Yellowstone's Destabilized Ecosystem: Elk Effects, Science, and Policy Conflict

Yellowstone's Destabilized Ecosystem: Elk Effects, Science, and Policy Conflict

Volumn , Issue , 2007, Pages 1-385

  Wagner, Frederic H ^a   Hamilton, Wayne L ^b   Keigley, Richard B ^b  

^a UTAH STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b NONE

Author keywords

Biodiversity; Ecosystem model; Ecosystem processes; Elk population; Natural regulation hypothesis; Natural regulation policy; Northern range; Research objectivity; Sympatric ungulates; Vegetation subsystems

Indexed keywords

EID: 84920152905     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195148213.001.0001     Document Type: Book

References (475)

1. Ackerman, E. A., M. Bates, S. A. Cain, F. F. Darling, J. M. Fogg, J. T. Gill, J. M. Gillson, E. R. Hall, C. L. Hubbs, and W. J. Robbins, Chairman. 1963. A report of the Advisory Committee to the National Park Service on Research. National Academy of Sciences, National Research Council, Washington, DC.
2. Adams, A. A. 1982. Nutrition requirements and food habits. Pp. 323-67 in J. W. Thomas and D. E. Toweill (eds.). Elk of North America: Ecology and management. Stackpole Books, Harrisburg, PA.
3. Alexander, E. C., Jr. 1996. Karst hydrogeological research at Mammoth Cave National Park. Pp. 201-28 in W. L Halvorson and G. E. Davis (eds.). Science and ecosystem management in the national parks. University of Arizona Press, Tucson.
4. Allen, H. F. A. and T. W. Hoekstra. 1992. Toward a unified ecology. Columbia University Press, New York.
5. Allen-Diaz, B. and J. W. Bartolome. 1998. Sagebrush-grass vegetation dynamics: Comparing classical and state-transition models. Ecol. Appl. 8:795-804.
6. Anderson, D. C., J. A. MacMahon, and M.L. Wolfe. 1980. Herbivorous mammals along a montane sere: Community structure and energetics. J. Mammal. 61:500-519.
7. Anderson, G. S. 1892. Report of the Superintendent of the Yellowstone National Park. U.S. Gov't. Printing Office, Washington, DC, 19 pp.
8. Anderson, G. S. 1897. Supplemental report. Dept. of the Int., Supt. of Yellowstone Nat. Park, Wyo., Nov. 10, 1897. Pp. 22-34 in Rept. of the Acting Supt of the Yellowstone National Park to the Secretary of the Interior. U.S. Gov't. Print. Off., Washington, DC, 21 pp.
9. Anderson, J. E. 1991. A conceptual framework for evaluating naturalness. Cons. Biol. 5:347-52.
10. Anonymous. 1883. Killing game in the park. Avant Courier 12:2,4.
11. Anonymous. 1966. Yellowstone Fishery Assistance Office backcountry lakes files. U.S. Nat. Park Serv., Yellowstone Nat. Park, WY.
12. Anonymous. 1967a. Natural control of elk. U.S. Dept. Int., Nat. Park Serv., Yellowstone Nat. Park: 2 pp. mimeo.
13. Anonymous. 1967b. Administrative policy for management of ungulates. U.S. Dept. Int. Nat. Park Serv., Yellowstone Nat. Park: 1 p. mimeo.
14. Anonymous. 1967c. Management objectives for northern Yellowstone elk. U.S. Dept. Int., Nat. Park Serv., Yellowstone Nat. Park: 1 p. mimeo.
15. Anonymous. 1972. Geologic map of Yellowstone National Park. U.S. Geol. Surv. Misc. Invest. Series, Map 1-711. Washington, DC.
16. Anonymous. 1974. Yellowstone Fishery Assistance Office backcountry lakes files. U.S. Nat. Park Serv., Yellowstone Nat. Park, WY.
17. Anonymous. 1975. Park managers blamed for dying elk. Bozeman [Mont.] Daily Chronicle 64 (June 2, 1975).
18. Anonymous. 1978. Management policies. U.S. Department of Interior National Park Service, Washington, DC.
19. Anonymous. 1988. Management policies. U.S. Department of Interior National Park Service 1988, Washington, DC.
20. Anonymous. 1992. Interim report: Yellowstone National Park: Northern range research. Research Division, Yellowstone National Park, WY, 312 pp.
21. Anonymous. 1997a. Yellowstone buffalo to crash, scientist predicts. Logan [Utah] Herald Journal 88:1.
22. Anonymous. 1997b. Bozeman [MT] Daily Chronicle, Feb. 26, 1997.
23. Anonymous. 2000. Management policies 2001. U.S. Dept. Interior, Nat. Park Serv. NPS D1416, Washington, DC.
24. Anonymous. 2004. Elk and vegetation management plan: Environmental Impact Statement: Summary of public scoping comments and the development of draft management alternatives. Nat. Park Serv., U.S. Dept. Int., Rocky Mtn. Nat. Park, Estes Park, CO, 12pp.
25. Augustine, D. J. and D. A. Frank. 2001. Effects of migratory grazers on spatial heterogeneity of soil nitrogen properties in a grassland ecosystem. Ecol. 82:3149-62.
26. Baccini, P. 1985. Phosphate interactions at the sediment-water interface. Pp. 189-205 in W. Stumm (ed.). Chemical processes in lakes. Wiley, New York.
27. Bailey, A. W., B. D. Irving, and R. D. Fitzgerald. 1990. Regeneration of woody species following burning and grazing in aspen parkland. J. Range Mgt. 43:212-15.
28. Bailey, J. K. and T. G. Whitham. 2002. Interactions among fire, aspen, and elk affect insect diversity: Reversal of a community response. Ecol. 83:1701-12.
29. Bailey, V. 1930. Animal life of Yellowstone National Park. Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, IL.
30. Baker, V. L. 2003. "Park and partners request your input for elk and vegetation management planning." Rocky Mountain Nat. Park release. Rocky Mtn. Nat. Park, CO.
31. Baker, W. L., J. A. Monroe, and A. E. Hessl. 1997. The effects of elk on aspen in the winter range in Rocky Mountain National Park. Ecography 20:155-65.
32. Baldwin, C. K. 2003. Historical climate analysis. Pp. 58-72 in F. H. Wagner (ed.). Preparing for a changing climate: The potential consequences of climate variability and change: Rocky Mountain/Great Basin. A Report for the Global Change Research Program. Utah State Univ., Logan.
33. Baldwin, C. K., F. H. Wagner, and U. Lall. 2003. Water resources. Pp. 79-112 in F. H. Wagner (ed.). Preparing for a changing climate: The potential consequences of climate variability and change: Rocky Mountain/Great Basin. A Report for the Global Change Research Program. Utah State Univ., Logan.
34. Balling, R. C. Jr., G. A. Meyer, and S. G. Wells. 1992. Climate change in Yellowstone National Park: Is the drought-related risk of wildfires increasing? Climate Change 22:35-45.
35. Barmore, W. J. 1968. Memorandum to supervisory research biologist. Yellowstone Nat. Park, WY, March 13, 1968.
36. Barmore, W. J. 1980. Population characteristics, distribution, and habitat relationships of six ungulate species on winter range in Yellowstone National Park. U.S. Nat. Park Serv., Yellowstone Nat. Park Final Rept. Yellowstone National Park, WY.
37. Barmore, W. J. 1987. The distribution and abundance of ungulates in the northern Yellowstone ecosystem in pristine times and today. Pres. Yellowstone Coalition Scient. Conf. on the Northern Yellowst.: Issues and Alternat. Ecos. Mgt., May 29, 1987, 12pp.
38. Barmore, W. J. 2003. Ecology of ungulates and their winter range in northern Yellowstone National Park: Research and synthesis 1962-1970. Yellowst. Centr. for Resources, Yellowstone National Park, WY.
39. Baskin, Y. 1999. Yellowstone fires: A decade later. BioScience 49:93-97.
40. Bauman, J. 1999. Where are the willows? Beaver decline may be key to plant's demise. Deseretnews.com/Science and technology, 3pp.
41. Beetle, A. A. 1974a. Range survey in Teton County, Wyoming. Part IV:Quaking Aspen. Univ. Wyo. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. SM27, Laramie.
42. Beetle, A. A. 1974b. The zootic disclimax concept. J. Range Mgt. 27:30-32.
43. Beetle, G. E. 1997. Recolonization of burned aspen groves by land snails. Yellowstone Sci. 5:6-8.
44. Belsky, A. J. 1986. Does herbivory benefit plants? A review of the evidence. Amer. Nat. 127:870-92.
45. Berger, J. 1990. Persistence of different-sized populations: An empirical assessment of extinction in bighorn populations. Cons. Biol. 4:91-98.
46. Berger, J., P. B. Stacey, L. Bellis, and M. P. Johnson. 2001. A mammalian predator-prey imbalance: Grizzly bear and wolf extinction affect avian neotropical migrants. Ecol. Appl. 11:947-60.
47. Beschta, R. L. 1999. [Letter to] National Resources [sic] Council Committee on Ungulate Management in Yellowstone National Park. Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology/HA-354. July 14, 1999, 3 pp.
48. Beschta, R. L. 2003. Cottonwoods, elk and wolves in the Lamar Valley of Yellowstone National Park. Ecol. Appl. 13:1295-309.
49. Billbrough, C. J. and J. H. Richards. 1993. Growth of sagebrush and bitterbrush following simulated winter browsing: Mechanisms of tolerance. Ecol. 74:481-92.
50. Bishop, N., P. Schullery, F. Singer, and J. Varley. 1997. Yellowstone's northern range: Complexity and change in a wildland ecosystem. Yellowstone Nat. Park, Nat. Park Serv., Mammoth Hot Springs, WY.
51. Bishop, S., W. Burch, R. Cahn, R. Cahill, T. Clark, R. Dean, J. Franklin, J. C. Gordon, G. Gumerman, H. Mooney, V. Wyatt, and E. Zube. 1989. National parks: From vignettes to a global view. Nat. Parks and Cons. Assoc. Washington, DC.
52. Bjornlie, D. D. and R. A. Garrott. 2001. Effects of winter road grooming on bison in Yellowstone National Park. J. Wildl. Mgt. 65:560-72.
53. Blackburn, W. H., F. B. Pierson, and M. B. Seyfried. 1990. Spatial and temporal influences of soil frost on infiltration and erosion of sagebrush rangelands. Water Resources Bull. 26:991-97.
54. Blaisdell, J. P. 1958. Seasonal development and yield of native plants on the upper Snake River plains and their relation to certain climatic factors. USDA Tech. Bull. no. 1190.
55. Bloom, H. 1989. Final audit report on natural resource research activities. Nat. Park. Serv. (mo. 90-19). U.S. Dept. Int. Off. Inspect. Gen. Washington, DC.
56. Bonnicksen, T. M. 1989. Statement of Dr. Thomas R. Bonnicksen before the Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs Subcommittee on National Parks and Public Lands and the Agriculture Subcommittee on Forests, Family Farms and Energy, U.S. House of Representatives, concerning the joint oversight hearing on the 1988 western forest fire season, January 31, 1989. Washington, DC.
57. Bonnicksen, T. M. and E. C. Stone. 1982a. Managing vegetation within U.S. national parks: A policy analysis. Environ. Mgt. 6:101-2.
58. Bonnicksen, T. M. and E. C. Stone. 1982b. Managing vegetation within U.S. national parks: A policy analysis. Environ. Mgt. 6:109-22.
59. Bork, E. W., N. E. West, and J. W. Walker. 1998. Cover components on longterm seasonal sheep grazing treatments in three-tip sagebrush steppe. J. Range Mgt. 51:293-300.
