Understanding adult functional literacy: Connecting text features, task demands, and respondent skills

Understanding Adult Functional Literacy: Connecting Text Features, Task Demands, and Respondent Skills

Volumn , Issue , 2011, Pages 1-260

  White, Sheida ^a,b,c  

^a United States Department of Education   (United States)

^b National Assessment of Adult Literacy (NAAL)   (United States)

^c National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP)   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84909128517     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.4324/9780203841884     Document Type: Book

References (178)

1. Abedi, J. (2006). Language issues in item development. In S. M. Downing & T. M. Haladyna (Eds.), Handbook of test development (pp. 377–398). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
2. Adams, M. J. (1990). Beginning to read: Thinking and learning about print. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
3. Adams, M. J., & Spoehr, K. T. (2008). Vocabulary framework for the National Assessment of Adult Literacy (NAAL). [Unpublished contractor report.] Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics.
4. Akmajian, A., Demers, R. A., Farmer, A. K., & Harnish, R. M. (1990). Linguistics: An introduction to language and communication (3rd ed.). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
5. Anderson, R. C., & Pearson, P. D. (1984). A schema-theoretic view of basic processes in reading comprehension. In P. D. Pearson (Ed.), Handbook of reading research (Vol. 1, pp. 255–293). New York: Routledge.
6. Ashcraft, M. H., & Kirk, E. P. (2001). The relation between working memory, math anxiety, and performance. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 130, 224–237.
7. Baer, J., Kutner, M., & Sabatini, J. (2009). Basic reading skills and the literacy of America’s least literate adults: Results from the 2003 National Assessment of Adult Literacy (NAAL) supplemental studies (NCES 2009-481). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics.
8. Baldi, S., Kutner, M., Greenberg, E., Jin, Y., Baer, J., Moore, E., Dunleavy, E., Berlin, M., Mohadjer, L., Binzer, G., Krenzke, T., Hogan, J., Amsbary, M., Forsyth, B., Clark, L., & Annis, T. (2009). Technical Report and Data File User’s Manual for the 2003 National Assessment of Adult Literacy (NCES 2009-476). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
9. Baumann, J. F., Kame’enui, E. J., & Ash, G. E. (2002). Research on vocabulary instruction: Voltaire redux. In J. Flood, D. Lapp, J. R. Squire, & J. M. Jensen (Eds.), Handbook of research on teaching the English language arts (pp. 752–785). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
10. British National Corpus. (2004). http://www.natcorp.ox.ac.uk/.
11. Britton, B. K., & Gulgoz, S. (1991). Using Kintsch’s computational model to improve instructional text: Effects of repairing inference calls on recall and cognitive structures. Journal of Educational Psychology, 83, 329–345.
12. Brown, J. S., & Burton, R. R. (1978). Diagnostic models for procedural bugs in basic mathematical skills. Cognitive Science, 2, 155–192.
13. Brown, N. R., & Siegler, R. S. (1993). Metrics and mapping: A framework for understanding real-world quantitative estimation. Psychological Review, 100, 511–534.
14. Bull, R., & Scherif, G. (2001). Executive functioning as a predictor of children’s mathematics ability: Inhibition, switching, and working memory. Developmental Neuropsychology, 19, 273–293.
15. Byrnes, J. P., & Guthrie, J. T. (1992). Prior conceptual knowledge and textbook search. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 17, 8–29.
16. Campbell, A., Kirsch I. S., & Kolstad, A. (1992). Assessing literacy: The framework for the National Adult Literacy Survey. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics.
17. Carpenter, T. P., Corbitt, M. K., Kepner, H. S., Lindquist, M. M., & Reys, R. E. (1981). Results from the second mathematics assessment of the National Assessment of Educational Progress. Washington, DC: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.
18. Carroll, J. B., & Chall, J. S. (1975). Toward a literate society. New York: McGraw-Hill.
