Pain assessment in elderly adults with dementia

The Lancet Neurology

Volumn 13, Issue 12, 2014, Pages 1216-1227

  Hadjistavropoulos, Thomas ^a   Herr, Keela ^b   Prkachin, Kenneth M ^c   Craig, Kenneth D ^d   Gibson, Stephen J ^e   Lukas, Albert ^f   Smith, Jonathan H ^g  

^a UNIVERSITY OF REGINA   (Canada)

^b UNIVERSITY OF IOWA COLLEGE OF NURSING   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF NORTHERN BRITISH COLUMBIA   (Canada)

^d UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA   (Canada)

^e NATIONAL AGEING RESEARCH INSTITUTE   (Australia)

^f Malteser Krankenhaus Bonn/Rhein Sieg   (Germany)

^g UNIVERSITY OF KENTUCKY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AGING; CHRONIC PAIN; CONSENSUS; DEMENTIA; FACIAL EXPRESSION; HEALTH; HUMAN; MEDICAL DECISION MAKING; NEUROIMAGING; OBSERVER BIAS; PAIN ASSESSMENT; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; REVIEW; SELF REPORT; WELLBEING; AGED; FEMALE; MALE; PAIN; PAIN MEASUREMENT; PATHOLOGY; PROCEDURES; PSYCHOLOGY; VERY ELDERLY;

AGED; AGED, 80 AND OVER; AGING; DEMENTIA; FEMALE; HUMANS; MALE; PAIN; PAIN MEASUREMENT;

EID: 84919389393     PISSN: 14744422     EISSN: 14744465     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S1474-4422(14)70103-6     Document Type: Review

References (148)

1. Hadjistavropoulos T, Herr K, Turk DC, et al. An interdisciplinary expert consensus statement on assessment of pain in older persons. Clin J Pain 2007, 23(suppl 1):S1-43.
2. Kaasalainen S, Akhtar-Danesh N, Hadjistavropoulos T, Zwakhalen S, Verreault R A comparison between behavioral and verbal report pain assessment tools for use with residents in long term care. Pain Manag Nurs 2013, 14:e106-e114.
3. Markey G, Rabbani W, Kelly P 022: association of dementia with delayed ED analgesia in patients over 70 with acute musculoskeletal injury. Emerg Med J 2013, 30:875.
4. McDermott JH, Nichols DR, Lovell ME A case-control study examining inconsistencies in pain management following fractured neck of femur: an inferior analgesia for the cognitively impaired. Emerg Med J 2013, 31:e2-e8.
5. Haasum Y, Fastbom J, Fratiglioni L, Kareholt I, Johnell K Pain treatment in elderly persons with and without dementia: a population-based study of institutionalized and home-dwelling elderly. Drugs Aging 2011, 28:283-293.
6. Sengupta M, Bercovitz A, Harris-Kojetin LD Prevalence and management of pain, by race and dementia among nursing home residents: United States, 2004. NCHS data brief 2010, 1-8.
7. Tait RC, Chibnall JT Racial/ethnic disparities in the assessment and treatment of pain: psychosocial perspectives. Am Psychol 2014, 69:131-141.
8. Helme RD, Gibson SJ The epidemiology of pain in elderly people. Clin Geriatr Med 2001, 17:417-431.
9. Shi Y, Hooten WM, Roberts RO, Warner DO Modifiable risk factors for incidence of pain in older adults. Pain 2010, 151:366-371.
10. Hellstrom Y, Persson G, Hallberg IR Quality of life and symptoms among older people living at home. J Adv Nurs 2004, 48:584-593.
11. Smalbrugge M, Jongenelis LK, Pot AM, Beekman AT, Eefsting JA Pain among nursing home patients in the Netherlands: prevalence, course, clinical correlates, recognition and analgesic treatment-an observational cohort study. BMC Geriatr 2007, 7:3.