60. Borman, B. T., J. R. Martin, F. H. Wagner, G. W. Wood, J. Alegria, P. G. Cunningham, M. H. Brookes, P. Friesema, J. Berg, and J. R. Henshaw. 1999. Adaptive management. Pp. 505-34 in W. T. Sexton, A. J. Malk, R. C. Szaro, and N. C. Johnson (eds.). Ecological stewardship: A common reference for ecosystem management, v. III. Elsevier Sci., Oxford.
61. Bosch, J. M. and J. D. Hewlett. 1982. A review of catchment experiments to determine the effects of vegetation changes on water yield and evapotranspiration. J. Hydrol. 55:3-23.
62. Botkin, D. B. 1990. Discordant harmonies: A new ecology for the twenty-first century. Oxford Univ. Press, New York.
63. Bottoroff, R. J. 1974. Cottonwood habitat for birds in Colorado. American Birds 28:975-79.
64. Boyce, M. S. 1989. The Jackson Hole elk herd: Intensive wildlife management in North America. Cambridge Univ. Press, New York.
65. Boyce, M. S. 1991. Natural regulation or the control of nature. Pp. 183-208 in R. B. Keiter and M. S. Boyce (eds.). The Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem:Redefining America's wilderness heritage. Yale Univ. Press, New Haven, CT.
66. Boyce, M. S. 1996. The Aldo Starker Leopold memorial lecture: If I were superintendent. Pp. 201-8 in J. Greenlee (ed.). The ecological implications of fire in greater Yellowstone. Proc. 2nd Bienn. Conf. on the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, Yellowstone Nat. Park Sept. 19-21, 1993. Intl. Assoc. Wildland Fire, Fairfield, WI.
67. Boyce, M. S. 1998. Ecological-process management and ungulates: Yellowstone conservation paradigm. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 26:391-98.
68. Briggle, W. J., H. L. Diamond, D. J. Evans, C. R. Jordan, J. Kalt, L. W. Lane Jr., H. A. Robinson, R. C. Cunningham, J. C. Sawhill, P. Odean, J. Leape, A. A. Rubin, N. Nelson, and A. O'Neill. [1992]. National parks for the 21st century: The Vail agenda: Report and recommendations to the Director of the National Park Service. U.S. Nat. Park. Serv. Doc. no. D-725. Washington, DC.
69. Briske, D. D. 1991. Developmental morphology and physiology of grasses. Pp. 85-108 in R. K. Heitschmidt and J. S. Stuth (eds.). Grazing management:An ecological perspective. Timber Press, Portland, OR.
70. Brugam, R. B. 1982. Post glacial diatom stratigraphy of Krichner Marsh, Minnesota. Quarter. Res. 13:133-46.
71. Brugam, R. B. 1983. Holocene paleolimnology. Pp. 208-21 in H. E. Wright (ed.). Late-Quaternary environments of the United States. vol. 2, The Holocene. Univ. of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis.
72. Brussard, P. F. 1991a. The greater Yellowstone ecosystem. Cons. Biol. 5:336-37.
73. Brussard, P. F. 1991b. The role of ecology in biological conservation. Ecol. Appl. 1:6-12.
74. Bryant, J. P., P. B. Reichardt, and T. P. Clausen. 1992. Chemically mediated interactions between woody plants and browsing mammals. J. Range Mgt. 45:18-24.
75. Butler, V. L. 2000. Resource depression on the northwest coast of North America. Antiquity 74:649-60.
76. Byers, J. A. 1997. American pronghorn: Social adaptations and the ghosts of predators past. Univ. Chicago Press, Chicago.
77. Cahalane, V. H. 1941. Wildlife surpluses in the national parks. Trans. No. Amer. Wildl. Conf. 6:355-61.
78. Cahalane, V. H. 1943. Elk management and herd regulation-Yellowstone National Park. Trans. No. Amer. Wildl. Conf. 8:95-101.
79. Caldwell, M. M., J. H. Richards, D. A. Johnson, R. S. Nowack, and R. S. Dzurec. 1981. Coping with herbivory: Photosynthetic capacity and resource allocation in two semi-arid Agropyron bunchgrasses. Oecologia 50:14-24.
80. Cannon, K. P. 1992. A review of archaeological and paleontological evidence for the prehistoric presence of wolf and related prey species in the northern and central Rockies physiographic province. Pp. 1-175-1-265 in J. D. Varley and W. G. Brewster (eds.). Wolves for Yellowstone? A report to the United States Congress. Volume IV Research and analysis. Yellowstone Nat. Park, WY.
81. Case, T. J. 2000. An illustrated guide to theoretical ecology. Oxford Univ. Press, New York.
82. Cates, R. G., R. A. Redak, and C. B. Henderson. 1983. Patterns in defensive natural product chemistry: Douglas fir and western spruce budworm interactions. Pp. 3-19 in P. A. Hedin (ed.). Plant resistance to insects. Amer. Chem. Soc., Washington, DC.
83. Cates, R. G., J. Zou, S. C. Wooley, F. J. Singer, L. C. Mack, and L. Zeigenfuss. 1999. Predisposition of willows to elk browsing due to willow interactions with abiotic factors. Pp. 191-95 in E. D. McArthur, W. K. Ostler, and C. L. Wambolt (eds.). Proceedings: Shrubland ecotones; 1998 August 12-14; Ephraim, UT. Proc. RMRS-P-11. USDA Forest Serv., Rocky Mountain Res. Sta., Ogden, UT.
84. Caughley, G. 1970. Eruption of ungulate populations, with emphasis on the Himalayan thar in New Zealand. Ecol. 51:53-72.
85. Caughley, G. 1976. Wildlife management and the dynamics of ungulate populations. Pp. 183-246 in T. H. Coaker (ed.). Applied biology. Vol. 1. Academic Press, New York.
86. Chadde, S. 1989. Willows and wildlife of the northern range, Yellowstone National Park. Pp. 168-69 in R. E. Gresswell, B. A. Barton, and J. L. Kershner (eds.). Practical approaches to riparian resource management: An educational workshop. May 8-11, 1989, Billings, Montana. U.S. Gov't. Print. Off., Washington, DC.
87. Chadde, S., and C. Kay. 1988. Willows and moose: A study of grazing pressure, Slough Creek Exclosure, Montana, 1961-1986. Montana Forest and Cons. Exp. Sta. Research Note no. 24, 5 pp.
88. Chadde, S., and C. Kay. 1991. Tall-willow communities on Yellowstone's northern range: A test of the "natural-regulation" paradigm. Pp. 231-62 in R. B. Keiter and M. S. Boyce (eds.). The greater Yellowstone ecosystem: Redefining America's wilderness heritage. Yale Univ. Press, New Haven, CT.
89. Chadde, S., P. L. Hansen, and R. D. Pfister. 1988. Wetland plant communities of the northern range, Yellowstone National Park. Univ. Mont. School of Forestry Final Contract Rept. (Revised Sept. 9, 1988.) Univ. Montana, Missoula.
90. Chamberlain, T. C. 1965. The method of multiple working hypotheses. Science 148:754-59.
91. Chapin, F.S. III, B. H. Walker, R. J. Hobbs, D. U. Hooper, J. H. Lawton, O. E. Sala, and D. Tilman. 1997. Biotic control over the functioning of ecosystems. Science 277: 500-504.
92. Chase, A. 1986. Playing God in Yellowstone: The destruction of America's first national park. Atlantic Monthly Press, Boston, MA.
93. Cheville, N. F., D. R. McCullough, and L. R. Paulson. 1998. Brucellosis in the greater Yellowstone area. Nat. Acad. Press, Washington, DC.
94. Clifford, F. 1993. Scientists fight over who's faithful to Yellowstone. Los Angeles Times, pp. 1, 20-21, November 22.
95. Cole, G. F. 1969. Elk and the Yellowstone ecosystem. Research note, Yellowstone National Park, 14 pp. mimeo.
96. Cole, G. F. 1971. And ecological rationale for the natural or artificial regulation of native ungulates in parks. Trans. No. Amer Wildl. Conf. 36:417-25.
97. Cole, G. F. 1983. A naturally regulated elk population. Pp. 62-92 in F. L. Bunnell, O. S. Eastman, and J. M. Peak (eds.). Symposium on natural regulation of wildlife populations. Univ. Idaho Forest, Wildlife, and Range Exp. Sta. Proc. 14, Moscow, ID.
98. Connell, J. H. 1978. Diversity in tropical forests and coral reefs. Science 199:1302-10.
99. Coughenour, M. B. 1991. Biomass and nitrogen responses to grazing of upland steppe on Yellowstone's northern winter range. J. Appl. Ecol. 28:71-82.
100. Coughenour, M. B. and F. J. Singer. 1991. The concept of overgrazing and its application to Yellowstone's northern range. Pp. 209-30 in R. B. Keiter and M. S. Boyce (eds.). The greater Yellowstone ecosystem: Redefining America's wilderness heritage. Yale Univ. Press, New Haven, CT.
101. Coughenour, M. B. and F. J. Singer. 1996. Elk population processes in Yellowstone National Park under the policy of natural regulation. Ecol. Appl. 6:573-93.
102. Coughenour, M. B., F. J. Singer, and J. J. Reardon. 1996. The Parker transects revisited-long-term herbaceous vegetation trends on Yellowstone's northern winter range. Pp. 13-27 in F. J. Singer (ed.). Effects of grazing by wild ungulates in Yellowstone National Park. Tech. Rept. NPS/NRYELL/NRTR/96-01, U.S. Dept. Int., Nat. Park Serv., Nat. Res. Prog. Cent., Nat. Res. Info. Div., Denver, CO.
103. Crabtree, R. L. and J. W. Sheldon. 1999. Coyotes and canid coexistence. Pp. 127-63 in T. W. Clark, A. P. Curlee, S. C. Minta, and P. M. Kareiva (eds.). Carnivores in ecosystems: The Yellowstone experience. Yale Univ. Press, New Haven, CT.
104. Craighead, J. J., G. Atwell, and B. W. O'Gara. 1971. Elk migrations in and near Yellowstone National Park. Unpub. Rept., I+73 pp.
105. Craighead, J. J., J. S. Summer, and J. A. Mitchell. 1995. The grizzly bears of Yellowstone: Their ecology in the Yellowstone ecosystem 1959-1992. Island Press, Washington, DC.
106. Crowley, T. J. and J. S. Lowery. 2000. How warm was the Medieval warm period? Ambio 29:51-54.
107. Culpin, M. S. 1994. The history of the construction of the road system in Yellowstone National Park, 1872-1966. Historic Resource Study Volume I, Division of Cultural Resources Rept. 5, Rocky Mountain Region, U.S. Nat. Park Serv., Denver, CO.
108. Davis, M. D. and D. B. Botkin. 1985. Sensitivity of cool-temperate forests and their fossil pollen record to rapid temperature change. Quaternary Res. 23:327-40.
109. Day, T. A. and J. K. Detling. 1990. Grassland patch dynamics and herbivore grazing preference following urine deposition. Ecol. 71:180-88.
110. De Angelis, D. L. and M. A. Huston. 1993. Further considerations on the debate over herbivore optimization theory. Ecol. Appl. 3: 30-31.
111. Debinski, D. 1994. Genetic diversity assessment in a metapopulation of the butterfly Euphydryas gillettii. Biol. Conserv. 70:25-31.
112. Debinski, D. 1996. Using satellite data to support fieldwork. Yellowstone Science 4:2-5.
113. Debinski, D., and P. F. Brussard. 1994. Using biodiversity data to assess species-habitat relationships in Glacier National Park, Montana. Ecol. Appl. 4:833-43.
114. Debinski, D., K. Kindscher, and M. E. Jakubauskas. 1999. A remote sensing and GIS-based model of habitats and biodiversity in the greater Yellowstone ecosystem. Int. J. Remote Sensing 20:3281-92.
115. DeByle, N. V., C. D. Bevins, and W. C. Fisher. 1987. Wildfire occurrence in aspen in the interior western United States. West. J. Appl. For. 2:73-76.
