The current status of beta blockers’ use in the management of hypertension

Saudi Medical Journal

Volumn 35, Issue 11, 2014, Pages 1307-1317

  Akbar, Shahid ^a   Alorainy, Mohammad S ^a  

^a QASSIM UNIVERSITY   (Saudi Arabia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ACEBUTOLOL; ADRENALIN; AMLODIPINE; ANGIOTENSIN RECEPTOR ANTAGONIST; ATENOLOL; BETA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; BETAXOLOL; BISOPROLOL; CALCIUM CHANNEL BLOCKING AGENT; CARTEOLOL; CARVEDILOL; DIPEPTIDYL CARBOXYPEPTIDASE INHIBITOR; DIURETIC AGENT; ESMOLOL; GANGLION BLOCKING AGENT; GUANETHIDINE; LABETALOL; LISINOPRIL; LOSARTAN; METHYLDOPA; METOPROLOL; NADOLOL; NEBIVOLOL; NITRIC OXIDE; NORADRENALIN; PENBUTOLOL; PINDOLOL; PROPRANOLOL; TIMOLOL; UNINDEXED DRUG; ANTIHYPERTENSIVE AGENT;

ANGINA PECTORIS; BLOOD PRESSURE; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CEREBROVASCULAR ACCIDENT; CLINICAL TRIAL (TOPIC); DIABETES MELLITUS; HEART ARRHYTHMIA; HEART FAILURE; HEART INFARCTION; HEART LEFT VENTRICLE INFARCTION; HEART MUSCLE CONTRACTILITY; HEART PROTECTION; HEART RATE; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; ISCHEMIC HEART DISEASE; META ANALYSIS (TOPIC); RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL (TOPIC); REVIEW;

ADRENERGIC BETA-ANTAGONISTS; ANTIHYPERTENSIVE AGENTS; HUMANS; HYPERTENSION;

EID: 84909989602     PISSN: 03795284     EISSN: 16583175     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (100)

1. Srivastava SC, Dewar HA, Newell DJ. Double-blind trial of propranolol (Inderal) in angina of efort. Br Med J 1964; 2: 724-725.
2. Prichard BNC, Gillam PMS. Treatment of hypertension with propranolol. Br Med J 1969; 1: 7-16.
3. Tsolakas TC, Davies J P, Oram S. Propranolol in attempted maintenance of sinus rhythm after electrical defbrillation. Lancet 1964; 2: 1064.
4. Ahlquist R P. A study of the adrenotropic receptors. Am J Physiol 1948; 153: 586-600.
5. Black J. Refections on drug research. Br J Pharmacol 2010; 161: 1204-1216.
6. Bristow MR, Hershberger RE, Port JD, Gilbert EM, Sandoval A, Rasmussen R, et al. Beta-adrenergic pathways in nonfailing and failing human ventricular myocardium. Circulation 1990; 82: 112-125.
7. Brodde OE, Leineweber K. Autonomic receptor systems in the failing and aging human heart: similarities and diferences. Eur J Pharmacol 2004; 500: 167-176.
8. Morimoto A, Hasegawa H, Cheng HJ, Little WC, Cheng C P. Endogenous beta3- adreno-receptor activation contributes to left ventricular and cardiomyocyte dysfunction in heart failure. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2004; 286: 2425-2433.
9. Bhadada SV, Patel BM, Mehta AA, Goyal RK. β(3) receptors: role in cardiometabolic disorders. Ther Adv Endocrinol Metab 2011; 2: 65-79.
10. Pott C, Brixius K, Bloch W, Ziskoven C, Napp A, Schwinger RH. Beta3-adrenergic stimulation in the human heart: signal transduction, functional implications and therapeutic perspectives. Pharmazie 2006; 61: 255-260.
11. Belge C, Hammond J, Dubois-Deruy E, Manoury B, Hamelet J, Beauloye C, et al. Enhanced expression of β3-adrenoceptors in cardiac myocytes attenuates neurohormone-induced hypertrophic remodeling through nitric oxide synthase. Circulation 2014; 129: 451-462.
12. McAlister FA, Wiebe N, Ezekowitz JA, Leung AA, Armstrong P W. Meta-analysis: beta-blocker dose, heart rate reduction, and death in patients with heart failure. Ann Intern Med 2009; 150: 784-794.
