What is a pathogen? Toward a process view of host-parasite interactions

Virulence

Volumn 5, Issue 8, 2014, Pages 775-785

  Méthot, Pierre Olivier ^a,b   Alizon, Samuel ^c  

^a UNIVERSITÉ LAVAL   (Canada)

^b Centre Interuniversitaire de Recherche sur la Science et la Technologie CIRST   (Canada)

^c CNRS   (France)

Author keywords

Disease; Ecology; Evolution; Infection; Process; Virulence

Indexed keywords

ANTIBIOTIC AGENT; TOLL LIKE RECEPTOR; VACCINE;

ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY; ARTICLE; ASPERGILLUS FUMIGATUS; CANDIDA ALBICANS; CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK; GENETIC VARIABILITY; HOST PARASITE INTERACTION; HUMAN; IMMUNOPATHOLOGY; IMMUNOSUPPRESSIVE TREATMENT; INFECTION; INNATE IMMUNITY; MICROBIAL GENETICS; MIXED INFECTION; MOLECULAR BIOLOGY; NEISSERIA MENINGITIDIS; NONHUMAN; PATHOGENESIS; STREPTOCOCCUS PNEUMONIAE; UROPATHOGENIC ESCHERICHIA COLI; ANIMAL; BACTERIUM; EVOLUTION; FUNGUS; GENETICS; HOST PATHOGEN INTERACTION; PATHOGENICITY; VIRULENCE; VIRUS;

ANIMALS; BACTERIA; BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION; FUNGI; GENETIC VARIATION; HOST-PARASITE INTERACTIONS; HOST-PATHOGEN INTERACTIONS; HUMANS; VIRULENCE; VIRUSES;

EID: 84919474588     PISSN: 21505594     EISSN: 21505608     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.4161/21505594.2014.960726     Document Type: Article

References (119)