116. DelGiudice, G. D., U. S. Seal, and L. D. Mech. 1991a. Indicators of severe undernutrition in urine of free-ranging elk during winter. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 19:106-10.
117. DelGiudice, G. D., F. J. Singer, and U. S. Seal. 1991b. Physiological assessment of winter nutritional deprivation in elk of Yellowstone National Park. J. Wildl. Mgt. 55:653-64.
118. DelGiudice, G. D., F. J. Singer, U. S. Seal, and G. Bowser. 1994. Physiological responses of Yellowstone bison to winter deprivation. J. Wildl. Mgt. 58:24-34.
119. DelGuidice, G. D., R. A. Moen, F. J. Singer, and M. R. Riggs. 2001. Winter elk nutritional restriction of Yellowstone elk and bison before and after the fires of 1988. Wildl. Monog. 147:60 pp.
120. Dennis, J. G. 1999. National Park Service management policies for the National Park System. George Wright Forum 16:7-18.
121. Despain, D. G. 1989. Interpretation of exclosures in riparian vegetation. P. 188 in R. E. Gresswell, B. A. Barton, and J. L. Kershner (eds.). Practical approaches to riparian resource management: An educational workshop. May 8-11, 1989, Billings, MT. U.S. Gov't. Print. Off., Washington, DC.
122. Despain, D. G. 1990. Yellowstone vegetation: Consequences of environment and history in a natural setting. Roberts Rinehart, Boulder, CO.
123. Despain, D. G., D. H. Houston, M. Meagher, and P. Schullery. 1986. Wildlife in transition: Man and nature on Yellowstone's northern range. Roberts Rinehart, Boulder, CO.
124. Detling, J. K. 1988. Grassland savannas: Regulation of energy flow and nutrient cycling by herbivores. Pp. 131-48 in L. R. Pomeroy (ed.). Concepts of ecosystem ecology. Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
125. Dixon, T. 2002. Though biologists say no, some hunters say yes. A new study could provide definitive answers. Montana Outdoors 33(4):8-15.
126. Dobkin, D. S., F. J. Singer, and W. S. Platts. 2002. Ecological condition and avian response in willow, aspen, and cottonwood communities of the National Elk Refuge, Jackson, Wyoming. Final report by independent science panel. High Desert Ecol. Res. Inst., Bend, OR.
127. Donahue, D. L. 1999. The western range revisited: Removing livestock from public lands to conserve native biodiversity. Univ. Okla. Press, Norman.
128. Douglas, D. C., J. T. Ratti, R. A. Black, and J. R. Alldredge. 1992. Avian habitat associations in riparian zones of Idaho's Centennial Mountains. Wilson Bull. 104:485-500.
129. Dunning, J. B., B. J. Danielson, and H. R. Pulliam. 1992. Ecological processes that affect populations in complex landscapes. Oikos 65:169-75.
130. Dusek, G. L., R. J. Mackie, J. D. Herriges Jr., and B. C. Compton. 1989. Population ecology of white-tailed deer along the lower Yellowstone River. Wildl. Monog. 104, 68 pp.
131. duToit, J. T., K. H. Rogers, and H. C. Biggs (eds.). 2003. The Kruger experience: Ecology and management of savanna heterogeneity. Island Press, Washington, DC.
132. Eberhardt, L. L., R. A. Garrott, D. W. Smith, P. J. White, and R. O. Peterson. 2003. Assessing the impact of wolves on ungulate prey. Ecol. Appl. 13:776-83
133. Ehrenfeld, D. (ed.). 1995. Readings from conservation biology. Soc. Cons. Biol. and Blackwell Science, Cambridge, MA.
134. Ellis, J. E. and D. M. Swift. 1988. Stability of African pastoral ecosystems:Alternate paradigms and implications for development. J. Range Mgt. 41:450-59.
135. Engstrom, D. R., C. Whitlock, S. C. Fritz, and H. E. Wright Jr. 1991. Recent environmental changes inferred from the sediments of small lakes in Yellowstone's northern range. J. Paleolimnol. 5:139-74.
136. Engstrom, D. R., C. Whitlock, S. C. Fritz, and H. E. Wright Jr. 1994. Reinventing erosion in Yellowstone's northern range. J. Paleolimnol. 10:159-61.
137. Erickson, G. L. 1981. The northern Yellowstone elk herd-A conflict of policies. Proc. Ann. Western Assoc. Fish and Wildl. Agencies 61:92-108.
138. Evanko, A. B. and R. A. Peterson. 1955. Comparison of protected and grazed mountain rangelands in southwestern Montana. Ecol. 36:71-82.
139. Fahrig, L. and G. Merriam. 1995. Conservation of fragmented populations. Pp. 16-25 in D. Ehrenfeld (ed.). Readings from conservation biology. Soc. Cons. Biol. and Blackwell Science, Cambridge, MA.
140. Finley, M. V. 1997. [Letter to] Honorable Rick Hill/Representative in Congress. U.S. Dept. Int., Nat. Park Serv., P.O. Box 168. Yellowstone Nat. Park, WY 82190, 14 pp.
141. Finley, R. B. Jr. 1983. Letter to the editor. The Wildlifer 199:34.
142. Foresta, R. A. 1984. America's national parks and their keepers. Resources for the Future, Washington, DC.
143. Frank, D. A. 1998. Ungulate regulation of ecosystem processes in Yellowstone National Park: Direct and feedback processes. Wild. Soc. Bull. 26:410-18.
144. Frank, D. A., and R. D. Evans. 1997. Effects of native grazers on grassland N cycling in Yellowstone National Park. Ecol. 78:2238-48.
145. Frank, D. A., and P. M. Groffman. 1998. Ungulate vs. landscape control of soil C and N processes in grasslands of Yellowstone National Park. Ecol. 79:2229-41.
146. Frank, D. A., and S. J. McNaughton. 1990. Aboveground biomass estimation with the canopy intercept method: a plant growth form caveat. Oikos 57:57-60.
147. Frank, D. A., and S. J. McNaughton. 1992. The ecology of plants, large mammalian herbivores, and drought in Yellowstone National Park. Ecol. 73:2043-58.
148. Frank, D. A., and S. J. McNaughton. 1993. Evidence for the promotion of aboveground grassland production by native large herbivores in Yellowstone National Park. Oecologia 96:157-61.
149. Frank, D. A., R. S. Inouye, N. Huntly, G. W. Minshall, and J. A. Anderson. 1994. The biogeochemistry of a north-temperate grassland with native ungulates:Nitrogen dynamics in Yellowstone National Park. Biogeochem. 26:163-88.
150. Frank, D. A., S. J. McNaughton, and B. J. Tracey. 1998. The ecology of the earth's grazing ecosystems. BioScience 48:513-21.
151. Frank, D. A., M. M. Kuns, and D. R. Guido. 2002. Consumer control of grassland plant production. Ecol. 83:602-6.
152. Freemuth, J. 1999. Absolutely American, absolutely democratic: National parks and policy change. George Wright Forum 16:63-76.
153. Friedel, M. N. 1991. Range condition assessment and the concept of thresholds: A viewpoint. J. Range Mgt. 44:422-26.
154. Frison, G. C. 1971. Prehistoric occupations of the Grand Teton National Park. Naturalist 21:34-37.
155. Fyfe, J. C. and G. M. Flato. 1999. Enhanced climate change and its detection over the Rocky Mountains. J. Climat. 12:230-43.
156. Geier, A. R. and L. B. Best. 1980. Habitat selection by small mammals of riparian communities. J. Wildl. Mgt. 44:16-24.
157. Gese, E. M., T. E. Stotts, and S. Grothe. 1996. Interactions between coyotes and red foxes in Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming. J. Mammal. 77:377-82.
158. Giles, R.H., Jr. 1978. Wildlife management. Freeman, San Francisco.
159. Gosselink, T. E., T. R. Van Deelen, R. E. Warner, and M. G. Joselyn. 2003. Temporal habitat partitioning and spatial use of coyotes and red foxes in east-central Illinois. J. Wildl. Mgt. 67:90-103.
160. Graves, H. S. and E. W. Nelson. 1919. Our national elk herds: A program for conserving the elk on national forests about the Yellowstone National Park. U.S. Dept. Agr. Dept. Circ. 51, 34 pp.
161. Green, G. I., D. J. Mattson, and J. M. Peek. 1997. Spring feeding on ungulate carcasses by grizzly bear in Yellowstone National Park. J. Wildl. Mgt. 61:1040-55.
162. Gregory, S. V., F. J. Swanson, W. A. McKee, and K. W. Cummins. 1991. An ecosystem perspective of riparian zones. BioScience 41:540-51.
163. Grimm, R. L. 1939. Northern Yellowstone winter range studies. J. Wildl. Mgt. 3:295-306.
164. Gruell, G. E. 1980a. Fire's influence on wildlife habitat on the Bridger-Teton National Forest, Wyoming. Volume I: Photographic record and analysis. USDA Forest Serv. Res. Paper INT-235, Intermnt. For. and Range Exp. Sta., Ogden, UT.
165. Gruell, G. E. 1980b. Fire's influence on wildlife habitat on the Bridger-Teton National Forest, Wyoming. Volume II: Changes and causes, management implications. USDA Forest Serv. Res. Paper INT-252, Intermnt. For. and Range Exp. Sta., Ogden, UT.
166. Gruell, G. E. and L. L. Loope. 1974. Relationships among aspen, fire, and ungulate browsing in Jackson Hole, Wyoming. USDA Forest Serv. Intermnt. Region, Ogden, UT.
167. Hadly, E. A. 1990. Late Holocene mammalian fauna of Lamar cave and its implications for ecosystem dynamics in Yellowstone National Park. Wyoming, USA. No. Ariz. Univ. M.S. thesis, Flagstaff.
168. Hadly, E. A. 1996. Influences of late Holocene climate on northern Rocky Mountain mammals. Quater. Res. 46:298-310.
169. Haines, A. L. 1965. Valley of the upper Yellowstone. Univ. Okla. Press, Norman.
170. Haines, A. L. 1977. The Yellowstone story: A history of our first national park. Volume 1. Yellowstone Library and Museum Assoc. in cooperation with Colo. Assoc. Univ. Press, Yellowstone Nat. Park, WY.
171. Halvorson, W. L. and G. E. Davis. 1996. Science and ecosystem management in the national parks. Univ. Arizona Press, Tucson.
172. Hamilton, E. W. III and D. A. Frank. 2001. Can plants stimulate soil microbes and their own nutrient supply? Evidence from a grazing tolerant grass. Ecol. 82:2397-402.
173. Hamilton, W. L. 1994a. Comment: Recent environmental changes inferred from the sediments of small lakes in Yellowstone's northern range (Engstrom et al. 1991). J. Paleolimnol. 10:153-157.
174. Hamilton, W. L. 1994b. Winter snowpack contribution to shallow groundwater at closed-basin ponds in Yellowstone National Park. Abstract, Trans. Amer. Geophys. Union 1994 Fall Meeting 75:44.
175. Hansen, A. 1997. Mechanisms that drive bird species diversity in Yellowstone National Park. Natural Res. News 7:6-7, 15.
176. Harris, M. 1886. Annual report of the superintendent of the Yellowstone National Park. U.S. Gov't. Print. Off., Washington, DC.
177. Harris, M. 1887. Annual report of the superintendent of the Yellowstone National Park. U.S. Gov't. Print. Off., Washington, DC.
178. Hart, J.H. 1986. Relationships among aspen, fungi, and ungulate browsing in Colorado and Wyoming. Dept. Forestry, Mich. State Univ. Unpub. Rept., East Lansing, MI.
179. Hartzog, G. B. Jr. 1988. Battling for the national parks. Moyer Bell, Mount Kisco, NY.
180. Heitschmidt, R. K. and J. W. Stuth (eds.). 1991. Grazing management: An ecological perpective. Timber Press, Portland, OR.