12. Smith JH, Bottemiller KL, Flemming KD, Michael Cutrer F, Strand EA Inability to self-report pain after a stroke: a population-based study. Pain 2013, 154:1281-1286.
13. Gibson SJ, Farrell M A review of age differences in the neurophysiology of nociception and the perceptual experience of pain. Clin J Pain 2004, 20:227-239.
14. Lautenbacher S Experimental approaches in the study of pain in the elderly. Pain Med 2012, 13(suppl 2):S44-S50.
15. Lautenbacher S, Kunz M, Strate P, Nielsen J, Arendt-Nielsen L Age effects on pain thresholds, temporal summation and spatial summation of heat and pressure pain. Pain 2005, 115:410-418.
16. Riley JL, Cruz-Almeida Y, Glover TL, et al. Age and race effects on pain sensitivity and modulation among middle-aged and older adults. J Pain 2013, 15:272-282.
17. Kemp J, Despres O, Pebayle T, Dufour A Differences in age-related effects on myelinated and unmyelinated peripheral fibres: a sensitivity and evoked potentials study. Eur J Ppain 2013, 18:482-488.
18. Yezierski RP The effects of age on pain sensitivity: preclinical studies. Pain Med 2012, 13(suppl 2):S27-S36.
19. McCleane G Pharmacological pain management in the elderly patient. Clin Iinterv Aging 2007, 2:637-643.
20. Tseng MT, Chiang MC, Yazhuo K, Chao CC, Tseng WY, Hsieh ST Effect of aging on the cerebral processing of thermal pain in the human brain. Pain 2013, 154:2120-2129.
21. Cole LJ, Farrell MJ, Gibson SJ, Egan GF Age-related differences in pain sensitivity and regional brain activity evoked by noxious pressure. Neurobiol Aging 2010, 31:494-503.
22. Washington LL, Gibson SJ, Helme RD Age-related differences in the endogenous analgesic response to repeated cold water immersion in human volunteers. Pain 2000, 89:89-96.
23. Riley JL, King CD, Wong F, Fillingim RB, Mauderli AP Lack of endogenous modulation and reduced decay of prolonged heat pain in older adults. Pain 2010, 150:153-160.
24. Edwards RR, Fillingim RB, Ness TJ Age-related differences in endogenous pain modulation: a comparison of diffuse noxious inhibitory controls in healthy older and younger adults. Pain 2003, 101:155-165.
25. Naugle KM, Cruz-Almeida Y, Fillingim RB, Riley JL Offset analgesia is reduced in older adults. Pain 2013, 154:2381-2387.
26. Farrell M, Gibson S Age interacts with stimulus frequency in the temporal summation of pain. Pain Med 2007, 8:514-520.
27. Edwards RR, Fillingim RB Effects of age on temporal summation and habituation of thermal pain: clinical relevance in healthy older and younger adults. J Pain 2001, 2:307-317.
28. Zheng Z, Gibson SJ, Khalil Z, Helme RD, McMeeken JM Age-related differences in the time course of capsaicin-induced hyperalgesia. Pain 2000, 85:51-58.
29. Scherder EJ, Sergeant JA, Swaab DF Pain processing in dementia and its relation to neuropathology. Lancet Neurol 2003, 2:677-686.
30. Kunz M, Scharmann S, Hemmeter U, Schepelmann K, Lautenbacher S The facial expression of pain in patients with dementia. Pain 2007, 133:221-228.
31. Kunz M, Mylius V, Scharmann S, Schepelman K, Lautenbacher S Influence of dementia on multiple components of pain. Eur J Pain 2009, 13:317-325.
32. Porter FL, Malhotra KM, Wolf CM, Morris JC, Miller JP, Smith MC Dementia and response to pain in the elderly. Pain 1996, 68:413-421.
33. Carlino E, Benedetti F, Rainero I, et al. Pain perception and tolerance in patients with frontotemporal dementia. Pain 2010, 151:783-789.