13. Elliott WJ, Childers WK. Should β blockers no longer be considered first-line therapy for the treatment of essential hypertension without comorbidities? Curr Cardiol Rep 2011; 13: 507-516.
14. MRC Working Party. Medical Research Council trial of treatment of hypertension in older adults: principal results. Br Med J 1992; 304: 405-412.
15. Prandin MG, Cicero AF, Veronesi M, Cosentino E, Dormi A, Strocchi E, et al. Persistence on treatment and blood pressure control with diferent first-line antihypertensive treatments: a prospective evaluation. Clin Exp Hypertens 2007; 29: 553-562.
16. Gibbons RJ, Chatterjee K, Daley J, Douglas JS, Fihn SD, Gardin JM, et al. ACC/AHA/ACP-ASIM guidelines for the management of patients with chronic stable angina: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines (Committee on Management of Patients With Chronic Stable Angina). J Am Coll Cardiol 1999; 33: 2092-2197.
17. Gupta AK, Dahlof B, Dobson J, Sever PS, Wedel H, Poulter NR, et al. Determinants of new-onset diabetes among 19,257 hypertensive patients randomized in the Anglo-Scandinavian Cardiac Outcomes Trial--Blood Pressure Lowering Arm and the relative infuence of antihypertensive medication. Diabetes Care 2008; 31: 982-988.
18. Courand PY, Lantelme P. Signifcance, prognostic value and management of heart rate in hypertension. Arch Cardiovasc Dis 2014; 107: 48-57.
19. Bangalore S, Sawhney S, Messerli FH. Relation of beta-blocker-induced heart rate lowering and cardioprotection in hypertension. J Am Coll Cardiol 2008; 52: 1482-1489.
20. Salles GF, Cardoso CR, Fonseca LL, Fiszman R, Muxfeldt ES. Prognostic signifcance of baseline heart rate and its interaction with beta-blocker use in resistant hypertension: a cohort study. Am J Hypertens 2013; 26: 218-226.
21. Chobanian AV, Bakris GL, Black HR, Cushman WC, Green LA, Izzo JL Jr, et al. Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure; National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute; National High Blood Pressure Education Program Coordinating Committee 7th Report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure. Hypertension 2003; 42: 1206-1252.
22. Lindholm LH, Carlberg B, Samuelsson O. Should beta blockers remain first choice in the treatment of primary hypertension? A meta-analysis. Lancet 2005; 366: 1545-1553.
23. Webb AJ, Fischer U, Rothwell PM. Effects of β-blocker selectivity on blood pressure variability and stroke: a systematic review. Neurology 2011; 77: 731-737.
24. Cayley WE. Are beta blockers efective first-line treatments for hypertension? Am Fam Physician 2007; 76: 1306-1308.
25. Wiysonge CS, Opie LH. β-Blockers as initial therapy for hypertension. JAMA 2013; 310: 1851-1852.
26. Fagard R. Reappraisal of the European guidelines on hypertension management: the European Society of Hypertension Task Force document: a short review. Pol Arch Med Wewn 2010; 120: 31-35.
27. Law MR, Morris JK, Wald NJ. Use of blood pressure lowering drugs in the prevention of cardiovascular disease: meta-analysis of 147 randomised trials in the context of expectations from prospective epidemiological studies. BMJ 2009; 338: 1665.
28. Fretheim A, Odgaard-Jensen J, Brørs O, Madsen S, Njølstad I, Norheim O F, et al. Comparative efectiveness of antihypertensive medication for primary prevention of cardiovascular disease: systematic review and multiple treatments meta-analysis. BMC Medicine 2012; 10: 33.
29. Czernichow S, Zanchetti A, Turnbull F, Barzi F, Ninomiya T, Kengne A P, et al. The effects of blood pressure reduction and of diferent blood pressure-lowering regimens on major cardiovascular events according to baseline blood pressure: meta-analysis of randomized trials. J Hypertens 2011; 29: 4-16.
30. Khan NA, Hemmelgarn B, Herman RJ, Bell CM, Mahon JL, Leiter LA, et al. The 2009 Canadian Hypertension Education Program recommendations for the management of hypertension: Part 2--therapy. Can J Cardiol 2009; 25: 287-298.
31. Gu Q, Burt VL, Dillon CF, Yoon S. Trends in antihypertensive medication use and blood pressure control among United States adults with hypertension: the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2001 to 2010. Circulation 2012; 126: 2105-2114.