181. Hendee, J. C. 1974. A multiple-satisfactions approach to game management. Wild. Soc. Bull. 2:104-13.
182. Hillborn, R. and M. Mangel. 1997. The ecological detective: Confronting models with data. Monog. in Pop. Biol. 28, Princeton Univ. Press, Princeton, NJ.
183. Holling, C. S. 1995. What barriers? What bridges?. Pp. 3-34 in L. H. Gunderson, C. S. Holling, and S. L. Light (eds.). Barriers and bridges to the renewal of ecosystems and institutions. Columbia Univ. Press, New York.
184. Holloway, R. G. 1984. Analysis of surface pollen from Alberta, Canada, by polar ordination. Northwest Sci. 58:18-25.
185. Holmgren, R. C. and S. S. Hutchings. 1972. Salt desert shrub response to grazing use. Pp. 153-64 in C. M. McKell, J. P. Blaisdell, and J. R. Goodin (eds.). Wildland shrubs: Their biology and utilization. USDA Forest Serv. Tech. Rept. INT-1, 1972.
186. Holt, R. D. 1977. Predation, apparent competition and the structure of prey communities. Theoret. Pop. Biol. 12:197-229.
187. Houston, D. B. 1971. The status of research on ungulates in northern Yellowstone National Park. Pres. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci., Symp. on Research in National Parks, Dec. 28, 1971, 20 pp.
188. Houston, D. B. 1973. Wildfires in northern Yellowstone National Park. Ecol. 54:1111-17.
189. Houston, D. B. 1974. The northern Yellowstone elk: Parts I and II: History and demography. Prog. Rept., Yellowstone Nat. Park, WY. II+185 pp.
190. Houston, D. B. 1976. The northern Yellowstone elk: Parts III and IV: Vegetation and habitat relations. Yellowstone Nat. Park Unpub. Rept., Yellowstone National Park, WY, IV+444 pp.
191. Houston, D. B. 1982. The northern Yellowstone elk: Ecology and management. Macmillan, New York.
192. Huff, D. E. 1997a. Wildlife management in America's national parks:Preparing for the next century. George Wright Forum 14:25-33.
193. Huff, D. E. 1997b. Defining ecosystem health in national parks. Trans. No. Amer. Wildl. And Nat. Res. Conf. 62:448-53.
194. Huff, D. E. and J. D. Varley. 1999. Natural regulation in Yellowstone National Park's northern range. Ecol. Appl. 9:17-29.
195. Jackson, S. G. 1992. Relationships among birds, willows, and native ungulates in and around northern Yellowstone National Park. Utah State Univ. M.S. thesis, Logan.
196. Jackson, S. G. 1993. The effect of browsing on bird communities. Utah Birds 9:53-59.
197. Johnson, D.R. and J.K. Agee. 1988. Introduction to ecosystem management. Pp. 3-14 in J. K. Agee and D. R. Johnson (eds.). Ecosystem management for parks and wilderness. Univ. Washington Press, Seattle.
198. Jonas, R. J. 1955. A population and ecological study of the beaver (Castor canadensis) of Yellowstone National Park. Univ. of Idaho M.S. thesis, Moscow.
199. Jones, G. S. and G. A. Schier. 1985. Growth. Pp. 19-24 in N. V. DeByle and R. P. Winokur (eds.). Aspen: Ecology and management in the western United States. USDA Forest Serv., Rocky Mtn. For. and Range Exp. Sta. Gen. Tech. Rept. RM-119, Fort Collins, CO.
200. Jones, J. R. and N. V. DeByle. 1985. Fire. Pp. 77-81 in N. V. DeByle and R. P. Winokur (eds.). Aspen: Ecology and management in the western United States. USDA Forest Serv., Rocky Mtn. For. and Range Exp. Sta. Gen. Tech. Rept. RM-119, Fort Collins, CO.
201. Kania, G. S. and M. R. Conover. 1991. How governmental wildlife agencies should respond to local governments that pass antihunting legislation-a response. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 19:224-25.
202. Kay, C. E. 1987. Too many elk in Yellowstone? [Review of] Wildlife in Transition: Man and Nature in Yellowstone's Northern Range (1986. Don Despain, Douglas Houston, Mary Meagher, and Paul Schullery. Boulder, CO:Roberts Rhinehart). West. Wildlands 13:39-41, 44.
203. Kay, C. E. 1989. Why Yellowstone's grizzly bears are declining: An alternative hypothesis. Presented at Examining the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem: A Symposium on Land and Resource Management, Univ. Wyoming, Laramie, Apr. 13-15, 1989.
204. Kay, C. E. 1990. Yellowstone's northern elk herd: A critical evaluation of the "natural regulation" paradigm. Utah State Univ. Ph.D. diss., Logan.
205. Kay, C. E. 1994a. Aboriginal overkill: The role of Native Americans in structuring western ecosystems. Human Nature 5:359-98.
206. Kay, C. E. 1994b. An evaluation of willow communities on the U.S. Sheep Experiment Station's Centennial Mountains summer range. Unpub. Rept. on file, U.S. Sheep Experiment Station, Dubois, ID, 26 pp.
207. Kay, C. E. 1994c. The impact of native ungulates and beaver on riparian communities in the Intermountain West. Pp. 23-44 in G. A. Rasmussen and J. P. Dobrowolski (eds.). Riparian resources: A symposium on the disturbances, management, economics, and conflicts associated with riparian ecosystems. Nat. Res. and Env. Issues 1: VII+82 pp.
208. Kay, C. E. 1995. Browsing by native ungulates: Effects on shrub and seed production in the greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. Pp. 310-20 in B. A. Roundy, E. O. McArthur, J. S. Haley, and D. K. Mann (eds.). Proceedings:Wildland shrub and arid land restoration symposium, Las Vegas, NV, October 19-21, 1993. USDA Forest Serv., Intermnt. Sta., Ogden, UT.
209. Kay, C. E. 1997. Testimony before the U.S. House of Representatives Subcommittee on National Parks and Public Lands oversight hearing on science and resource management in the National Park System, February 27, 1997. Attachment B: Competitive exclusion of sympatric herbivores in Yellowstone National Park-Or why we need an independent park science program, 30 pp.
210. Kay, C. E. 1998. Are ecosystems structured from the top-down or bottom-up: A new look at an old debate. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 26:484-98.
211. Kay, C. E. 1999. Repeat photography and long-term vegetation change on the U.S. Sheep Experiment Station and other rangelands in the Centennial Mountains. Final report to U.S. Sheep Experiment Station, Agricultural Research Service, Dubois, ID, III+253 pp.
212. Kay, C. E. and S. Chadde. 1991. Reduction of willow seed production by ungulate browsing in Yellowstone National Park. Pp. 92-99 in W. P. Clary, E. D. McArthur, D. Bedunah, and C. L. Wamboldt (eds.). Proceedings symposium on ecology and management of riparian shrub communities. USDA Forest Serv. Gen. Tech. Rept. INT-289.
213. Kay, C. E. and R. T. Simmons (eds.). 2002. Wilderness and political economy:Aboriginal influences and the original state of nature. Univ. Utah Press, Salt Lake City.
214. Kay, C. E. and F. H. Wagner. 1994. Historical condition of woody vegetation on Yellowstone's northern range: A critical evaluation of the "natural regulation" paradigm. Pp. 151-69 in D. G. Despain (ed.). Plants and their environments:Proceedings of the first biennial scientific conference on the greater Yellowstone ecosystem. Sept. 16-17, 1991, Yellowstone Nat. Park, WY. U.S. Dept. Int. Nat. Park Serv. Tech. Rept. NPS/NRYELL/NRTR-93/XX. Denver, CO.
215. Kay, C. E. and F. H. Wagner. 1996. Responses of shrub aspen to Yellowstone's 1988 wildfires: Implications for "natural regulation" management. Pp. 107-11 in J. M. Greenlee (ed.). The ecological implications of fire in greater Yellowstone. Proc. 2nd Conf. on Greater Yellowst. Ecosystem, Sept. 19-21, 1993, Yellowst. Nat. Park, WY.
216. Kay, C. E. and J. W. Walker. 1997. A comparison of sheep- and wildlife-grazed willow communities in the greater Yellowstone ecosystem. Sheep and Goat J. 13:6-14.
217. Kay, C. E. and C. A. White. 2001. Reintroduction of bison into the Rocky Mountain parks of Canada:historical and archaeological evidence. Pp. 143-51 in D. Harmon (ed.). Crossing boundaries in park management:Proceedings of the 11th conference on research and resource management in parks and on public lands. George Wright Soc., Hancock, MI.
218. Kay, C. E., B. Patton, and C. A. White. 2000. Historical wildlife observations in the Canadian Rockies: Implications for ecological integrity. Canad. Field-Nat. 114:561-83.
219. Keating, K. A. 1982. Population ecology of Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep in upper Yellowstone River drainage, Montana/Wyoming. Montana State Univ. M.S. thesis, Bozeman, MT.
220. Keating, K. A. 1985. The effects of temperature on bighorn population estimates in Yellowstone National Park. Int. J. Biometeor. 29:47-55.
221. Keigley, R. B. 1997a. A growth form method for describing browse condition. Rangelands 19:26-29.
222. Keigley, R. B. 1997b. An increase in herbivory of cottonwood in Yellowstone National Park. Northwest Sci. 71:127-36.
223. Keigley, R. B. 1997c. Interpretation of a lichen lower limit on streambanks. Intermountain J. Sci. 3:82-86.
224. Keigley, R. B. 1998. Architecture of cottonwood as an index of browsing history in Yellowstone. Intermountain J. Sci. 4:57-67.
225. Keigley, R. B. 2000. Elk, beaver, and the persistence of willows in national parks:Comment on Singer et al. (1998). Wildl. Soc. Bull. 28:448-50.
226. Keigley, R. B. and M. R. Frisina. 1998. Browse evaluation by analysis of growth form. Volume I Methods for evaluating condition and trend. Montana Fish Wildlife and Parks, Billings, MT.
227. Keigley, R. B. and F. H. Wagner. 1998. What is "natural"?: Yellowstone elk population-A case study. Integ. Biol. 1:133-48.
228. Keiter, R. B. 1989. Taking account of the ecosystem on the public domain:Law and ecology in the Greater Yellowstone region. Univ. Colo. Law Rev. 60:923-1007.
229. Kennedy, J. J. and J. W. Thomas 1995. Managing natural resources as social value. Pp. 311-21 in R. L. Knight and S. F. Bates (eds.). A new century for natural resources management. Island Press, Washington, DC.
230. Kharaka, Y. K., R. H. Mariner, T. D. Bullen, B. M. Kennedy, and N. C. Sturchio. 1991. Geochemical investigations of hydraulic connections between the Corwin Springs known geothermal resources area and adjacent parts of Yellowstone National Park. In M. L. Story (ed.). Effects of potential geothermal development in the Corwin Springs known geothermal resources area, Montana, on the thermal features of Yellowstone National Park. U.S. Geol. Surv. Water-Res. Invest. Rept. 91-4052.
231. Kittams, W. H. 1948. Northern winter range studies: Summer 1947-spring 1948: Yellowstone National Park. Unpub. Rept., II+82 pp.
232. Kittams, W. H. 1952. Northern winter range studies: Spring 1950-spring 1951:Yellowstone National Park. Unpub. Rept., 43 pp.
233. Kittams, W. H. 1959. Future of the Yellowstone wapiti. Naturalist 19:30-39.
234. Kittel, T. G. F., P. E. Thornton, J. A. Royle, and T. N. Chase. 2002. Climates of the Rocky Mountains: Historical and future patterns. In J. Barron (ed.). Rocky Mountain futures: An ecological perspective. Island Press, Washington, DC.