34. Benedetti F, Vighetti S, Ricco C, et al. Pain threshold and tolerance in Alzheimer's disease. Pain 1999, 80:377-382.
35. Gibson SJ, Voukelatos X, Ames D, Flicker L, Helme RD An examination of pain perception and cerebral event-related potentials following carbon dioxide laser stimulation in patients with Alzheimer's disease and age-matched control volunteers. Pain Res Man 2001, 6:126-132.
36. Jensen-Dahm C, Werner MU, Dahl JB, et al. Quantitative sensory testing and pain tolerance in patients with mild to moderate Alzheimer disease compared to healthy control subjects. Pain 2014, 55:1439-1445.
37. Cole LJ, Farrell MJ, Duff EP, Barber JB, Egan GF, Gibson SJ Pain sensitivity and fMRI pain-related brain activity in Alzheimer's disease. Brain 2006, 129:2957-2965.
38. Cole LJ, Gavrilescu M, Johnston LA, Gibson SJ, Farrell MJ, Egan GF The impact of Alzheimer's disease on the functional connectivity between brain regions underlying pain perception. Eur J Pain 2011, 15:568. e1-11.
39. Lautenbacher S, Niewelt BG, Kunz M Decoding pain from the facial display of patients with dementia: a comparison of professional and nonprofessional observers. Pain Med 2013, 14:469-477.
40. Buffum MD, Hutt E, Chang VT, Craine MH, Snow AL Cognitive impairment and pain management: review of issues and challenges. J Rehabil Res Dev 2007, 44:315-330.
41. Herr K, Bursch H, Ersek M, Miller LL, Swafford K Use of pain-behavioral assessment tools in the nursing home: expert consensus recommendations for practice. J Gerontol Nurs 2010, 36:18-29. quiz 30-31.
42. Kunz M, Mylius V, Schepelmann K, Lautenbacher S Effects of age and mild cognitive impairment on the pain response system. Gerontology 2009, 55:674-682.
43. Goubert L, Craig KD, Vervoort T, et al. Facing others in pain: the effects of empathy. Pain 2005, 118:285-288.
44. Deyo KS, Prkachin KM, Mercer SR Development of sensitivity to facial expression of pain. Pain 2004, 107:16-21.
45. Fan Y, Duncan NW, de Greck M, Northoff G Is there a core neural network in empathy? An fMRI based quantitative meta-analysis. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2011, 35:903-911.
46. Bernhardt BC, Singer T The neural basis of empathy. Annu Rev Neurosci 2012, 35:1-23.
47. Prkachin KM, Solomon PE, Ross J Underestimation of pain by health-care providers: towards a model of the process of inferring pain in others. Can J Nurs Res 2007, 39:88-106.
48. Kaseweter KA, Drwecki BB, Prkachin KM Racial differences in pain treatment and empathy in a Canadian sample. Pain Res Man 2012, 17:381-384.
49. De Ruddere L, Goubert L, Prkachin KM, Stevens MA, Van Ryckeghem DM, Crombez G When you dislike patients, pain is taken less seriously. Pain 2011, 152:2342-2347.
50. Kappesser J, Williams AC, Prkachin KM Testing two accounts of pain underestimation. Pain 2006, 124:109-116.
51. Prkachin KM, Mass H, Mercer SR Effects of exposure on perception of pain expression. Pain 2004, 111:8-12.
52. Prkachin KM, Rocha EM High levels of vicarious exposure bias pain judgments. J Pain 2010, 11:904-909.
53. Cheng Y, Lin CP, Liu HL, et al. Expertise modulates the perception of pain in others. Curr Biol 2007, 17:1708-1713.
54. Horgas AL, Elliott AF, Marsiske M Pain assessment in persons with dementia: relationship between self-report and behavioral observation. J Am Geriatr Soc 2009, 57:126-132.
55. Scherder EJ, Bouma A Visual analogue scales for pain assessment in Alzheimer's disease. Gerontology 2000, 46:47-53.
56. Pautex S, Michon A, Guedira M, et al. Pain in severe dementia: self-assessment or observational scales?. J Am Geriatr Soc 2006, 54:1040-1045.