32. National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence. NICE guidelines [CG127] 2011. Hypertension: Clinical management of primary hypertension in adults. Available from: http://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg127
33. James PA, Oparil S, Carter BL, Cushman WC, Dennison-Himmelfarb C, Handler J, et al. 2014 Evidence-Based Guideline for the Management of High Blood Pressure in Adults Report From the Panel Members Appointed to the Eighth Joint National Committee (JNC 8). JAMA 2014; 311: 507-520.
34. Chalmers J, Arima H, Harrap S, Touyz RM, Park JB. Global survey of current practice in management of hypertension as reported by societies afliated with the International Society of Hypertension. J Hypertens 2013; 31: 1043-1048.
35. Parker ED, Margolis KL, Trower NK, Magid DJ, Tavel HM, Shetterly SM, et al. Comparative efectiveness of 2 β-blockers in hypertensive patients. Arch Intern Med 2012; 172: 1406-1412.
36. Smith SM, Gong Y, Turner ST, Cooper-DeHof RM, Beitelshees AL, Chapman AB, et al. Blood pressure responses and metabolic effects of hydrochlorothiazide and atenolol. Am J Hypertens 2012; 25: 359-365.
37. Kampus P, Serg M, Kals J, Zagura M, Muda P, Karu K, et al. Diferential effects of nebivolol and metoprolol on central aortic pressure and left ventricular wall thickness. Hypertension 2011; 57: 1122-1128.
38. Hobolth L, Møller S, Grønbæk H, Roelsgaard K, Bendtsen F, Feldager Hansen E. Carvedilol or propranolol in portal hypertension? A randomized comparison. Scand J Gastroenterol 2012; 47: 467-474.
39. Hefernan KS, Suryadevara R, Patvardhan EA, Mooney P, Karas RH, Kuvin JT. Vascular Function Study Group: Effect of atenolol vs metoprolol succinate on vascular function in patients with hypertension. Clin Cardiol 2011; 34: 39-44.
40. Sarafdis P, Bogojevic Z, Basta E, Kirstner E, Bakris G. Comparative efcacy of two diferent beta-blockers on 24-hour blood pressure control. J Clin Hypertens (Greenwich) 2008; 10: 112-118.
41. Mahmud A, Feely J. Beta-blockers reduce aortic stifness in hypertension but nebivolol, not atenolol, reduces wave refection. Am J Hypertens 2008; 21: 663-667.
42. Espinola-Klein C, Weisser G, Jagodzinski A, Savvidis S, Warnholtz A, Ostad MA, et al. β-Blockers in patients with intermittent claudication and arterial hypertension: results from the nebivolol or metoprolol in arterial occlusive disease trial. Hypertension 2011; 58: 148-154.
43. Kveiborg B, Hermann TS, Major-Pedersen A, Christiansen B, Rask-Madsen C, Raunsø J, et al. Metoprolol compared to carvedilol deteriorates insulin-stimulated endothelial function in patients with type 2 diabetes - a randomized study. Cardiovasc Diabetol 2010; 9: 21.
44. Xiaozhen H, Yun Z, Mei Z, Yu S. Effect of carvedilol on coronary fow reserve in patients with hypertensive left-ventricular hypertrophy. Blood Press 2010; 19: 40-47.
45. Phillips RA, Fonseca V, Katholi RE, McGill JB, Messerli FH, Bell DS, et al. Demographic analyses of the effects of carvedilol vs metoprolol on glycemic control and insulin sensitivity in patients with type 2 diabetes and hypertension in the Glycemic Efects in Diabetes Mellitus: Carvedilol-Metoprolol Comparison in Hypertensives (GEMINI) study. J Cardiometab Syndr 2008; 3: 211-217.
46. Chatterjee K. Potential use of third-generation beta-blockers in heart failure. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 1989; 14 Suppl 7: S22-S27.
47. Xie RH, Guo Y, Krewski D, Mattison D, Walker MC, Nerenberg K, et al. Association between labetolol use for hypertension in pregnancy and adverse infant outcomes. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 2014; 175: 124-128.
48. Eggertsen R, Sivertsson R, Andrén L, Hansson L. Haemodynamic effects of carvedilol, a new beta-adrenoceptor blocker and precapillary vasodilator in essential hypertension. J Hypertens 1984; 2: 529-534.