235. Klein, D. R., D. R. McCullough, B. Allen-Diaz, N. Cheville, R. W. Graham, J. E. Gross, J. MacMahon, N. E. Mathews, D. T. Patten, K. Ralls, M. G. Turner, and E. S. Williams. 2002. Ecological dynamics on Yellowstone's northern range. Nat. Acad. Press, Washington, DC.
236. Klubek, B., P. J. Eberhardt, and J. Skujins. 1978. Ammonia volatilization from Great Basin Desert soils. Pp. 107-29 in N. E. West and J. Skujins (eds.). Nitrogen in desert ecosystems. Dowden, Hutchinson and Ross, Stroudsburg, PA.
237. Knapp, P. A. 1996. Cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum) dominance in the Great Basin desert. Global Env. Change 6:37-52.
238. Knowlton, F. F. 1972. Preliminary interpretations of coyote population mechanics with some management implications. J. Wildl. Mgt. 36:369-82.
239. Knowlton, F. F., E. M. Gese, and M. M. Jaeger. 1999. Coyote depredation control: An interface between biology and management. J. Range Mgt. 52:398-412.
240. Krebill, R. G. 1972. Mortality of aspen on the Gros Ventre elk winter range. USDA Forest Serv. Res. Paper INT-129, Intermnt. For. and Range Exp. Sta., Ogden, UT.
241. Krech, S. III. 1999. The ecological Indian: Myth and history. Norton, New York.
242. Lackey, R. T. 2004. [Comment in] Restoration ecology: The challenge of social values and expectations. Frontiers Ecol. and Env. 2:45-46.
243. Lane, E. 2002. The disappearing aspens Yellowstone debate: Hands off nature, or rush to the rescue? Newsday, Apr. 9, 2002, 3 pp.
244. Lane, J. R. 1990. Characterization and comparison of soils inside and outside of grazing exclosures on Yellowstone National Park's northern winter range. Montana State Univ. M.S. thesis, Bozeman.
245. Lane, J. R. and C. Montagne. 1996. Characterization of soils from grazing exclosures and adjacent areas in northern Yellowstone National Park. Pp. 63-71 in F. J. Singer (ed.). Effects of grazing by wild ungulates in Yellowstone National Park. U.S. Dept. Int. Nat. Park Serv. Tech. Rept. NPS/NRYELL/NRTR/96-01, Yellowstone Nat. Park, WY.
246. Lauenroth, W. K., D. G. Milchunas, J. L. Dodd, R. H. Hart, R. K. Heitschmidt, and L. R. Rittenhouse. 1994. Effects of grazing on ecosystems of the Great Plains. Pp. 69-100 in M. Vavra, W. A. Laycock, and R. D. Pieper (eds.). Ecological implications of livestock herbivory in the West. Soc. Range Mgt., Denver, CO.
247. Laycock, W. A. 1967. How heavy grazing and protection affect sagebrushgrass ranges. J. Range Mgt. 20:206-13.
248. Laycock, W. A. 1991. Stable states and thresholds of range conditions on North American rangelands: A viewpoint. J. Range Mgt. 44:427-33.
249. Le Houérou, H. N. and C. H. Hoste. 1977. Rangeland production and annual rainfall relations in the Mediterranean basin and in the African Sahelo-Sudanian zone. J. Range Mgt. 30:181-89.
250. Lemke, T. O. 2000. Wolves, elk, and people. Montana Outdoors July-Aug.:20-25.
251. Lemke, T.O., J.A. Mack, and D.B. Houston. 1996. The northern Yellowstone elk herd: Population counts, harvests, and changes in winter distribution, 1975-1995. Unpub. Rept., Livingston, MT, 15 pp.
252. Lemke, T.O., J. A. Mack, and D. B. Houston. 1998. Winter range expansion by the northern Yellowstone elk herd. Intermountain J. Sci. 4:1-9.
253. Leopold, A. 1933. Game management. Scribner's, New York.
254. Leopold, A., L. K. Sowls, and D. L. Spencer. 1947. A survey of overpopulated deer ranges in the United States. J. Wildl. Mgt. 11:162-77.
255. Leopold, A. S., S. A. Cain, C. M. Cottam, I. N. Gabrielson, and T. L. Kimball. 1963. Wildlife management in the national parks. Trans. No. Amer. Wildl. and Nat. Res. Conf. 28:29-44.
256. Loope, L.L. 1971. Dynamics of forest communities in Grand Teton National Park. Naturalist 22:39-47.
257. Louda, S. M. and J. E. Rodman. 1983. Concentration of glucosinolates in relation to habitat and herbivory for the native crucifer Cardamine cordifolia. Biochem. System. and Ecol. 11:199-207.
258. Mack, J. A. and F. J. Singer. 1992. Population models for elk, mule deer, and moose on Yellowstone's northern winter range. Pp. 4-3 to 4-41 in J. D. Varley and W. G. Brewster (eds.). Wolves for Yellowtsone? A report to the United States Congress: Volume 4 Research and analysis. Nat. Park Serv., Yellowtone Nat. Park, WY.
259. Mack, R. N. and J. N. Thompson. 1982. Evolution in steppe with few, large hoofed mammals. Amer. Nat. 119:757-73.
260. MacMahon, J. A. and F. H. Wagner. 1985. The Mojave, Sonoran and Chihuahuan Deserts of North America. Pp. 105-202 in M. Evenari, I. Noy-Meir, and D. W. Goodall (eds.). Hot deserts and arid shrublands. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
261. Manly, B. F. J. 1991. Randomization and Monte Carlo methods in biology. Chapman and Hall, New York.
262. Mann, C. C. 2002. 1491. Atlantic Monthly 289:41-53.
263. Mann, M. E., R. S. Bradley, and M. K. Hughes. 1999. Northern Hemisphere temperatures during the past millennium: Inferences, uncertainties, and limitations. Geophys. Res. Lett. 26:759-62.
264. Martin, P. S. and R. Szuter. 1999. War zones and game sinks in Lewis and Clark's West. Cons. Biol. 13:36-45.
265. Mattson, D. J. and J. J. Craighead. 1994. The Yellowstone grizzly bear recovery program: Uncertain information, uncertain policy. Pp. 101-29 in T. W. Clark, R. P. Reading, and A. L. Clark (eds.). Endangered species recovery: Finding the lessons, improving the process. Island Press, Washington, DC.
266. Mattson, D. J., B. M. Blanchard, and R. R. Knight. 1991. Food habits of Yellowstone grizzly bears, 1977-1987. Canad. J. Zool. 69:1619-29.
267. Maxwell, J. 1994. The moose in the willows: A new study links survival of Yellowstone's moose to old-growth forest. Audubon 96:112-19.
268. May, R. M. 1973. Stability and complexity in model ecosystems. Monog. in Pop. Biol. 6. Princeton Univ. Press, Princeton, NJ.
269. McArthur, E. D., A. C. Blauer, and S. C. Sanderson. 1988. Mule-deer induced mortality of mountain big sagebrush. J. Range Mgt. 41:114-17.
270. McMillion, S. 1997. For bison, it's déjà vu all over again. High Country News 29:11.
271. McNaughton, S. J. 1979. Grassland-herbivore dynamics. Pp. 46-81 in A. R. E. Sinclair and M. Norton-Griffiths (eds.). Serengeti: Dynamics of an ecosystem. Univ. Chicago Press, Chicago.
272. Meagher, M. 1971. Winter weather as a population regulating influence on free-ranging bison in Yellowstone National Park. Pres. Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci. Symp. on Res. in National Parks, Dec. 28, 1971, III+15 pp.
273. Meagher, M. 1973. The bison of Yellowstone National Park. Nat. Park Serv. Scient. Monog. No. 1, XVI+161 pp.
274. Meagher, M. 1974. Yellowstone's bison a unique wild heritage. Nat. Parks and Cons. Mag. 48:9-14.
275. Meagher, M. 1982. An outbreak of pinkeye in bighorn sheep. Yellowstone National Park. Proc. Bienn. Symp. No. Amer. Wild Sheep and Goat Conf. 3:198-201.
276. Meagher, M. 1985. Yellowstone's free-ranging bison. Naturalist 36:20-27.
277. Meagher, M. 1989. Range expansion by bison of Yellowstone National Park. J. Mammal. 70:670-74.
278. Meagher, M. 1993. Winter recreation-induced changes in bison numbers and distribution in Yellowstone National Park. Unpub. Rept., 60 pp.
279. Meagher, M. and D. B. Houston. 1998. Yellowstone and the biology of time:Photographs across a century. Univ. Oklahoma Press, Norman.
280. Medin, D. E. and W. P. Clary. 1990. Bird populations in and adjacent to a beaver pond ecosystem in Idaho. USDA Forest Serv., Intermnt. Res. Sta., Res. Paper INT-432.
281. Merrill, E. H. and M. S. Boyce. 1991. Summer range and elk population dynamics in Yellowstone National Park. Pp. 263-73 in R. B. Keiter and M. S. Boyce (eds.) The greater Yellowstone ecosystem: Redefining America's heritage. Yale Univ. Press, New Haven, CT.
282. Merrill, E. H., M. K. Bramble-Brodahl, R. W. Morrs, and M. S. Boyce. 1993. Estimation of green herbaceous phytomass from Landsat MSS data in Yellowstone National Park. J. Range. Mgt. 46:151-57.
283. Merrill, E. H., N. L. Stanton, and J. C. Hak. 1994. Responses of bluebunch wheatgrass, Idaho fescue, and nematodes to ungulate grazing in Yellowstone National Park. Oikos 69:231-40.
284. Meyer, G.A., S. G. Wells, and A. J. T. Jull. 1995. Fire and alluvial chronology in Yellowstone National Park: Climatic and intrinsic controls on Holocene geomorphic processes. Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull. 107:1211-30.
285. Milchunas, D. G. and W. K. Lauenroth. 1993. Quantitative effects of grazing on vegetation and soils over a global range of environments. Ecol. Monog. 63:327-66.
286. Milchunas, D. G., O. E. Sala, and W. K. Lauenroth. 1988. A generalized model of the effects of grazing by large herbivores on grassland community structure. Amer. Nat. 132:87-106.
287. Mills, M. G. L., J. Lubchenco, W. Robertson IV, H. C. Biggs, and D. Mabunda. 2003. Reflections on the Kruger experience and reaching forward. Pp. 488-501 in J. T. du Toit, K. H. Rogers, and H. C. Biggs (eds.). The Kruger experience: Ecology and management of savanna heterogeneity. Island Press, Washington, DC.
288. Mitten, J. B. and M. C. Grant. 1996. Genetic variation and the natural history of quaking aspen. BioScience 46:25-31.
289. Mlot, C. 1998. The coyotes of Lamar Valley. Science News 153:76-78.
290. Mueggler, W. F. 1971. Weather variations on a mountain grassland in southwestern Montana. USDA For. Serv. Res. Paper INT-99.
291. Mueggler, W. F. 1972. Plant development and yield on mountain grasslands in southwestern Montana. USDA For. Serv. Res. Paper INT-124.
292. Mueggler, W. F. 1989. Age distribution and reproduction of Intermountain aspen stands. West. J. Appl. Forestry 4:41-45.
293. Mueggler, W. F. 1994. Sixty years of change in tree numbers and basal area in central Utah aspen stands. USDA Forest Serv. Intermnt. Res. Sta. Res. Paper INTRP-478.
294. Murie, A. 1940. Ecology of the coyote in the Yellowstone. U.S. Dept. Int., Nat. Park Serv. Fauna of the National Parks of the United States Bull. no. 4.
295. Murie, O. J. 1951. The elk of North America. Stackpole, Harrisburg, PA and Wild. Mgt. Inst., Washington, DC.
296. Murphy, T. P., K. J. Hall, and I. Yesaki. 1983. Coprecipitation of phosphate with calcite in a naturally eutrophic lake. Limnol. Oceanog. 28:58-69.
297. Nash, R. 1973. Wilderness and the American mind, rev. edition. Yale Univ. Press, New Haven, CT.
298. Nelson, R. H. 1995a. Public lands and private rights: The failure of scientific management. Rowman and Littlefield, London.