57. Lukas A, Barber JB, Johnson P, Gibson SJ Observer-rated pain assessment instruments improve both the detection of pain and the evaluation of pain intensity in people with dementia. Eur J Pain 2013, 17:1558-1568.
58. van Dijk JF, Kappen TH, van Wijck AJ, Kalkman CJ, Schuurmans MJ The diagnostic value of the numeric pain rating scale in older postoperative patients. J Clin Nurs 2012, 21:3018-3024.
59. Wood BM, Nicholas MK, Blyth F, Asghari A, Gibson S Assessing pain in older people with persistent pain: the NRS is valid but only provides part of the picture. J Pain 2010, 11:1259-1266.
60. Lukas A, Niederecker T, Günther I, Mayer B, Nikolaus T Self- and proxy report for the assessment of pain in patients with and without cognitive impairment: experiences gained in a geriatric hospital. Z Gerontol Geriatr 2013, 46:214-221.
61. Jenson MP, Karoly P Self-report scales and procedures for assessing pain in adults. Handbook of Pain Assessment 2011, 19-44. The Guilford Press, New York, NY. 3rd edn. D.C. Turk, R. Melzack (Eds.).
62. Gauthier LR, Gagliese L Assessment of pain in older persons. Handbook of Pain Assessment 2011, 242-259. The Guilford Press, New York, NY. 3rd edn. D.C. Turk, R. Melzack (Eds.).
63. Pesonen A, Kauppila T, Tarkkila P, Sutela A, Niinisto L, Rosenberg PH Evaluation of easily applicable pain measurement tools for the assessment of pain in demented patients. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 2009, 53:657-664.
64. Herr K, Spratt KF, Garand L, Li L Evaluation of the Iowa pain thermometer and other selected pain intensity scales in younger and older adult cohorts using controlled clinical pain: a preliminary study. Pain Med 2007, 8:585-600.
65. Bieri D, Reeve RA, Champion GD, Addicoat L, Ziegler JB The Faces Pain Scale for the self-assessment of the severity of pain experienced by children: development, initial validation, and preliminary investigation for ratio scale properties. Pain 1990, 41:139-150.
66. Li L, Liu X, Herr K Postoperative pain intensity assessment: a comparison of four scales in Chinese adults. Pain Med 2007, 8:223-234.
67. Li L, Herr K, Chen P Postoperative pain assessment with three intensity scales in Chinese elders. J Nurs Ssholarsh 2009, 41:241-249.
68. Zhou Y, Petpichetchian W, Kitrungrote L Psychometric properties of pain intensity scales comparing among postoperative adult patients, elderly patients without and with mild cognitive impairment in China. Int J Nurs Stud 2011, 48:449-457.
69. Ware LJ, Epps CD, Herr K, Packard A Evaluation of the Revised Faces Pain Scale, Verbal Descriptor Scale, Numeric Rating Scale, and Iowa Pain Thermometer in older minority adults. Pain Manag Nurs 2006, 7:117-125.
70. Robert G, Le Jeune F, Dondaine T, et al. Apathy and impaired emotional facial recognition networks overlap in Parkinson's disease: a PET study with conjunction analyses. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 2014, 85:1153-1158.
71. Warden V, Hurley AC, Volicer L Development and psychometric evaluation of the Pain Assessment in Advanced Dementia (PAINAD) scale. J Am Med Dir Assoc 2003, 4:9-15.
72. Snow AL, Weber JB, O'Malley KJ, et al. NOPPAIN: a nursing assistant-administered pain assessment instrument for use in dementia. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord 2004, 17:240-266.
73. Fuchs-Lacelle S, Hadjistavropoulos T Development and preliminary validation of the pain assessment checklist for seniors with limited ability to communicate (PACSLAC). Pain Manag Nurs 2004, 5:37-49.