19. Carroll, J. B., Davies, P., & Richman, B. (1971). The American Heritage word frequency book. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
20. Chall, J. S. (1983). Stages of reading development. New York: McGraw Hill.
21. Chen, R. S., & Vellutino, F. R. (1997). Prediction of reading ability: A cross-validation study of the simple view of reading. Journal of Literacy Research, 29(1), 1–24.
22. Chimombo, J., & Roseberry, R. L. (1998). The power of discourse: An introduction to discourse analysis. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
23. Christou, C., & Philippou, G. (1998). The developmental nature of ability to solve one-step word problems. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 29, 436–442.
24. Coh-Metrix. (2010). Coh-Metrix research. http://cohmetrix.memphis.edu/cohmetrixpr/research.html
25. Cohen, D. (2005). Familiarity and document use. [Unpublished contractor report.] Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Institution of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics.
26. Cohen, A., & Steinberg, J. E. (1983). Effects of three types of vocabulary on readability of intermediate grade science textbooks: An application of Finn’s transfer feature theory. Reading Research Quarterly, 19, 86–101.
27. Cohen, J., & Kolstad, A. (2000). Theory-consistent item response models. Paper presented at the annual conference of the National Council on Measurement in Education, San Francisco, CA.
28. Compton, D. L., Appleton, A. C., & Hosp, M. K. (2004). Exploring the relation between text-leveling systems and reading accuracy and fluency in second-grade students who are average and poor decoders. Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 19(3): 176–184.
29. Condelli, L., Wrigley, H. S., & Yoon, K. S. (2009). “What works” for adult literacy students of English as a second language. In R. Reder & J. Bynner (Eds.), Tracking adult literacy and numeracy skills: Findings from longitudinal research. New York: Routledge.
30. Coulthard, M. (1985). An introduction to discourse analysis (2nd ed.). Reading, MA: Addison Wesley Publishing Co.
31. Cunningham, P. (1991). Phonics they use: Words for reading and writing. New York: HarperCollins Publishers.
32. Cutting, L. E., & Scarborough, H. S. (2006). Prediction of reading comprehension: Relative contributions of word recognition, language proficiency, and other cognitive skills can depend on how comprehension is measured. Scientific Studies of Reading, 10(3), 277–299.
33. Dale, E., & Chall, J. S. (1948). A formula for predicting readability: Instructions. Educational Research Bulletin, 27(2), 37–54.
34. Davidson, R., & Strucker, J. (2002). Patterns of word recognition errors among adult basic education native and non-native speakers of English. Scientific Studies of Reading, 6(2), 299–316.
35. De Corte, E., & Verschaffel, L. (1987). Using retelling data to study young children’s word problem-solving. In J. Sloboda & D. Rogers (Eds.), Cognitive processes in mathematics (pp. 42–59). Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press.
36. Dixon, P. (1987). The processing of organizational and component step information in written directions. Journal of Memory and Language, 26, 24–35.
37. Dowker, A. (1997). Young children’s addition estimates. Mathematical Cognition, 3, 141–154.
38. Dowker, A., Flood, A., Griffiths, H., Harriss, L., & Hook, L. (1996). Estimation strategies of four groups. Mathematical Cognition, 2, 113–135.
39. Droop, M., & Verhoeven, L. (2003). Language proficiency and reading ability in first- and second-language learners. Reading Research Quarterly, 38, 78–103.
40. Dreher, M. J. (1993). Reading to locate information: Societal and educational perspectives. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 18, 129–138.
41. Ehri, L. C. (2005). Learning to read words: Theory, findings, and issues. Scientific Studies of Reading, 9(2), 167–188.
42. Embretson, S. E. (1984). A general latent trait model for response processes. Psychometrika, 49, 175–186.
43. Embretson, S. E., & Wetzel, D. (1987). Component latent trait models for paragraph comprehension tests. Applied Psychological Measurement, 11, 175–193.