299. Nelson, R. H. 1995b. The federal land management agencies. Pp. 37-59 in R. L. Knight and S. F. Bates (eds.). A new century for natural resources management. Island Press, Washington, DC.
300. Norland, J. E. and J. J. Reardon. 1996. Long-term sagebrush population dynamics and ungu-late use at selected locations on the northern range of Yellowstone National Park. Yellowstone Center for Resources, Nat. Park Serv., YCR-NR096-4, Yellowstone Nat. Park, WY.
301. Norland, J. E., F. J. Singer, and L. Mack. 1996. Effects of the Yellowstone fires of 1988 on elk habitats. Pp. 223-32 in J. M. Greenlee (ed.). The ecological implications of fire in greater Yellowstone: Proceedings of the second biennial conference on the greater Yellowstone ecosystem, Yellowstone National Park September 19-21, 1993. International Assoc. Wildland Fire, Fairfield, VA.
302. Norris, P. W. 1875. Meanderings of a mountaineer. Manuscript prepared from newspaper clippings (1870-75), annotated about 1885, letter number 22, 1875. Yellowstone Archives, Yellowstone Nat. Park, WY.
303. Norris, P. W. 1877. Annual report of the superintendent of the Yellowstone National Park. U.S. Gov't. Print. Off., Washington, DC.
304. Norris, P. W. 1879. Annual report of the superintendent of the Yellowstone National Park. U.S. Gov't. Print. Off., Washington, DC.
305. Norris, P. W. 1880. Annual report of the superintendent of the Yellowstone National Park. U.S. Gov't Print. Off., Washington, DC.
306. Norris, P. W. 1881. Annual report of the superintendent of the Yellowstone National Park. U.S. Gov't. Print. Off., Washington, DC.
307. Nowak, R. S. and M. M. Caldwell. 1984. A test of compensatory photosynthesis in the field:implications for herbivory tolerance. Oecologia 61:311-18.
308. O'Gara, B.W. 1968. A study of the reproductive cycle of the female pronghorn. Univ. of. Montana Ph.D. diss., Missoula.
309. Oldemeyer, J. L., W. L. Barmore, and D. L. Gilbert. 1971. Winter ecology of bighorn sheep in Yellowstone National Park. J. Wildl. Mgt. 35:257-69.
310. Olmsted, C. E. 1997. Twenty years of change in Rocky Mountain National Park elk winter range aspen. Unpub. Rept., 44 pp.
311. O'Neill, R. V., D. C. DeAngelis, J. B. Waide, and T. F. H. Allen. 1986. A hierarchical concept of ecosystems. Monog. in Pop. Biol. 23. Princeton Univ. Press, Princeton, NJ.
312. Packer, P. E. 1963. Soil stability requirements for the Gallatin elk winter range. J. Wildl. Mgt. 27:401-10.
313. Paine, R. T. 1966. Food web complexity and species diversity. Amer. Nat. 100:67-75.
314. Parmenter, R. R. and J. A. MacMahon. 1983. Factors determining the abundance and distribution of rodents in a shrub-steppe ecosystem: The role of shrubs. Oecologia 59:145-56.
315. Patten, D. T. 1968. Dynamics of the shrub continuum along the Gallatin River in Yellowstone National Park. Ecol. 49:1107-12.
316. Patten, D. T. 1993. Herbivore optimization and overcompensation: Does native herbivory on western rangelands support these theories? Ecol. Appl. 3:35-36.
317. Peacock, D. 1997. The Yellowstone massacre. Audubon 99:41-49, 102-10.
318. Pengelly, W. L. 1963. Thunder on the Yellowstone. Naturalist 14:18-25.
319. Peterson, E. B. and N. M. Peterson. 1992. Ecology, management, and use of aspen and balsam poplar in the prairie provinces, Canada. Forestry Canada, Northwest Region, Northern Forestry Centre Spec. Rept. 1.
320. Phillips, W. S. 1963. Photographic documentation: Vegetation changes in northern Great Plains. Univ. Ariz. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rept. 214, Tucson.
321. Pianka, E. R. 1981. Competition and niche theory. Pp. 167-96 in R. M. May (ed.). Theoretical ecology: Principles and applications. Sinauer, Sunderland, MA.
322. Pieper, R. D. 1994. Ecological implications of livestock grazing. Pp. 177-211 in M. Vavra, W. A. Laycock, and R. D. Pieper (eds.). Ecological implications of livestock herbivory in the West. Soc. Range Mgt., Denver, CO.
323. Pierce, K. L. 1973. Surficial geology map of the Mammoth Quadrangle and part of the Gardiner Quadrangle, Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming and Montana. U.S. Geol. Surv. Misc. Geologic Investigations Map I-641, Reston, VA.
324. Pierce, K. L. 1974. Surficial geologic map of the Abiathar Peak and parts of adjacent quadrangles, Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming and Montana. U.S. Geol. Surv. Misc. Geol. Invest. Map I-646, Reston, VA.
325. Pierce, S. 1987. The lakes of Yellowstone. Mountaineers, Seattle, WA.
326. Pimlott, D. H. 1967. Wolf predation and ungulate populations. Amer. Zool. 7:267-78.
327. Platt, J. R. 1964. Strong inference. Science 146:347-53.
328. Popper, K. 1979. Objective knowledge. Cambridge Univ. Press, New York.
329. Pritchard, J. A. 1999. Preserving Yellowstone's natural conditions: Science and the perception of nature. Univ. of Nebraska Press, Lincoln.
330. Prostka, H. J., H. R. Blank Jr., R. L. Christiansen, and E. T. Ruppel. 1975. Geologic map of the Tower Junction Quadrangle, Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming and Montana. Geologic Quadrangle Map 1247. U.S. Geol. Surv., Reston, VA.
331. Pulliam, H. R. 1988. Sources, sinks, and population regulation. Amer. Nat. 132:652-61.
332. Pulliam, H. R. and B. J. Danielson. 1991. Sources, sinks, and habitat selection:A landscape perspective on population dynamics. Amer. Nat. 137:50-60.
333. Raedeke, K. J., J. J. Millspaugh, and P. E. Clark. 2002. Population characteristics. Pp. 449-91 in D. E. Toweill and J. W. Thomas (eds.). North American elk: Ecology and management. Smithsonian Inst. Press, Washington, DC.
334. Reardon, J. J. 1996. Changes in grazed and protected plant communities in Yellowstone National Park. Pp. 115-25 in F. J. Singer (ed.). Effects of grazing by wild ungulates in Yellowstone National Park. U.S. Dept. Int., Nat. Park Serv., Nat. Res. Progr. Cent. Nat. Res. Info. Dir. Tech. Rept. NPS/NRYELL/NRTR/96-01, Nat. Res. Info. Div., Denver, CO.
335. Reiners, W. A. 2003. Natural ecosystems I. The Rocky Mountains. Pp. 145-84 in F. H. Wagner (ed.). Rocky Mountain/Great Basin climate-change assessment. Report for the U.S. Climate Change Research Program. Utah State Univ.
336. Renkin, R. and D. Despain. 1996. Preburn root biomass: Basal area influences on the response of aspen to fire and herbivory. Pp. 95-103 in J. Greenlee (ed.). The ecological implications of fire in greater Yellowstone. Proc. Bienn. Conf. in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, Yellowstone Nat. Park, Sept. 19-21, 1993. Int'l. Assoc. of Wildland Fire, Fairfield, VA.
337. Rens, R. J. 2001. Elk effects on sagebrush-grassland after fire on Yellowstone's northern range. Mont. State Univ. M.S. thesis, Bozeman.
338. Rhoades, D. F. 1979. Evolution of plant chemical defense against herbivores. Pp. 3-54 in G. H. Rosenthal and D. H. Janzen (eds.). Herbivores: Their interaction with secondary plant metabolites. Academic Press, New York.
339. Richards, J. H. 1984. Root growth response to defoliation in two Agropyron bunchgrasses: field observations with an improved root periscope. Oecologia 64:21-25.
340. Ripple, W. J. and E. J. Larsen. 2000. Historic aspen recruitment, elk, and wolves, in northern Yellowstone National Park, USA. Biol. Conserv. 95:361-70.
341. Ripple, W. J. and E. J. Larsen. 2001. The role of postfire coarse woody debris in aspen regeneration. West J. Appl. For. 16:61-64.
342. Ripple, W. J. and R. L. Beschta. 2003. Wolf reintroduction, predation risk, and cottonwood recovery. For. Ecol. Mgt. 184:299-313.
343. Ripple, W. J. and R. L. Beschta. 2004. Wolves and the ecology of fear: Can predation risk structure ecosystems? BioScience 54:755-66.
344. Ripple, W. J., E. J. Larsen, R. A. Renkin, and D. W. Smith. 2001. Trophic cascades among wolves, elk, and aspen on Yellowstone National Park's northern range. Biol. Conserv. 102:227-34.
345. Risbrudt, C. D. 1995. Ecosystem management: A framework for management of our national forests. Nat. Res. and Env. Issues [Utah State Univ.] 5:91-96.
346. Risser, P. G., A. M. Bartuska, J. W. Bright, R. J. Contor, J. F. Franklin, T. A. Heberlein, J. C. Hendee, I. L. McHarg, D. T. Patten, R. O. Peterson, R. H. Wauer, and P. S. White. 1992. Science and the national parks. Nat. Acad. Press, Washington, DC.
347. Risser, P. G. and L. Lubchenco (eds.). 1992. Report of a workshop for a National Park Service ecological research program. U.S. Dept. Int., Nat. Park Serv., Albuquerque, NM.
348. Rogers, K. H. 2003. Adopting a heterogeneity paradigm: Implications for management of protected savannas. Pp. 41-58 in J. T. du Toit, K. H. Rogers, and H. C. Biggs (eds.). The Kruger experience: Ecology and management of savanna heterogeneity. Island Press, Washington, DC.
349. Rolston, H. III. 1990. Biology and philosophy in Yellowstone. Biol. Philos. 5:241-58.
350. Romme, W. H. and D. H. Knight. 1982. Landscape diversity: The concept applied to Yellowstone Park. BioScience 32:664-70.
351. Romme, W. H. and M. G. Turner. 1991. Implications of global climate change for bio-geographic patterns in the greater Yellowstone ecosystem. Cons. Biol. 5:373-86.
352. Romme, W. H., M. G. Turner, L L. Wallace, and J. S. Walker. 1995. Aspen, elk, and fire in northern Yellowstone National Park. Ecol. 76:2097-106.
353. Romme, W. H., M. G. Turner, R. H. Gardner, W. H. Hargrove, G. A. Tuskan, D. G. Despain, and R. A. Renkin. 1997. A rare episode of sexual reproduction in aspen (Populus tremuloides Michx.) following the 1988 Yellowstone fires. Nat. Areas J. 17:17-25.
354. Rosgen, D.L. 1993. Stream classification, streambank erosion and fluvial interpretations for the Lamar River and main tributaries. For USDI National Park Service/Yellowstone National Park. Unpub. Rept., Pagosa Springs, CO.
355. Rotenberry, J. T. and J. A. Wiens. 1980. Habitat structure, patchiness, and avian communities in North American steppe vegetation: A multivariate analysis. Ecol. 61:1228-50.
356. Rush, W. M. 1931. Preliminary report on elk study, northern Yellowstone herd. Unpub. Rept., Yellowstone National Park archives, Yellowstone Nat. Park, WY.
357. Rush, W. M. [1932]. Northern Yellowstone elk study. Montana Fish and Game Comm., Helena, MT.
358. Russell, C. P. 1932. Seasonal migration of mule deer. Ecol. Monog. 2:1-46.
359. Russell, O. 1965. Journal of a trapper [1834-1843]. A. L. Haines (ed.). Univ. Nebraska Press, Lincoln.
360. Sabatier, P. 1978. The acquisition and utilization of technical information by administrative agencies. Admin. Sci. Quart. 23:396-417.