74. Husebo BS, Strand LI, Moe-Nilssen R, Husebo SB, Ljunggren AE Pain in older persons with severe dementia. Psychometric properties of the Mobilization-Observation-Behaviour-Intensity-Dementia (MOBID-2) Pain Scale in a clinical setting. Scand J Caring Sci 2010, 24:380-391.
75. Cervo FA, Bruckenthal P, Chen JJ, et al. Pain assessment in nursing home residents with dementia: psychometric properties and clinical utility of the CNA Pain Assessment Tool (CPAT). J Am Med Dir Assoc 2009, 10:505-510.
76. Cohen-Mansfield J Pain assessment in noncommunicative elderly persons-PAINE. Clin J Pain 2006, 22:569-575.
77. Abbey J, Piller N, De Bellis A, et al. The Abbey pain scale: a 1-minute numerical indicator for people with end-stage dementia. Int J Palliat Nurs 2004, 10:6-13.
78. Feldt KS The checklist of nonverbal pain indicators (CNPI). Pain Manag Nurs 2000, 1:13-21.
79. Corbett A, Husebo B, Malcangio M, et al. Assessment and treatment of pain in people with dementia. Nat Rev Neurol 2012, 8:264-274.
80. Aubin M, Giguere A, Hadjistavropoulos T, Verreault R The systematic evaluation of instruments designed to assess pain in persons with limited ability to communicate. Pain Res Manag 2007, 12:195-203.
81. Zwakhalen SM, Hamers JP, Abu-Saad HH, Berger MP Pain in elderly people with severe dementia: a systematic review of behavioural pain assessment tools. BMC Geriatr 2006, 6:3.
82. Liu JY, Briggs M, Closs SJ The psychometric qualities of four observational pain tools (OPTs) for the assessment of pain in elderly people with osteoarthritic pain. J Pain Symptom Manage 2010, 40:582-598.
83. Lukas A, Niederecker T, Gunther I, Mayer B, Nikolaus T Self- and proxy report for the assessment of pain in patients with and without cognitive impairment: experiences gained in a geriatric hospital. Zeitschr r Gerontol Geriatr 2013, 46:214-221.
84. Neville C, Ostini R A psychometric evaluation of three pain rating scales for people with moderate to severe dementia. Pain Manag Nurs 2013, published online Oct 19. 10.1016/j.pmn.2013.08.001.
85. Lints-Martindale AC, Hadjistavropoulos T, Lix LM, Thorpe L A comparative investigation of observational pain assessment tools for older adults with dementia. Clin J Pain 2012, 28:226-237.
86. Cervo FA, Raggi RP, Bright-Long LE, et al. Use of the certified nursing assistant pain assessment tool (CPAT) in nursing home residents with dementia. Am Alzheimers Dis Other Demen 2007, 22:112-119.
87. Wary B SS, Doloplus CD Validation d'une echelle d'evaluation comportementale de la douleur chez la personne agee. Douleurs 2001, 2:35-38.
88. Holen JC, Saltvedt I, Fayers PM, et al. The Norwegian Doloplus-2, a tool for behavioural pain assessment: translation and pilot-validation in nursing home patients with cognitive impairment. Palliat Med 2005, 19:411-417.
89. S L-C The DOLOPLUS-2 scale-evaluation pain in the elderly. Eur J Palliati Care 2001, 8:191-195.
90. Monacelli F, Vasile Nurse A, Odetti P, Traverso N Doloplus-2 pain assessment: an effective tool in patients over 85 years with advanced dementia and persistent pain. Clinica Ter 2013, 164:e23-e25.
91. Hurley AC, Volicer BJ, Hanrahan PA, Houde S, Volicer L Assessment of discomfort in advanced Alzheimer patients. Res Nurs Health 1992, 15:369-377.
92. Miller J, Neelon V, Dalton J, et al. The assessment of discomfort in elderly confused patients: a preliminary study. J Neurosci Nurs 1996, 28:175-182.