49. Wehland M, Grosse J, Simonsen U, Infanger M, Bauer J, Grimm D. The effects of newer beta-adrenoceptor antagonists on vascular function in cardiovascular disease. Curr Vasc Pharmacol 2012; 10: 378-390.
50. Saunders E, Smith WB, DeSalvo KB, Sullivan WA. The efficacy and tolerability of nebivolol in hypertensive African American patients. J Clin Hypertens (Greenwich) 2007; 9: 866-875.
51. Punzi H, Lewin A, Lukić T, Goodin T, Wei C. Efficacy and safety of nebivolol in Hispanics with stage I-II hypertension: a randomized placebo-controlled trial. Ter Adv Cardiovasc Dis 2010; 4: 349-357.
52. Greathouse M. Nebivolol efficacy and safety in patients with stage I-II hypertension. Clin Cardiol 2010; 33: 20-27.
53. Lewin A, Punzi H, Luo X, Stapf M. Nebivolol monotherapy for patients with systolic stage II hypertension: results of a randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Clin Ter 2013; 35: 142-152.
54. Germino FW, Lin Y, Pejović V, Bowen L. Efficacy and tolerability of nebivolol: does age matter? A retrospective analysis of three randomized, placebo-controlled trials in stage I-II hypertension. Ter Adv Cardiovasc Dis 2012; 6: 185-199.
55. Papademetriou V. Comparison of Nebivolol monotherapy versus Nebivolol in combination with other antihypertensive therapies for the treatment of hypertension. Am J Cardiol 2009; 103: 273-278.
56. Acelajado MC, Pisoni R, Dudenbostel T, Oparil S, Calhoun DA, Glasser S P. Both morning and evening dosing of nebivolol reduces trough mean blood pressure surge in hypertensive patients. J Am Soc Hypertens 2012; 6: 66-72.
57. Davis JT, Pasha DN, Khandrika S, Fung MM, Milic M, O’Connor DT. Central hemodynamics in prehypertension: efect of the β-adrenergic antagonist nebivolol. J Clin Hypertens (Greenwich) 2013; 15: 69-74.
58. Tamargo J, Segura J, Ruilope LM. Diuretics in the treatment of hypertension. Part 1: thiazide and thiazide-like diuretics. Expert Opin Pharmacother 2014; 15: 527-547.
59. Cooper-DeHof RM, Bird ST, Nichols GA, Delaney JA, Winterstein AG. Antihypertensive drug class interactions and risk for incident diabetes: a nested case-control study. J Am Heart Assoc 2013; 2: e000125.
60. Messerli FH, Grossman E, Goldbourt U. Are beta-blockers efcacious as frst-line therapy for hypertension in the elderly? A systematic review. J Am Med Assoc 1998; 279: 1903-1907.
61. Messerli FH, Grossman E: Beta-blockers and diuretics: to use or not to use. Am J Hypertens 1999; 12: 157-163.
62. Levi-Marpillat N, Macquin-Mavier I, Tropeano AI, Parati G, Maison P. Antihypertensive drug classes have diferent efects on short-term blood pressure variability in essential hypertension. Hypertens Res 2014; 37: 585-590.
63. Roush GC, Kaur R, Ernst ME. Diuretics: a review and update. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol Ter 2014; 19: 5-13.
64. Buscemi S, Nicolucci A, Lucisano G, Galvano F, Grosso G, Massenti FM, et al. Impact of chronic diuretic treatment on glucose homeostasis. Diabetol Metab Syndr 2013; 5: 80.
65. Bruderer S, Bodmer M, Jick SS, Meier CR. Use of diuretics and risk of incident gout: a population-based case-control study. Arthritis Rheumatol 2014; 66: 185-196.
66. Price AL, Lingvay I, Szczepaniak EW, Wiebel J, Victor RG, Szczepaniak LS. Te metabolic cost of lowering blood pressure with hydrochlorothiazide. Diabetol Metab Syndr 2013; 5: 35.
67. Burnier M, Vuignier Y, Wuerzner G. State-of-the-art treatment of hypertension: established and new drugs. Eur Heart J 2014; 35: 557-562.
68. Nilsson P. Antihypertensive efficacy of zofenopril compared with atenolol in patients with mild to moderate hypertension. Blood Press Suppl 2007; 2: 25-30.
69. Zeltner R, Poliak R, Stiasny B, Schmieder RE, Schulze BD. Renal and cardiac effects of antihypertensive treatment with ramipril vs metoprolol in autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2008; 23: 573-579.