361. Satchell, C. P. 1996. A discouraging word for buffalo. U.S. News and World Rept., Sept. 30, 1996:61-63.
362. Schier, G. A. 1975. Deterioration of aspen clones in the middle Rocky Mountains. USDA Forest Serv. Intermnt. For. and Range Exp. Sta. Res. Paper INT-170, Fort Collins, CO.
363. Schimel, D., M. A. Stillwell, and R. G. Woodmansee. 1985. Biogeochemistry of C, N, and P in a soil catena of the shortgrass steppe. Ecol. 66:276-82.
364. Schmitt, J. G., C. L. Brown, and L. Dando. n.d. Delivery of sediment from Mt. Everts to the Gardner River, Northern Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming. Unpub. Rept. to NPS. Yellowstone Nat. Park files, Yellowstone Nat. Park, WY.
365. Schullery, P. 1986. Drawing the lines in Yellowstone: The American bison as symbol and scourge. Orion Nature Quart. 5:33-45.
366. Schullery, P. 1989. Yellowstone elk and bison: A mid-winter report. Park Sci. 9:19.
367. Schullery, P. 1997a. Yellowstone's ecological holocaust. Montana Mag. West. Hist. 47:16-33.
368. Schullery, P. 1997b. Searching for Yellowstone: Ecology and wonder in the last wilderness. Houghton Mifflin, Boston, MA.
369. Schullery, P. and L. Whittlesey. 1992. The documentary record of wolves and related wildlife species in the Yellowstone National Park area prior to 1882. Pp. 1-1 to 1-173 in J. D. Varley and W. G. Brewster (eds.). Wolves for Yellowstone? A report to the United States Congress. Volume IV Research and analysis. Nat. Park Serv., Yellowstone National Park, WY.
370. Sellars, R. W. 1997. Preserving nature in the national parks. Yale Univ. Press, New Haven, CT.
371. Selleck, J. 2001. Discovery 2000 participants paint a vision of future park management. Pp. 53-55 in J. Selleck (ed.). Natural resources year in review-2000. U.S. Dept. Int., Nat. Park Serv., Lakewood, CO.
372. Shafer, C. L. 2000. The northern Yellowstone elk debate: Policy, hypothesis, and implications. Natural Areas J. 20:342-59.
373. Shafer, C. L. 2001. Conservation biology trailblazers: George Wright, Ben Thompson, and Joseph Dixon. Cons. Biol. 15:332-44.
374. Shepperd, W. D. and M. L. Fairweather. 1994. Impact of large ungulates in restoration of aspen communities in a southwestern ponderosa pine ecosystem. Pp. 344-47 in W. W. Covington and L. F. DeBano (coords.). Sustainable ecological systems: Implementing an ecological approach to land management. USDA For. Serv. Gen. Tech. Rept. RM-247, Rocky Mountain For. and Range Exp. Sta., Fort Collins, CO.
375. Shore, W. B. 1912. An incident in the annual elk migration. Outdoor Life, February:125-30.
376. Shovic, H. F. 1996. Soil quality, erosion potential, and site productivity on landscapes in Northwestern Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming. Pp. 245-63 in F. J. Singer (ed.). Effects of grazing by wild ungulates in Yellowstone National Park. Tech. Rept. NPS/NRYELL/NRTR96-01. U.S. Dept. Int., Nat. Park Serv., Yellowstone Nat. Park, WY.
377. Shovic, H. F., J. Mohman, and R. Ewing. 1996. Major erosive lands in the upper Yellowstone River drainage basin. Pp. 219-43 in F. J. Singer (ed.). Effects of grazing by wild ungulates in Yellowstone National Park. Tech. Rept. NPS/NRYELL/NRTR96-01. U.S. Dept. Int., Nat. Park Serv., Yellowstone Nat. Park, WY.
378. Shrader-Frechette, K. and E. D. McCoy. 1993. Method in ecology: Strategies for conservation. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
379. Shute, D. A. 1981. Decline of riparian communities in a portion of southwestern Wyoming. U.S. Bur. Land Mgt. Unpub. Rept., Rock Springs, WY.
380. Sinclair, A. R. E. 1975. The resource limitation of trophic levels in tropical grassland ecosystems. J. Anim. Ecol. 44:497-520.
381. Sinclair, A. R. E. 1979a. The Serengeti environment. Pp. 31-45 in A. R. E. Sinclair and M. Norton-Griffiths (eds.). Serengeti: Dynamics of an ecosystem. Univ. Chicago Press, Chicago,.
382. Sinclair, A. R. E. 1979b. Dynamics of the Serengeti ecosystem. Pp. 1-30 in A. R. E. Sinclair and M. Norton-Griffiths (eds.). Serengeti: Dynamics of an ecosystem. Univ. Chicago Press, Chicago.
383. Sinclair, A. R. E. 1998. Natural regulation of ecosystems in protected areas as ecological baselines. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 26:399-409.
384. Singer, F. J. 1989. Yellowstone's northern range revisited. Park Sci. 9:18-19.
385. Singer, F. J. 1995. Effects of grazing by ungulates on upland bunchgrass communities in the northern winter range of Yellowstone National Park. Northwest Sci. 69:191-203.
386. Singer, F. J. 1996a. Effects of grazing by wild ungulates in Yellowstone National Park. U.S. Dept. Int., Nat. Park Serv., Yellowstone Nat. Park Tech. Rept. no. NPS/NRYELL/NRTR/96-01, Yellowstone Nat. Park, WY.
387. Singer, F. J. 1996b. Effects of grazing by ungulates on upland bunchgrass communities of the northern winter range of Yellowstone National Park. Pp. 127-38 in F. J. Singer (ed.) Effects of grazing by wild ungulates in Yellowstone National Park. U.S. Dept. Int. Nat. Park Serv., Yellowstone Nat. Park Tech. Rept. no. NPS/NRYELL/NRTR/96-01, Yellowstone Nat. Park, WY.
388. Singer, F. J. 1996c. Differences between willow communities browsed by elk and communities protected for 32 years in Yellowstone National Park. Pp. 277-90 in F. J. Singer (ed.) Effects of grazing by wild ungulates in Yellowstone National Park. U.S. Dept. Int. Nat. Park Serv., Yellowstone Nat. Park Tech. Rept. no. NPS/NRYELL/NRTR/96-01, Yellowstone Nat. Park, WY.
389. Singer, F. J. and E. O. Garton. 1992. Estimating the size of the northern Yellowstone elk herd from fixed-wing aircraft and helicopter surveys-A progress report. Pp. 4-117 to 4-130 in J. D. Varley and W. G. Brewster (eds.). Wolves for Yellowstone? A Report to the United State Congress, Volume 4 Research and analysis. Nat. Park Serv., Yellowstone Nat. Park, WY.
390. Singer, F. J. and J. E. Norland. 1994. Niche relationships within a guild of ungulate species in Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming following release from artificial controls. Canad. J. Zool. 72:1383-94.
391. Singer, F. J. and R. R. Renkin. 1995. Effects of browsing by native ungulates on the shrubs in big sagebrush communities in Yellowstone National Park. Great Basin Nat. 55:201-12.
392. Singer, F. J., W. Schreir, J. Oppenheim, and E. O. Garton. 1989. Drought, fires, and large mammals. BioScience 39:716-22.
393. Singer, F. J., L. C. Mark [sic], and R. C. [sic] Cates. 1994. Ungulate herbivory of willows on Yellowstone's northern winter range. J. Range Mgt. 47:435-43.
394. Singer, F. J., T. Elliott, M. Coughenour, J. Welker, D. Valentine, S. Williams, L. Zeigenfuss, K. Alstad, R. Menezes, R. Cates, and J. Zou. 1997a. Large mammalian herbivores, plant interactions and ecosystem processes in five national parks. Second Ann. Rept. on Coop. Agreement: 1445-0009-94-1074, Subagreement 2 to Biol. Res. Div., U.S.G.S. Midcontinent Ecol. Sci. Cent., Fort Collins, CO.
395. Singer, F. J., A. Harting, K. K. Simmonds, and M. B. Coughenour. 1997b. Density dependence, compensation, and environmental effects on elk calf mortality in Yellowstone National Park. J. Wildl. Mgt. 61:12-25.
396. Singer, F. J., D.M. Swift, M.D. Coughenour, and J.D. Varley. 1998a. Thunder on the Yellowstone revisited: An assessment of management of native ungulates by natural regulation: 1968-1993. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 26:375-90.
397. Singer, F. J., L. C. Zeigenfuss, R. G. Cates, and D. T. Barnett. 1998b. Elk, multiple factors, and persistence of willows in national parks. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 26:419-28.
398. Singer, F. J., N. T. Hobbs, and G. Wang. 2001a. Evidence for the population limitation and alteration in distribution of elk following the reintroduction of wolves in Yellowstone National Park, U.S.; Implications for the cascading effects of predator restoration on the release of woody browse plants and beaver. Proc. Int'l. Forest Dynam. and Ung. Herbivory-Book of Abstracts. Davos, Switzerland, Oct. 3-6, 2001.
399. Singer, F. J., L. C. Zeigenfuss, and L. Spicer. 2001b. Role of patch size, disease, and movement in rapid extinction of bighorn sheep. Cons. Biol. 15:1347-54.
400. Singer, F. J., G. Wang, and N. T. Hobbs. 2003. The role of ungulates and large predators on plant communities and ecosystem processes in western national parks. Pp. 444-86 in C. J. Zabel and R. G. Anthony (eds.). Mammal community dynamics: Management and conservation in coniferous forests of North America. Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge.
401. Skinner, M. P. 1927. The predatory and fur-bearing animals of the Yellowstone National Park. Roosevelt Wild Life Bull. 24:163-281.
402. Skinner, M. P. 1928. The elk situation. J. Mammal. 9:309-17.
403. Skinner, M. P. 1929. White-tailed deer formerly in the Yellowstone Park. J. Mammal. 10:101-15.
404. Skinner, M. P. n.d. Studies of wapiti foods in Yellowstone National Park/Aspen (Populus Tremuloides [sic] Michx). U.S. Dept. Interior Nat. Park Serv. Yellowstone Nat. Park Unpub Rept. File No. 599.73574, Yellowstone Nat. Park, WY.
405. Smith, A. D. 1949. Effects of mule deer and livestock upon a foothill range in northern Utah. J. Wildl. Mgt. 13:421-23.
406. Smith, C. L., A. A. Simpson, and V. Bailey. 1915. Report on investigation of the elk herds in the Yellowstone Park region of Wyoming, Montana, and Idaho. USDA Forest Serv. and U.S. Bur. Biol. Surv. Unpub. Rept.
407. Smith, D. G., S. Consolo Murphy, M. K. Phillips, and R. Crabtree. [1997]. Beaver survey Yellowstone National Park 1996. Yellowstone National Park Unpub. Rept. YCR-NR-97-1, Yellowstone Nat. Park, WY.
408. Smith, D. W. and D. S. Guerney. 2002. Yellowstone wolf project: Annual report, 2001. U.S. Nat. Park Serv., Yellowstone Center for Resources YCRNR-2002-04, Yellowstone Nat. Park, WY.
409. Smith, D. W., R. O. Peterson, and D. B. Houston. 2003. Yellowstone after wolves. BioScience 53:330-40.
410. Smith, K. G. and J. A. MacMahon. Bird communities along a montane sere:Community structure and energetics. Auk 98:8-28.
411. Stark, M. 2004. Elk herd in Yellowstone Park on the decline. Online at www.billingsgazette.com, 2 pp.
412. Strong, W. E. 1968. A trip to the Yellowstone National National Park in July, August, and September, 1875. University Oklahoma Press, Norman.