93. DM Y Pain in institutionalized elders with chronic dementia 2001, University of Iowa, Iowa City.
94. van der Steen JT, Ooms ME, van der Wal G, Ribbe MW Measuring discomfort in patients with dementia. Validity of a Dutch version of the Discomfort Scale-dementia of Alzheimer type (DS-DAT). Tijdschr Gerontol Geriatr 2002, 33:257-263.
95. van der Steen JT, Ader HJ, van Assendelft JH, Kooistra M, Passier PE, Ooms ME Retrospective assessment of the Dutch version of the Discomfort Scale--Dementia of Alzheimer Type (DS-DAT): is estimation sufficiently valid and reliable?. Tijdschr Gerontol Geriatr 2003, 34:254-259.
96. Morello R, Jean A, Alix M, Sellin-Peres D, Fermanian J A scale to measure pain in non-verbally communicating older patients: the EPCA-2 Study of its psychometric properties. Pain 2007, 133:87-98.
97. Mahoney AE, Peters L The Mahoney Pain Scale: examining pain and agitation in advanced dementia. Am J Alzheimers Dis Other Demen 2008, 23:250-261.
98. Husebo BS, Strand LI, Moe-Nilssen R, Husebo SB, Snow AL, Ljunggren AE Mobilization-Observation-Behavior-Intensity-Dementia Pain Scale (MOBID): development and validation of a nurse-administered pain assessment tool for use in dementia. J Pain Symptom Manag 2007, 34:67-80.
99. Husebo BS, Strand LI, Moe-Nilssen R, Husebo SB, Ljunggren AE Pain behaviour and pain intensity in older persons with severe dementia: reliability of the MOBID Pain Scale by video uptake. Scand J Caring Sci 2009, 23:180-189.
100. Horgas AL, Nichols AL, Schapson CA, Vietes K Assessing pain in persons with dementia: relationships among the non-communicative patient's pain assessment instrument, self-report, and behavioral observations. Pain Manag Nurs 2007, 8:77-85.
101. Kaasalainen S, Crook J A comparison of pain-assessment tools for use with elderly long-term-care residents. Can J Nurs Res 2003, 35:58-71.
102. Kaasalainen S, Stewart N, Middleton J, et al. Development and evaluation of the Pain Assessment in the Communicatively Impaired (PACI) tool: part I. Int J Palliat Nurs 2011, 17:387-391.
103. Kaasalainen S, Stewart N, Middleton J, et al. Development and evaluation of the Pain Assessment in the Communicatively Impaired (PACI) tool: part II. Int J Palliat Nurs 2011, 17:431-438.
104. Zwakhalen SM, Hamers JP, Berger MP The psychometric quality and clinical usefulness of three pain assessment tools for elderly people with dementia. Pain 2006, 126:210-220.
105. Aubin M, Verreault R, Savoie M, et al. Validity 'and Utilities' clinic of a grid observation (PACSLAC-F) to evaluate the pain in seniors with dementia's living in the Long-Term Care. Can J Aging 2008, 27:45-55. (in French).
106. Fuchs-Lacelle S HT. Inter-rater reliability and additional psychometric information on the Pain Assessment Checklist for Seniors with Limited Ability to Communicate (PACSLAC). 11th World Congress on Pain; Sydney, Australia; Aug 21-26, 2005.
107. Chan S, Hadjistavropoulos T, Williams J, Lints-Martindale A Evidence-based development and initial validation of the Pain Assessment Checklist for Seniors with Limited Ability to Communicate-II (Pacslac-II). Clinical J Pain 2014, 30:816-824.
108. Villanueva MR, Smith TL, Erickson JS, Lee AC, Singer CM Pain Assessment for the Dementing Elderly (PADE): reliability and validity of a new measure. J Am Med Dir Assoc 2003, 4:1-8.
109. Paulson-Conger M, Leske J, Maidl C, Hanson A, Dziadulewicz L Comparison of two pain assessment tools in nonverbal critical care patients. Pain Managt Nurs 2011, 12:218-224.