1. Keen EC. Paradigms of pathogenesis: targeting the mobile genetic elements of disease. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2012; 2:1-3. p.1; http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fcimb.2012.00161
2. Grmek MD. Western Medical Thought from Antiquity to Middle Ages. Cambridge: Harvard University Press 1999
3. Whitbeck C. Causation in medicine. The disease entity model. Philos Sci 1977; 44:, p. 622; http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/288771
4. Temkin O. The Double Face of Janus. Essays in the History of Medicine. Johns Hopkins University Press 1977
5. Engelhardt. HT Concepts of health and disease, In: Caplan AH, Engelhardt HT, McCartney JJ, editors. Concepts of Health and Disease: Interdisciplinary Perspectives. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1981
6. Koch R. On the investigation of pathogenic organisms, In: Cheyne WW (ed.), Recent Essays by Various Authors on Bacteria in Relation to Disease. London, UK: New Sydenham Society; 1886;, pp. 3-64
7. Zinsser H. Infection and Resistance. New York: The MacMillan Company; 1914
8. Falkow S. Commentary: ‘I never met a microbe I didn’t like’. Nat Med 2008; 14(10):27-31; PMID:18841148; http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nm1008-1053
9. Casadevall A. Opinion. The future of biological war-fare. Microb Biotech 2012; 5(5): 585; http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-7915.2012.00340.x
10. Van Baalen M, Jansen VAA. Dangerous liaisons: the ecology of private interests and common good. Oikos 2001; 95:211-24; http://dx.doi.org/10.1034/j.1600-0706.2001.950203.x
11. Canguilhem G. Ideologie et rationalite dans l’histoire des sciences de la vie. Paris: Vrin, 1977, p. 112
12. Gradmann C. Isolation, contamination, and pure culture: Monomorphism and polymorphism of pathogenic micro-organisms as research problem 1860-1880. Perspect Sci 2001; 9:147-72; http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/106361401317447264
13. Mendelsohn JA. From eradication to equilibrium: How epidemics became complex after World War I. In: Lawrence C, Weisz G (eds.), Greater Than the Parts: Holism in Biomedicine, 1920-1950. New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1998
14. De Kruif P. Microbe Hunters, Mariner Books, Edition. A Harvest Book, Harcourt Inc., San Diego, New York, London; 2002
15. Dubos RJ. The evolution of infectious diseases in the course of history. Can Med Assoc J 1958; 79(6):445-51
16. Fantini B. Les organisations internationales face a l’emergence des maladies infectieuses nouvelles. Hist Phil Life Sci 1993; 15:435-47
17. Snowden F. Emerging and re-emerging diseases: an historical perspective. Immunol Rev 2008; 225:9-26; http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-065X.2008.00677.x
18. Dethlefsen L, McFall-Ngai, Relman DA. An ecological and evolutionary perspective on human-microbe mutualism and disease. Nature 2007; 449:811-8; http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature06245
19. Methot P-O, Fantini B. (forthcoming). Medicine and ecology: historical and critical perspectives on the con-cept of emerging disease. In: La Vergata A, Menant G-A, Boersema JJ (eds.), Nature, Environment, and Quality of Life, Archives Internationales d’histoire des sciences, Brepols Publishers, 2014
20. Jones KE, Patel NG, Levy MA, Storeygard A, Balk D, Gittleman JL, Daszak P. Global trends in emerging infectious diseases. Nature 2008; 451(7181):990-3; http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature06536
21. Blaser MJ. Missing microbes. How the overuse of antibiotics is fuelling our modern plagues. New York: Henry Holt and Company; 2014
22. Anderson W. Natural histories of infectious disease: ecological vision in twentieth-century biomedical science. Osiris 2004; 19:39-61; http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/649393
23. Methot P-O. Why do parasites harm their host? On the origin and legacy of Theobald Smith’s ‘law of declining virulence’-1900-1980. Hist Phil Life Sci 2012; 34:561-601
24. Lederberg J. Viruses and human kind: intracellular symbiosis and evolutionary competition. In: Morse, S (ed.), Emerging Viruses. New York: Oxford University Press; 1993; 3-9
25. Lederberg J. Infectious agents, hosts in constant flux. ASM News 1999; 65(1):18-22
26. Lederberg J. Infectious history. Science 2000; 288:287-93; http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.288.5464.287
27. Swerdlow JL, Johnson AD. Living with microbes, Wilson Q 2002; 42-59
28. Institute of Medicine. Ending the war metaphor. The Changing Agenda for Unravelling the Host-Microbe Relationship-Workshop Summary. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press; 2006