70. Koh KK, Quon MJ, Han SH, Lee Y, Kim SJ, Koh Y, et al. Distinct vascular and metabolic efects of diferent classes of anti-hypertensive drugs. Int J Cardiol 2010; 140: 73-81.
71. Fan X, Han Y, Sun K, Wang Y, Xin Y, Bai Y, et al. Sex diferences in blood pressure response to antihypertensive therapy in Chinese patients with hypertension. Ann Pharmacother 2008; 42: 1772-1781.
72. Cağlar N, Dincer I. Comparison between nebivolol and ramipril in patients with hypertension and left ventricular hypertrophy: a randomized open blinded end-point (PROBE) trial. Eur Rev Med Pharmacol Sci 2011; 15: 1359-1368.
73. Weber MA, Basile J, Stapf M, Khan B, Zhou D. Blood pressure effects of combined β-blocker and angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor therapy compared with the individual agents: a placebo-controlled study with nebivolol and lisinopril. J Clin Hypertens (Greenwich) 2012; 14: 588-592.
74. Koumaras C, Tziomalos K, Stavrinou E, Katsiki N, Athyros VG, Mikhailidis D P, et al. Effects of renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system inhibitors and beta-blockers on markers of arterial stifness. J Am Soc Hypertens 2014; 8: 74-82.
75. Jin Y, Tijs L, Richart T, Li Y, Dolan E, Wang JG, et al. Responses of the ambulatory arterial stiffness index and other measures of arterial function to antihypertensive drugs. Hypertens Res 2011; 34: 489-495.
76. Celik T, Iyisoy A, Acikel C, Yuksel C, Celik M, Yaman H, et al. Te comparative effects of metoprolol and perindopril on aortic elasticity in young patients with prehypertension. Blood Press Monit 2008; 13: 169-176.
77. Kosch M, Levers A, Lang D, Bartels V, Rahn KH, Pavenstädt H, et al. Randomized, double-blind study of valsartan versus metoprolol on arterial distensibility and endothelial function in essential hypertension. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2008; 23: 2280-2285.
78. Moltzer E, Mattace Raso FU, Karamermer Y, Boersma E, Webb GD, Simoons ML, et al. Comparison of Candesartan versus Metoprolol for treatment of systemic hypertension after repaired aortic coarctation. Am J Cardiol 2010; 105: 217-222.
79. Heitmann J, Greulich T, Reinke C, Koehler U, Vogelmeier C, Becker H F, et al. Comparison of the effects of nebivolol and valsartan on BP reduction and sleep apnoea activity in patients with essential hypertension and OSA. Curr Med Res Opin 2010; 26: 1925-1932.
80. Collier DJ, Poulter NR, Dahlöf B, Sever PS, Wedel H, Buch J, et al. Impact of amlodipine-based therapy among older and younger patients in the Anglo-Scandinavian Cardiac Outcomes Trial-Blood Pressure Lowering Arm (ASCOT-BPLA). J Hypertens 2011; 29: 583-591.
81. Rothwell PM, Howard SC, Dolan E, O’Brien E, Dobson JE, Dahlöf B, et al. Effects of beta blockers and calcium-channel blockers on within-individual variability in blood pressure and risk of stroke. Lancet Neurol 2010; 9: 469-480.
82. Ostergren J, Poulter NR, Sever PS, Dahlöf B, Wedel H, Beevers G, et al. The Anglo-Scandinavian Cardiac Outcomes Trial: blood pressure-lowering limb: effects in patients with type II diabetes. J Hypertens 2008; 26: 2103-2111.
83. Manisty CH, Zambanini A, Parker KH, Davies JE, Francis D P, Mayet J, et al. Differences in the magnitude of wave refection account for diferential efects of amlodipine- versus atenolol-based regimens on central blood pressure: an Anglo-Scandinavian Cardiac Outcome Trial substudy. Hypertension 2009; 54: 724-730.
84. Peacock WF, Varon J, Baumann BM, Borczuk P, Cannon CM, Chandra A, et al. CLUE: a randomized comparative efectiveness trial of IV nicardipine versus labetalol use in the emergency department. Crit Care 2011; 15: 157.
85. Poulter NR, Dobson JE, Sever PS, Dahlöf B, Wedel H, Campbell NR. ASCOT Investigators: Baseline heart rate, antihypertensive treatment, and prevention of cardiovascular outcomes in ASCOT (Anglo-Scandinavian Cardiac Outcomes Trial). J Am Coll Cardiol 2009; 54: 1154-1161.