110. van Herk R vDM, Tibboel D, Baar FP, Wit RD The Rotterdam Elderly Pain Observation Scale (REPOS): a new behavioral pain scale for non-communicative adults and cognitively impaired elderly persons. J Pain Manag 2009, 1:367-378.
111. Sheu E, Versloot J, Nader R, Kerr D, Craig KD Pain in the elderly: validity of facial expression components of observational measures. Clin J Pain 2011, 27:593-601.
112. The management of persistent pain in older persons. J Am Geriatr Soc 2002, 50(suppl 6):S205-S224. AGS.
113. Chan S, Hadjistavropoulos T. Evidence-based development and initial validation of the Pain Assessment Checklist for Seniors with Limited Ability to Communicate-II (PACSLAC-II). Annual Convention of the Canadian Pain Society; Winnipeg, Canada; May 8-10, 2013.
114. Torvik K, Kaasa S, Kirkevold O, et al. Validation of Doloplus-2 among nonverbal nursing home patients--an evaluation of Doloplus-2 in a clinical setting. BMC Geriatr 2010, 10:9.
115. Hadjistavropoulos T Pain assessment and management in older adults: conceptual issues and clinical challenges. Can Psychol 2009, 50:241-254.
116. The management of persistent pain in older persons. Je Am Geriatr Soc 2002, 50(suppl 6):S205-S224. Persons AGSPoPPiO.
117. Pharmacological management of persistent pain in older persons. J Am Geriatr Soc 2009, 57:1331-1346. American Geriatrics Society Panel on Pharmacological Management of Persistent Pain in Older Persons.
118. Schuler MS, Becker S, Kaspar R, Nikolaus T, Kruse A, Basler HD Psychometric properties of the German "Pain Assessment in Advanced Dementia Scale" (PAINAD-G) in nursing home residents. J Am Med Dir Assoc 2007, 8:388-395.
119. Lin PC, Lin LC, Shyu YI, Hua MS Chinese version of the Pain Assessment in Advanced Dementia Scale: initial psychometric evaluation. J Adv Nurs 2010, 66:2360-2368.
120. Garcia-Soler A, Sanchez-Iglesias I, Buiza C, et al. Adaptation and validation of the Spanish version of the Pain Evaluation Scale in patients with advanced dementia: PAINAD-Sp. Rev Esp Geriatr Gerontol 2013, 49:10-14. (in Spanish).
121. Takai Y, Yamamoto-Mitani N, Suzuki M, Furuta Y, Sato A, Fujimaki Y Developing and validating a Japanese version of the Assessment of Pain in Elderly People with Communication Impairment. Arch Gerontol Geriatr 2013, 57:403-410.
122. Santos R C-CA, Hadjistavropoulos T Adaptacao cultural e validacao da pain populacao Portuguesa. Dor 2012, 20:5-10.
123. Chen YH, Lin LC, Watson R Evaluation of the psychometric properties and the clinical feasibility of a Chinese version of the Doloplus-2 scale among cognitively impaired older people with communication difficulty. Int J Nurs Stud 2010, 47:78-88.
124. Pain management in the long term care setting. 2012. Columbia, MD American Medical Directors Association (AMDA), (accessed Aug 6, 2014). http://www.guideline.gov/algorithm/3522/NGC-3522.pdf.
125. Pain in residential aged care facilities: Management strategies The Australian Pain, (accessed Aug 6, 2014). http://www.apsoc.org.au/PDF/Publications/Pain_in_Residential_Aged_Care_Facilities_Management_Strategies.pdf.
126. Herr K, Coyne PJ, McCaffery M, Manworren R, Merkel S Pain assessment in the patient unable to self-report: position statement with clinical practice recommendations. Pain Manag Nurs 2011, 12:230-250.
127. The assessment of pain in older people 2007, 8. Royal College of Physicians BGSaBPS.
128. Hadjistavropoulos T, Marchildon GP, Fine PG, et al. Transforming long-term care pain management in North America: the policy-clinical interface. Pain Med 2009, 10:506-520.