29. Pallen MJ, Wren BW. Bacterial pathogenomics. Nature 2007; 449:835-42; PMID:17943120; http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature06248
30. National Research Council. Sequence-Based Classifications of Select Agents: A Brighter Line. Washington DC: National Academies Press; 2010; 2
31. Pirofski LA, Casadevall A. Q&A: What is a pathogen? A question that begs the point. BMC Biol 2012; 10 (1):6; http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1741-7007-10-6
32. Falkow S. 1997. What is a pathogen? ASM News, 63 (7):359-65
33. Perez-Brocal V, Latorre A, Moya A. Symbionts and pathogens: what is the difference? Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2013; 358:215-43
34. Blaser MJ, Falkow S. What are the consequences of the disappearing human microbiota? Nat Rev Micro-biol 2009; 7:887-94; PMID:19898491; http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrmicro2245
35. Falkow S. Is persistent bacterial infection good for your health? Cell 2006; 124:699-702; PMID: 16497581; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2006.02.004
36. Hube B. From commensal to pathogen: stage and tissue specific gene expression of Candida albicans. Curr Opin Microbiol 2004; 7:336-41; PMID:15288621; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.mib.2004.06.003
37. Klemm P, Hancock V, Schembri M. Mellowing out: adaptation to commensalism by Escherichia coli asymptomatic bacteria strain 83972. Infect Immun 2007; 75:3688-95; PMID:17502385; http://dx.doi. org/10.1128/IAI.01730-06
38. Armstrong D. History of opportunistic infection in the immunocompromised host. Clin Infect Dis 1993; 17:S318-21; PMID:8274594; http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/clinids/17.Supplement_2.S318
39. Balloy V, Huerre M, Latge JP, Chignard M. Differences in patterns of infection and inflammation for corticosteroid treatment and chemotherapy in experimental invasive pulmonary aspergillosis. Infect Immun 2005; 73:494-503; PMID:15618189; http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/IAI.73.1.494-503.2005
40. Lederberg J, McCray A. ‘Ome sweet’ omics: a genealogical treasury of words. The Scientist 2001; 15:7
41. Blaser MJ, Chen Y, Reibman J. Does helicobacter pylori protect against asthma and allergy? Gut 2008; 57(5):561-7; PMID:18194986; http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/gut.2007.133462
42. Pflughoeft KJ, Versalovic J. Human microbiome in health and disease. Annu Rev Pathol 2012; 7:99-122; PMID:21910623; http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-pathol-011811-132421
43. Martın R, Miquel S, Langella P, Bermudez-Humaran LG. The role of metagenomics in understanding the human microbiome in health and disease. Virulence 2014; 5:413-23; PMID:24429972; http://dx.doi.org/10.4161/viru.27864
44. Brown SP, Cornforth DM, Mideo N. Evolution of virulence in opportunistic pathogen: generalism, plasticity and control. Trends Microbiol 2012; 20:336-42; PMID:22564248; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tim.2012.04.005
45. Casadevall A, Pirofski LA. Virulence factors and the mechanisms of action: the view from a damage-response framework. J Water Health 2009; 7:2-18. p. 4; PMID:19717929; http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/ wh.2009.036
46. Ackermann M, Stecher B, Freed NE, Songhet P, Hardt WD, Doebeli M. Self-destructive cooperation mediated by phenotypic noise. Nature 2008; 454:987-90; PMID:18719588; http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature07067
47. Mideo N, Reece SE. Plasticity in parasite phenotypes: evolutionary and ecological implications for disease. Future Microbiol 2012; 7:17-24; PMID:22191443; http://dx.doi.org/10.2217/fmb.11.134
48. Sansonetti P. To be or not to be a pathogen: that is the mucosally relevant question. Nature 2011; 4(1):8-14; PMID:21150896; http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/mi.2010.77
49. Schmid-Hempel P. Immune defence, parasite evasion strategies and their relevance for ‘macroscopic phenomena’ such as virulence. Phil Trans R Soc Lond B 2009; 364:85-8; PMID:18930879; http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2008.0157
50. Graham AL, Allen JE, Read AF. Evolutionary causes and consequences of immunpathology. Ann Rev Evol Syst 2005; 36:373-97; http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.36.102003.152622
51. Long GH, Chan BHK, Allen JE, Read AF, Graham AL. Experimental manipulation of immune-mediated disease and its fitness costs for rodent malaria parasites. BMC Evol Biol 2008; 8:128; PMID:18447949; http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2148-8-128