44. English, L. D., & Halford, G. S. (1995). Mathematics education: Models and processes. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
45. Faust, M. W, Ashcraft, M. H., & Fleck, D. E. (1996). Mathematics anxiety effects in simple and complex addition. Mathematical Cognition, 2, 25–62.
46. Fellbaum, C. (1998). WordNet. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
47. Fischer, G. (1973). The linear logistic test model as an instrument in educational research. Acta Psychologica, 37, 359–374
48. Fischler, I., & Bloom, P. A. (1979). Automatic and attentional processes in the effects of sentence contexts on word recognition. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 18, 1–20.
49. Fisher, D. L. (1981). Functional literacy tests: A model of question-answering and an analysis of errors. Reading Research Quarterly, 16, 418–448.
50. Flesch, R. (1948). A new readability yardstick. Journal of Applied Psychology, 32(3), 221–233.
51. Friel, S. N., Curcio, F. R., & Bright, G. W. (2001). Making sense of graphs: Critical factors influencing comprehension and instructional implications. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 32(2), 124–158.
52. Fry, E. B. (1977). Fry’s readability graph: Clarifications, validity, and extension to level 17. Journal of Reading, 21, 242–252.
53. Fry, E. B. (1981). A partial reading model utilizing language unit size by frequency. In M. L. Kamil (Ed.), Directions in reading: Research and instruction (pp. 103–107). Washington, DC: National Reading Conference.
54. Fuchs, L. S., Fuchs, D., Hosp, M. K., & Jenkins, J. R. (2001). Oral reading fluency as an indicator of reading competence: A theoretical, empirical and historical analysis. Scientific Studies of Reading, 5(3), 239–256.
55. Garner, R., Brown, R., Sanders, S., & Menke, D. (1992). “Seductive details” and learning from text. In K. A. Renninger, S. Hidi, & A. Krapp (Eds.), The role of interest in learning and development (pp. 239–254). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
56. Gee, J. P. (2005). An introduction to discourse analysis (2nd ed.). New York: Routledge.
57. Georgakopolou, A., & Goutsos, D. (2004). Discourse analysis: An introduction (2nd ed.). Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
58. Geva, E., & Ryan, E. B. (1985). Use of conjunctions in expository texts by skilled and less skilled readers. Journal of Reading Behavior, 17, 331–346.
59. Gilks, W. R., Richardson, S., & Spiegelhalter, D. J. (1996). Markov chain Monte Carlo in practice. London: Chapman & Hall.
60. Goldman, S. R., & Murray, J. D. (1992). Knowledge of connectors as cohesion devices in text: A comparative study of native-English and English-as-a-second-language speakers. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84(4), 504–519.
61. Goodman, K. S. (1967). Reading: A psycholinguistic guessing game. Journal of the Reading Specialist, 6, 126–135.
62. Gough, P. B., Hoover, W., & Peterson, C. L. (1996). Some observations on the simple view of reading. In C. Cornoldi & J. Oakhill (Eds.), Reading comprehension difficulties (pp. 1–13). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
63. Gough, P. B., Juel, C., & Griffith, P. (1992). Reading, spelling, and the orthographic cipher. In P. B. Gough, L. C. Ehri, & R. Treiman (Eds.), Reading acquisition (pp. 35–48). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
64. Gough, P. B., & Tunmer, W. E. (1986). Decoding, reading, and reading disability. Remedial and Special Education, 7, 6–10.
65. Graesser, A. C., McNamara, D. S., Louwerse, M. M., & Cai, Z. (2004). Coh-Metrix: Analysis of text on cohesion and language. Behavior research methods, instruments, and computers, 36(2), 193–202.
66. Greer, B. (1987). Understanding of arithmetical operations as models of situations. In J. Sloboda & D. Rogers (Eds.), Cognitive processes in mathematics (pp. 60–80). Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press.
67. Guthrie, J., & Greaney, V. (1991). Literacy acts. In R. Barr, M. L. Kamil, P. Mosenthal, & P. D. Pearson (Eds.), Handbook of Reading Research (Vol. 2, pp. 68–96). New York: Routledge.
68. Guthrie, J. T., & Mosenthal, P. (1987). Literacy as multidimensional: Locating information and reading comprehension. Educational Psychologist, 22, 279–297.