129. White C, Katz B Position Statement No. 21: Pain in Older People (accessed March 25, 2014). http://www.anzsgm.org/documents/PositionStatementNo21PaininOlderPeople.pdf.
130. Achterberg WP, de Ruiter CM, de Weerd-Spaetgens CM, et al. Multidisciplinary guideline 'Recognition and treatment of chronic pain in vulnerable elderly people'. Ned Tijdschr Geneesk 2012, 155:A4606.
131. van Herk R, van Dijk M, Biemold N, Tibboel D, Baar FP, de Wit R Assessment of pain: can caregivers or relatives rate pain in nursing home residents?. J Clin Nurs 2009, 18:2478-2485.
132. Hadjistavropoulos T, Craig KD A theoretical framework for understanding self-report and observational measures of pain: a communications model. Behav Res Ther 2002, 40:551-570.
133. Langford DJ, Bailey AL, Chanda ML, et al. Coding of facial expressions of pain in the laboratory mouse. Nat Methods 2010, 7:447-449.
134. Rinn WE The neuropsychology of facial expression: a review of the neurological and psychological mechanisms for producing facial expressions. Psychol Bull 1984, 95:52-77.
135. Craig KD, Hyde SA, Patrick CJ Genuine, suppressed and faked facial behavior during exacerbation of chronic low back pain. Pain 1991, 46:161-171.
136. Prkachin KM Effects of deliberate control on verbal and facial expressions of pain. Pain 2005, 114:328-338.
137. Bartlett MS, Littlewort GC, Frank MG, Lee K Automatic decoding of facial movements reveals deceptive pain expressions. Curr Biol 2014, 24:738-743.
138. Kunz M, Chen JI, Lautenbacher S, Vachon-Presseau E, Rainville P Cerebral regulation of facial expressions of pain. J Neurosci 2011, 31:8730-8738.
139. Ekman P, Friesen WV, Hager JC Facial action coding system, 2nd edn. Salt Lake City, UT; Research Nexus eBook 2002, Weidenfeld & Nicolson (world), London.
140. Kunz M, Mylius V, Schepelmann K, Lautenbacher S Impact of age on the facial expression of pain. J Psychosom Res 2008, 64:311-318.
141. Prkachin KM Assessing pain by facial expression: facial expression as nexus. Pain Res Manag 2009, 14:53-58.
142. Hadjistavropoulos T, LaChapelle DL, MacLeod FK, Snider B, Craig KD Measuring movement-exacerbated pain in cognitively impaired frail elders. Clin J Pain 2000, 16:54-63.
143. Craig KD, Patrick CJ Facial expression during induced pain. J Pers Soc Psychol 1985, 48:1080-1091.
144. Prkachin KM, Solomon PE The structure, reliability and validity of pain expression: evidence from patients with shoulder pain. Pain 2008, 139:267-274.
145. Ashraf AB, Lucey S, Cohn JF, et al. The painful face-pain expression recognition using active appearance models. Image Vis Comput 2009, 27:1788-1796.
146. Lucey P, Cohn JF, Matthews I, et al. Automatically detecting pain in video through facial action units. IEEE Trans Syst Man Cyber B, Cybern 2011, 41:664-674.
147. Bartlett MS, Littlewort G, Frank M, Lainscsek C, Fasel I, Movellan J. Recognizing facial expression: machine learning and application to spontaneous behaviour. IEEE International Conference on computer vision and pattern recognition; San Diego, CA; June 20-25, 2005.
148. McDonagh M, Peterson K, Raina P, Chang S, Shekelle P Avoiding bias in selecting studies. Methods guide for effectiveness and comparative effectiveness rviews. Rockville, MD (accessed Aug 6, 2014). http://www.effectivehealthcare.ahrq.gov/ehc/products/60/318/MethodsGuide_Prepublication-Draft_20120523.pdf.