52. Cooper AM. 2009. Cell-mediated immune responses in tuberculosis. Annu Rev Immunol 27:393-422; http:// dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.immunol.021908.132703
53. Moulin AM. La metaphore vaccine. Hist Philos Life Sci 1992; 14:271-97
54. Casadevall A, Pirofski LA. Host-pathogen interactions: basic concepts of microbial commensalism, colonization, infection, and disease. Infect Immun 2000; 68:6511-8; PMID:11083759; http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/IAI.68.12.6511-6518.2000
55. Flor HH. Current status of the gene-for-gene concept. Annu Rev Pythopathol 1971; 9:275-96; PMID:21599495; http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.py.09.090171. 001423
56. Paine K, Flower DR. Bacterial bioinformatics: Pathogenesis and the genome. J Mol Microbiol Biotechnol 2002; 4:357-65
57. Relman D. Detection and identification of previously unrecognized microbial pathogens. Emerg Infect Dis 1998; 4(3):382-9; PMID:9716951; http://dx.doi.org/10.3201/eid0403.980310
58. Wassenaar TM, Gaastra W. Bacterial virulence: can we draw the line? Microbiol Lett 2001; 201:1-7; PMID:11445159; http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1574-6968.2001.tb10724.x
59. Read AF. The evolution of virulence. Trends Microbiol 1994; 2(3):73-6; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0966-842X(94)90537-1
60. Casadevall A, Pirofski LA. Host-pathogen interactions: the attributes of virulence. J Infect Dis 2001; 337-44; http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/322044
61. Stuart-Harris CH. The definition and measurement of virus virulence. In: Virus, Virulence and Pathogenicity; Ciba Symposium. London: Churchill; 1960; 3-19; PMID:24297424; http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/ 978-1-62703-733-4_20
62. Gradmann C. ‘Common sense, proper training and sound reasoning’-Koch’s postulates and 20th century medicine. Michael Quart 2008; 3:217-28
63. Isenberg HD. Pathogenicity and virulence: another view. Clin Microbial Rev 1988;1:40-53
64. Oakes Jordan E. 1908, Quoted in Strick J. Evolution of microbiology as seen in the textbooks of Edwin O. Jordan and William H. Park. Yale J Biol Med 2000; 72:321-8
65. Strick J. Evolution of microbiology as seen in the text-books of Edwin O. Jordan and William H. Park. Yale J Biol Med 2000; 72:321-8; PMID:11049163
66. Falkow S. Molecular Koch’s postulates applied to microbial pathogenicity. Rev Infect Dis 1988; 10: 274-6; http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/cid/10. Supplement_2.S274
67. Brock TD. The emergence of bacterial genetics. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press; 1990
68. Grote M. Hybridizing bacteria, crossing methods, cross-checking arguments: the transition from episomes to plasmids (1961-1969), Hist Phil Life Sci 2008; 30:407-30; PMID:19579711
69. Falkow S. Infectious Multiple Drug Resistance. Bristol: Pion Limited; 1975; 253
70. Groisman EA, Ochman H. Pathogenicity islands: bacterial evolution in quantum leaps. Cell 1996; 87:791-794; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0092-8674(00)81985-6
71. Hacker J, Hochhut B, Middendorf B, Schneider G, Buchrieser C, Gottschalk G, Dobrindt U. Pathoge-nomics of mobile genetic elements of toxigenic bacte-ria. Int J Med Microbiol 2004; 293:453-61. P.454; PMID:15149018; http://dx.doi.org/10.1078/1438-4221-00290
72. Gal-Mor O, Finlay B. Pathogenicity islands: a molecular toolbox for bacterial virulence 2006; 8(11): 1707-19. p. 1708; PMID:16939533
73. Strauss EJ Falkow S. Microbial pathogenesis: genomics and beyond. Science 1997; 276:707-12; http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.276.5313.707
74. Hacker J, Carniel E. Ecological fitness, genomic islands and bacterial pathogenicity. A Darwinian view of the evolution of microbes. EMBO Rep 2001; 2:376-81. p. 377; PMID:11375927; http://dx.doi. org/10.1093/embo-reports/kve097
75. Hacker J, Kaper JB. Pathogenicity islands and other mobile virulence elements. Washington: ASM Press; 1999
76. Pradeu T. The Limits of the Self: Immunology and Biological Identity. New York: Oxford University Press; 2012
77. Janeway CA. Approaching the asymptote ? Evolution and revolution in immunology. Cold Spring Harb Symp Quant Biol 1989; 54:1-13; http://dx.doi.org/10.1101/SQB.1989.054.01.003
78. Medzhitov R, Janeway C. Innate immunity. N Engl J Med 2000; 343(5):338-44; http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJM200008033430506
79. Vance RE, Isberg RR, Portnoy DA. Patterns of pathogenesis: discrimination of pathogenic and non-patho-genic microbes by the immune system. Cell Host Microbe 2009; 6:10-21; 12; PMID:19616762; http:// dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chom.2009.06.007