413. Taper, M. L. and P. J. P. Gogan. 2002. The northern Yellowstone elk: Density dependence and climate conditions. J. Wildl. Mgt. 66:106-22.
414. Tueller, P. T. and J. D. Tower. 1979. Vegetation stagnation in three-phase big game exclosures. J. Range Mgt. 32:258-63.
415. Tuler, S. and T. Webler. 2000. Public participation:Relevance and application in the National Park Service. Park Sci. 20:24-26.
416. Turchin, G. M., P. L. Kennedy, D. Urban, and D. Hein. 1995. Bird species richness in relation to isolation of aspen habitats. Wilson Bull. 107:463-74.
417. Turner, C. L., T. R. Seastedt, and M. I. Dyer. 1993. Maximization of aboveground grassland production:The role of defoliation frequency, intensity and history. Ecol. Appl. 3:175-86.
418. Turner, M. G., W. H. Romme, and R. H. Gardner. 1994. Landscape disturbance models and the long-term dynamics of natural areas. Nat. Res. J. 14:3-11.
419. Tyers, D. B. and L. R. Irby. 1995. Shiras moose winter habitat in the upper Yellowstone River Valley prior to and after the 1988 fires. Alces 31:35-43.
420. U.S. Senate. 1967. Hearings before a Subcommittee of the Committee on Appropriations, U.S. Senate, Nineteenth Congress, First Session, on Elk Population, Yellowstone National Park. U.S. Gov't. Print. Off., Washington, DC.
421. Varley, J. D. 1988. Managing Yellowstone National Park into the 21st century:The park as an aquarium. Pp. 216-25 in J. K. Agee and D. R. Johnson (eds.). Ecosystem management for parks and wilderness. Univ. Washington Press, Seattle.
422. Vore, J. M. 1990. Movements and distribution of some northern Yellowstone elk. Mont. State Univ. M.S. thesis, Bozeman.
423. Waagen, G. N. 1979. Changes in spider community attributes along a subalpine successional gradient. Utah State Univ. PhD. diss., Logan.
424. Wagner, F. H. 1980. Integrating and control mechanisms in arid and semiarid ecosystems-Considerations for impact assessment. Proc. Symp. Biol. Eval. of Env. Impacts, Counc. Env. Qual. and U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Biol. Serv. Prog. FWS/OBS-80/26:145-58.
425. Wagner, F. H. 1987. North American terrestrial grazing. Revista Chilena de Historia Natural 60:245-63.
426. Wagner, F. H. 1988. Predator control and the sheep industry: The role of science in policy formation. Regina Books, Claremont, CA.
427. Wagner, F. H. 1989. Theory of science's role in natural resources and environmental policy-National parks a case study. Pres. Conf. Business and the Environ.:Applying Science to Environmental Policy in Canada and the United States. Big Sky, MT.
428. Wagner, F. H. 1996a. Ethics, science, and public policy. BioScience 46:765-66.
429. Wagner, F. H. 1996b. Principles for the conservation of wild living resources:Another perspective. Ecol. Appl. 6:365-67.
430. Wagner, F. H. 1999a. Whatever happened to the National Biological Survey? BioScience 49:219-22.
431. Wagner, F. H. 1999b. Values, science, and policy: How best to serve the national parks. George Wright Forum 16:52-62.
432. Wagner, F. H. 1999c. Analysis and/or advocacy: What role(s) for ecologists. National Center for Ecological Analysis and Synthesis On-Line EcoEssay, Santa Barbara, CA:2 pp.
433. Wagner, F. H. 2001. Freeing agency research from policy pressures: A need and an approach. Bioscience 51:445-50.
434. Wagner, F. H. (ed.). 2003. Preparing for a changing climate: The potential consequences of climate variability and change, Rocky Mountain-Great Basin. Rept. Rocky Mtn./Great Basin Regional Assessment Team for U.S. Global Change Res. Prog. Utah State Univ., Logan.
435. Wagner, F. H. and C. E. Kay. 1993. "Natural" or "healthy" ecosystems: Are U.S. national parks providing them?. Pp. 257-70 in M. F. McDonnell and S. T. A. Pickett (eds.). Humans as components of ecosystems. Springer-Verlag, New York.
436. Wagner, F. H., R. Foresta, R. B. Gill, D. R. McCullough, M. R. Pelton, W. F. Porter, and H. Salwasser. 1995a. Wildlife policies in the U.S. national parks. Island Press, Washington, DC.
437. Wagner, F. H., R. B. Keigley, and C. L. Wambolt. 1995b. Comment:Ungulate herbivory of willows on Yellowstone's northern range: Response to Singer et al. (1994). J. Range Mgt. 48:475-77.
438. Walker, B. H. and I. Noy-Meir. 1982. Aspects of stability and resilience of savanna ecosystems. Pp. 556-90 in B. J. Huntley and B.H. Walker (eds.). Ecology of tropical savannas. Ecological Studies 42, Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
439. Wallace, L. L. and S. A. Macko. 1993. Nutrient acquisition by clipped plants as a measure of competitive success:the effects of compensation. Funct. Ecol. 7:326-31.
440. Walters, C. 1986. Adaptive management of renewable resources. Macmillan, New York.
441. Wambolt, C. L. 1998. Sagebrush and ungulate relationships on Yellowstone's northern range. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 27:429-37.
442. Wambolt, C. L. and H. W. Sherwood. 1999. Sagebrush response to ungulate browsing in Yellowstone. J. Range Mgt. 52:363-69.
443. Wambolt, C. L. and T. L. Hoffman. 2001. Mountain big sagebrush age distribution and relationships on the northern Yellowstone winter range. USDA For. Serv. Proc. RMRS-P-21:330-35.
444. Wambolt, C. L., W. H. Creamer, and R. J. Rossi. 1994. Predicting big sagebrush winter forage by subspecies and browse form class. J. Range Mgt. 47:231-34.
445. Wambolt, C. L., T. L. Hoffman, and C. A. Mehus. 1999. Response of shrubs in big sagebrush habitats to fire on the northern Yellowstone winter range. Proc. Symp. Shrubland Ecotones. USDA Forest Serv., Rocky Mtn. Res. Sta. Proc. RMRS.
446. Warren, E. R. 1926. A study of the beaver in the Yancey region of Yellowstone National Park. Roosevelt Wildl. Annals 1:1-191.
447. Welch, B. L. 2004. Big sagebrush: A sea fragmented into lakes, ponds, and puddles. USDA Forest Serv., Rocky Mtn. Res. Sta. Gen. Tech. Rept. RMRSGTR.
448. Welch, B. L. and E. D. McArthur. 1979. Feasibility of improving big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) for use on mule deer ranges. Pp. 451-57 in J. R. Goodin and D. K. Northington (eds.). Arid land plant resources. Texas Tech. Univ., Lubbock.
449. West, N. E. 1990. Structure and function of microphytic soil crusts in wildland ecosystems of arid and semi-arid regions. Adv. Ecol. Res. 20:179-223.
450. West, N. E. 1991. Nutrient cycling in soils of semi-arid and arid regions. Pp. 295-332 in J. Skujins (ed.). Semiarid lands and deserts: Soil resource and reclamation. Marcel Dekker, New York.
451. West, N. E. 1999. Managing for biodiversity of rangelands. Pp. 101-26 in W. W. Collins and C. O. Qualset (eds.). Biodiversity in agrosystems. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
452. West, N. E. and J. O. Klemmedson. 1978. Structural distribution in desert ecosystems. Pp. 1-16 in N. E. West and J. Skujins (eds.). Nitrogen in desert ecosystems. Dowden, Hutchinson, and Ross, Stroudsburg, PA.
453. Westerman, R. L. and T. C. Tucker. 1978. Denitrification in desert soils. Pp. 75-106 in N. E. West and J. Skujins (eds.). Nitrogen in desert ecosystems. Dowden, Hutchinson and Ross, Stroudsburg, PA.
454. Westoby, M. 1979/80. Elements of a theory of vegetation dynamics in arid rangeland. Israel J. Bot. 28:169-94.
455. White, C. A., C. E. Olmsted, and C. E. Kay. 1998. Aspen, elk, and fire in the Rocky Mountain national parks of North America. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 26:449-62.
456. Whyte, I. J., R. J. van Aarde, and S. L. Pimm. 2003. Kruger's elephant population: Its size and consequences for ecosystem heterogeneity. Pp. 332-48 in J. D. duToit, K. H. Rogers, and H. C. Biggs (eds.). The Kruger experience: Ecology and management of savanna heterogeneity. Island Press, Washington, DC.
457. Wiens, J. A. 1977. On competition and variable environments. Amer. Scient. 65:590-97.
458. Wiens, J. A., and J. T. Rotenberry. 1981. Habitat associations and community structure of birds in shrubsteppe environments. Ecol. Monog. 51:21-41.
459. Wiens, J. A., R. C. Cates, J. T. Rotenberry, N. Cobb, B. Van Horne, and R. A. Redak. 1991. Arthropod dynamics on sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata):Effects of plant chemistry and avian predation. Ecol. Monog. 61:229-321.
460. Wilkinson, T. 1998. Science under siege: The politician's war on nature and truth. Johnson Books, Boulder, CO.
461. Wilsey, B. J. 1996. Urea additions and defoliation affect plant responses to elevated CO2 in a C3 grass from Yellowstone National Park. Oecologia 108:321-27.
462. Wilsey, B. J., J. S. Coleman, and S. J. McNaughton. 1997. Effects of elevated CO2 and defoliation on grasses: A comparative ecosystem approach. Ecol. Appl. 7:844-53.
463. Wolff, J. O. 1978. Burning and browsing effects on willow growth. J. Wildl. Mgt. 42:135-40.
464. Woodley, S. 1993. Monitoring and measuring ecosystem integrity in Canadian national parks. Pp. 155-76 in S. Woodley, J. Kay, and G. Francis (eds.). Ecological integrity and the management of ecosystems. St. Lucie Press, Delray Beach, FL.
465. Woodley, S., J. Kay, and G. Francis (eds.). 1993. Ecological integrity and the management of ecosystems. St. Lucie Press, Delray Beach, FL.
466. Wright, G. A. 1982. Archaeological research in Yellowstone National Park. In S. G. Reid and D. J. Foote (eds.). Geology of Yellowstone Park area. Wyo. Geol. Assoc. 33rd Ann. Field Conf. Guidebook 1988, Mammoth Hot Springs, WY.
467. Wright, G. A. 1984. People of the high country: Jackson Hole before the settlers. Peter Long, New York.
468. Wright, G. M. and B. H. Thompson. 1935. Wildlife management in the national parks. U.S. Dept. Int. Fauna of the Nat. Parks of the U.S., Contrib. Of Wildl. Div. Fauna Ser. no. 2, July 1934.
469. Wright, G. M., J. S. Dixon, and B. H. Thompson. 1933. A preliminary survey of faunal relations in national parks. U.S. Dept. Int., Nat. Park Serv., Fauna of the Nat. Parks of the U.S., Contrib. of Wildl. Survey, Fauna Ser. no. 1, May 1932.
470. Wright, H. E. Jr. 1987. The relationship of climate to sedimentation rates in lakes and ponds in Yellowstone National Park. Yellowstone Nat. Park Unpub. Prog. Rept., Yellowstone Nat. Park, WY, 6 pp.
471. Wright, R. G. 1992. Wildlife research and management in the national parks. Univ. Ill. Press, Urbana.
472. Young, A. 2000. As wolves go, so do aspen. Ariz. Daily Star Sept. 13, 2000, 3 pp.
473. Young, J. A. and B. A. Sparks. 1985. Cattle in the cold desert. Utah State University Press, Logan.
474. Zar, J. H. 1984. Biostatistical analysis, 2nd ed. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
475. Zeigenfuss, L. C., F. J. Singer, S. A. Williams, and T. L. Johnson. 2002. Influences of herbivory and water on willow in elk winter range. J. Wildl. Mgt. 66:788-95.