregnant Asian population and their influence on the outcome of pregnancy. British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology 1988, 95(7):676-682.
142. Weinsier R. Use of the term vegetarian. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2000, 71(5):1211-1213.
143. White R., Frank E. Health effects and prevalence of vegetarianism. Western Journal of Medicine 1994, 160(5):465-470.
144. Wilson A.K., Ball M.J. Nutrient intake and iron status of Australian male vegetarians. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 1999, 53(3):189-194.
145. Wójciak R.W., Krejpcio Z., Czlapka-Matyasik M., Jeszka J. Comparison of the hair bioelements in vegeterian and non-vegeterian women. Trace Elements & Electrolytes 2004, 21(3):141-144.
146. World Health Organization Trace elements in human nutrition and health 1996, WHO, Geneva.
147. Yadav Y., Kumar S. The food habits of a nation. The Hindu CNN-IBN State of the Nation Survey 2006, The Hindu, [online] 14 August. Available from, Accessed 4 December 2013. http://hindu.com/2006/08/14/stories/2006081403771200.htm.
148. Yen C.E., Yen C.H., Huang M.C., Cheng C.H., Huang Y.C. Dietary intake and nutritional status of vegetarian and omnivorous preschool children and their parents in Taiwan. Nutrition Research 2008, 28(7):430-436.