80. Ausubel FM. Are innate immune signaling pathways in plants and animals conserved? Nature Immunol 2005; 610:973-979; http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ni1253
81. Casadevall A, Pirofski LA. The damage-response framework. Nat Rev Microbiol 2003; 1:17-24; http:// dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrmicro732
82. McCullers J. The co-pathogenesis of influenza viruses with bacteria in the lung. Nat Rev Microbiol 2014; 12:252-62; PMID:24590244; http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrmicro3231
83. Lord CC, Barnard B, Day K, Hargrove JW, McNa-mara JJ, Paul REL, Trenholme K, Woolhouse MEJ. Aggregation and distribution of strains in micropara-sites. Philos Trans R Soc B 1999; 354:799-807; PMID:10365405; http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.1999.0432
84. Juliano JJ, Porter K, Mwapasa V, Sem R, Rogers WO, Ariey F, Wongsrichanalai C, Read A, Meshnick SR. Exposing malaria in-host diversity and estimating population diversity by capture-recapture using massively parallel pyrosequencing. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2010; 107:20138-43; PMID:21041629; http:// dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1007068107
85. Nkhoma SC, Nair S, Cheeseman IH, Rohr-Allegrini C, Singlam S, Nosten F, Anderson TJC. Close kin-ship within multiple-genotype malaria parasite infections. Proc Biol Sci 2012; 279:2589-98; PMID: 22398165; http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rspb. 2012.0113
86. Abu-Raddad LJ, Patnaik P, Kublin JG. Dual infection with HIV and malaria fuels the spread of both diseases in sub-Saharan Africa. Science 2006; 314:1603-6; PMID:17158329; http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1132338
87. Kublin JG, Patnaik P, Jere CS, Miller WC, Hoffman IF, Chimbiya N, Pendame R, Taylor TE, Molyneux ME. Effect of Plasmodium falciparum malaria on concentration of HIV-1-RNA in the blood of adults in rural Malawi: a prospective cohort study. Lancet 2005; 365:233-40; PMID:15652606
88. Joint United Nations Programme on HIVAIDS Staff & World Health Organization Staff. AIDS epidemic update, December 2006. World Health Organization; 2006; UNAIDS06.29E
89. Jamieson AM, Pasman L, Yu S, Gamradt P, Homer RJ, Decker T, Medzhitov R. Role of tissue protection in lethal respiratory viral-bacterial coinfection. Science 2013; 340:1230-4; PMID:23618765; http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1233632
90. Lewis RE, Viale P, Kontoyiannis DP. The potential impact of antifungal drug resistance mechanisms on the host immune response to candida. Virulence 2012; 3:368-76; PMID:22722245; http://dx.doi.org/10.4161/viru.20746
91. Tillmann HL, Heiken H, Knapik-Botor A, Herin-glake S, Ockenga J, Wilber JC, Goergen B, Detmer J, McMorrow M, Stoll M, et al. Infection with GB virus C and reduced mortality among HIV-infected patients. N Engl J Med. 2001; 345:715-24; PMID:11547740; http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/ NEJMoa010398
92. Xiang J, Wunschmann S, Diekema D, Klinzman D, Patrick K, George S, Stapleton J. Effect of coinfection with GB virus C on survival among patients with HIV infection. N Engl J Med 2001; 345:707-14; http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa003364
93. Moreira LA, Iturbe-Ormaetxe In, Jeffery JA, Lu G, Pyke AT, Hedges LM, Rocha BC, Hall-Mendelin S, Day A, Riegler M, et al. A Wolbachia symbiont in Aedes aegypti limits infection with dengue, Chikungunya, and Plasmodium. Cell 2009; 139:1268-78; PMID:20064373; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2009.11.042
94. Vento S, Cainelli F. Can HIV-1 viral interference be used therapeutically? Lancet Infect Dis 2013; 13:9-10;http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(12)70312-2
95. Doolan DL, Dobano C, Baird JK. Acquired immunity to malaria. Clin Microbiol Rev 2009; 22:13-36; http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/CMR.00025-08
96. Dieckmann U. Adaptive dynamics of pathogen-host interactions. In: Dieckmann U, Metz JAJ, Sabelis MW, Sigmund K (eds.), Adaptive dynamics of infectious diseases: In pursuit of virulence management. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2002; 39-59
97. Michalakis Y, Olivieri I, Renaud F, Raymond M.Pleiotropic action of parasites: How to be good for the host. Trends Ecol Evol 1992; 7:59-63; PMID:21235952; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0169-5347(92)90108-N
98. Mazumdar P. Species and Specificity: An Interpretation of the History of Immunology. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press; 1995