86. Bangalore S, Messerli FH, Cohen JD, Bacher PH, Sleight P, Mancia G, et al. Verapamil-sustained release-based treatment strategy is equivalent to atenolol-based treatment strategy at reducing cardiovascular events in patients with prior myocardial infarction: an INternational VErapamil SR-Trandolapril (INVEST) substudy. Am Heart J 2008; 156: 241-247.
87. Johnson JA, Gong Y, Bailey KR, Cooper-DeHof RM, Chapman AB, Turner ST, et al. Hydrochlorothiazide and atenolol combination antihypertensive therapy: efects of drug initiation order. Clin Pharmacol Ter 2009; 86: 533-539.
88. Pareek A, Salkar H, Mulay P, Desai S, Chandurkar N, Redkar N. A randomized, comparative, multicentric evaluation of atenolol/amlodipine combination with atenolol alone in essential hypertensive patients. Am J Ter 2010; 17: 46-52.
89. Dietz R, Dechend R, Yu CM, Bheda M, Ford J, Prescott MF, et al. Effects of the direct renin inhibitor aliskiren and atenolol alone or in combination in patients with hypertension. J Renin Angiotensin Aldosterone Syst 2008; 9: 163-175.
90. Matsuzaki M, Ogihara T, Umemoto S, Rakugi H, Matsuoka H, Shimada K, et al. Combination Therapy of Hypertension to Prevent Cardiovascular Events Trial Group Collaborators (1031). Prevention of cardiovascular events with calcium channel blocker-based combination therapies in patients with hypertension: a randomized controlled trial. J Hypertens 2011; 29: 1649-1659.
91. Zhang JL, Zheng X, Zou DJ, Qiu JL, Zhao XX, Qin Y W. Effect of metformin on weight gain during antihypertensive treatment with a beta-blocker in Chinese patients. Am J Hypertens 2009; 22: 884-890.
92. Pareek A, Chandurkar NB, Sharma R, Tiwari D, Gupta BS. Efficacy and tolerability of a fixed-dose combination of metoprolol extended release/amlodipine in patients with mild-to-moderate hypertension: a randomized, parallel-group, multicentre comparison with losartan plus amlodipine. Clin Drug Investig 2010; 30: 123-131.
93. Bakris GL, Iyengar M, Lukas MA, Ordronneau P, Weber MA. Effect of combining extended-release carvedilol and lisinopril in hypertension: results of the COSMOS study. J Clin Hypertens (Greenwich) 2010; 12: 678-686.
94. Neutel JM, Smith DH, Gradman AH. Adding nebivolol to ongoing antihypertensive therapy improves blood pressure and response rates in patients with uncontrolled stage I-II hypertension. J Hum Hypertens 2010; 24: 64-73.
95. Kelly AS, Gonzalez-Campoy JM, Rudser KD, Katz H, Metzig AM, Talin M, et al. Carvedilol-lisinopril combination therapy and endothelial function in obese individuals with hypertension. J Clin Hypertens (Greenwich) 2012; 14: 85-91.
96. Bell DS, Bakris GL, McGill JB. Comparison of carvedilol and metoprolol on serum lipid concentration in diabetic hypertensive patients. Diabetes Obes Metab 2009; 11: 234-238.
97. Jawa A, Nachimuthu S, Pendergrass M, Asnani S, Fonseca V. Beta-blockers have a benefcial efect upon endothelial function and microalbuminuria in African-American subjects with diabetes and hypertension. J Diabetes Complications 2008; 22: 303-308.
98. Law M, Wald N, Morris J. Lowering blood pressure to prevent myocardial infarction and stroke: a new preventive strategy. Health Technol Assess 2003; 7: 1-94.
99. Degli-Esposti L, Di Martino M, Saragoni S, Sgreccia A, Capone A, Buda S, et al. Pharmacoeconomics of antihypertensive drug treatment: an analysis of how long patients remain on various antihypertensive therapies. J Clin Hypertens (Greenwich) 2004; 6: 76-84.
100. Blood Pressure Lowering Treatment Trialists’ Collaboration, Ninomiya T, Perkovic V, Turnbull F, Neal B, Barzi F, et al. Blood pressure lowering and major cardiovascular events in people with and without chronic kidney disease: meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. BMJ 2013; 347: 5680.