99. Creager A. Adaptation or selection? Old issues and new stakes in the postwar debates over bacterial drug resistance. Stud Hist Philos Biol Biomed Sci 2007; 38:159-90; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.shpsc.2006.06.016
100. Lederberg J. Viruses and human kind: intracellular symbiosis and evolutionary competition. In: Morse S (ed.), Emerging Viruses. New York: Oxford University Press; 1993; 3-9
101. Mendelsohn AJ. ‘Like all that lives’: biology, medicine, and bacteria in the age of Pasteur and Koch. Hist Phil Life Sci 2002; 24:3-36; PMID:12664951; http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03919710210001714293
102. Levin BR, Bull JJ. Short-sighted volution and the virulence of pathogenic microorganisms. Trends Microbiol 1994; 2:76-81; PMID:8156275; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0966-842X(94)90538-X
103. Margolis E, Levin BR. Within-host evolution for the invasiveness of commensal bacteria: an experimental study of bacteremias resulting from Haemophilus influenzae nasal carriage. J Infect Dis 2007; 196:1068-75; PMID:17763330; http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/520934
104. Kouyos RD, von Wyl V, Hinkley T, Petropoulos CJ, Haddad M, Whitcomb JM, Bni J, Yerly S, Cellerai C, Klimkait T, et al. Swiss HIV Cohort Study. Assessing predicted HIV-1 replicative capacity in a clinical setting. PLoS Pathog 2011; 7: 1002321; PMID:22072960; http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal. ppat.1002321
105. Herbeck JT, Mller V, Maust BS, Ledergerber B, Torti C, Di Giambenedetto S, Gras L, Gnthard HF, Jacobson LP, Mullins JI, et al. Is the virulence of HIV changing? A meta-analysis of trends in prognostic markers of HIV disease progression and transmission. AIDS 2012; 26:193-205; PMID:22089381; http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/QAD.0b013e32834db418
106. Methot P-O. Research traditions and evolutionary explanations in medicine. Theor Med Bioeth 2011; 32:80-95; PMID:21140228; http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11017-010-9167-4
107. Anderson RM, May RM. Coevolution of hosts and parasites. Parasitology 1982; 85:411-26; http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0031182000055360
108. Ewald PW. Host-parasite relations, vectors and the evolution of disease severity. Annu Rev Ecol Syst 1983; 14:465-85; http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.es.14.110183.002341
109. Ebert D. Experimental evolution of parasites. Science 1998; 282:1432-5; http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.282.5393.1432
110. Atkins KE, Read AF, Savill NJ, Renz KG, Islam AF, Walkden-Brown SW, Woolhouse MEJ. Vaccination and reduced cohort duration can drive virulence evolution: Marek’s disease virus and industrialised agriculture. Evolution 2013; 67:851-60; PMID: 23461333; http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1558-5646.2012.01803.x
111. Dieckmann U, Metz JAJ, Sabelis MW, Sigmund K, eds. Adaptive dynamics of infectious diseases. In Pursuit of virulence management. Cambridge studies in adaptive dynamics. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press; 2002
112. Read AF, Day T, Huijben S. The evolution of drug resistance and the curious orthodoxy of aggressive chemotherapy. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2011; 108:10871-7; PMID:21690376; http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1100299108
113. Weir L, Mykhalovski E. Global Public Health Vigilance. Creating a World on Alert. London: Routledge; 2010
114. Methot P-O. Understanding pathogens in the era of next generation sequencing. J Infect Dev Ctries 2012; 6(9):689-91
115. Methot P-O. Science and science policy: regulating ‘select agent’ in the age of synthetic biology. Perspect Sci 2014; 23(3)
116. Swiatczak B, Rescigno M, Cohen IR. Systemic features of immune recognition in the gut. Microb Infect 2011; 13:983-91; PMID:21782966; http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.micinf.2011.06.011
117. Bartha I, Carlson JM, Brumme CJ, McLaren PJ, Brumme ZL, John M, Haas DW, Martinez-Picado J, Dalmau J, Lopez-Galindez C et al. A genome-togenome analysis of associations between human genetic variation, HIV-1 sequence diversity, and viral control. eLife 2013; 2:e01123; PMID: 24171102; http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.01123
118. Fraser C, Lythgoe K, Leventhal GE, Shirreff G, Hollingsworth TD, Alizon S, Bonhoeffer S. Virulence and pathogenesis of HIV-1 infection: an evolutionary perspective. Science 2014; 343:1243727; PMID: 24653038; http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science. 1243727
119. Dupre J. Processes of Life. Essays in the philosophy of biology. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2012