69. Guthrie, J. T., Seifert, M., & Kirsch, I. S. (1986). Effects of education, occupation, and setting on reading practices. American Educational Research Journal, 23, 151–160.
70. Guthrie, J. T., Weber, S., & Kimmerly, N. (1993). Searching documents: Cognitive processes and deficits in understanding graphs, tables, and illustrations. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 18, 186–221.
71. Guthrie, J. T., Wigfield, A., Metsala, J. L., & Cox, K. E. (1999). Motivational and cognitive predictors of text comprehension and reading amount. Scientific Studies of Reading, 3, 231–256.
72. Harp, S.F., & Mayer, R.E. (1998). How seductive details do their damage: A theory of cognitive interest in science learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90, 414–434.
73. Harris, L., & Associates (1970). Survival literacy study. New York: Louis Harris and Associates.
74. Hauser, R. M., Edley, C. F., Koenig, J. A., & Elliot, S. W. (Eds.), (2005). Measuring literacy: Performance levels for adults, interim report. National Research Council, Board on Testing and Assessment, Committee on Performance Levels for Adult Literacy. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
75. Haviland, S. E., & Clark, H. H. (1974). What’s new? Acquiring new information as a process in comprehension. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 13, 512–521.
76. Hegarty, M., Carpenter, P. A., & Just, M. A. (1996). Diagrams in the comprehension of scientific texts. In R. Barr, M. Kamil, P. Mosenthal, & D. Pearson (Eds.), Handbook of reading research (Vol. 2, pp. 641–668). New York: Routledge.
77. Hiebert, J., & Wearne, D. (1986). Procedures over concepts: The acquisition of decimal number knowledge. In J. Hiebert (Ed.), Conceptual and procedural knowledge: The case of mathematics (pp. 199–223). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
78. Hitch, G. J. (1978). The numerical abilities of industrial trainee apprentices. Journal of Occupational Psychology, 51, 163–176.
79. Holt, R. W., Boehm-Davis, D. A., & Schultz, A. C. (1989). Multilevel structured documentation. Human Factors, 31, 215–228.
80. Hoover, W. A., & Gough, P. B. (1990). The simple view of reading. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 2, 127–160.
81. Hu, M., & Nation, P. (2000). Unknown vocabulary density and reading comprehension. Reading in a Foreign Language, 13(1), 403–430.
82. Jenkins, J. R., Fuchs, L. S., van den Broek, P., Espin, C. L., & Deno, S. L. (2003). Sources of individual differences in reading comprehension and reading fluency. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95, 719–729.
83. Judd, T. P., & Bilsky, L. H. (1989). Comprehension and memory in the solution of verbal arithmetic problems by mentally retarded and nonretarded individuals. Journal of Educational Psychology, 81, 541–546.
84. Kamil, M. L., Mosenthal, P. B., Pearson, P. D., & Barr, R. (Eds.), (2000). Handbook of reading research (Vol. 3). New York: Routledge.
85. Kemper, S. (1987). Syntactic complexity and elderly adults’ prose recall. Experimental Aging Research, 13, 47–52.
86. Kintsch, W. (1994). Text comprehension, memory, and learning. American Psychologist, 49(4), 294–303.
87. Kintsch, W. (2002). On the notions of theme and topic in psychological process models of text comprehension. In M. Louwerse & W. van Peer (Eds.), Thematics: interdisciplinary studies (pp. 157–170). Amsterdam: Benjamins.
88. Kintsch, W., & Greeno, J. G. (1985). Understanding and solving word arithmetic problems. Psychological Review, 92, 109–129.
89. Kintsch, W., & Keenan, J. (1973). Reading rate and retention as a function of the number of propositions in the base structure of sentences. Cognitive Psychology, 5, 257–274.
90. Kintsch, W., & van Dijk, A. (1978). Toward a model of text comprehension and production. Psychological Review, 85, 363–394.
91. Kirsch, I. S., de Jong, J., LaFontaine, D., McQueen, J., Mendelovits, J., & Monseur, C. (2002). Reading for change: Performance and engagement across countries: Results from PISA 2000. Paris: Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development.
92. Kirsch, I. S., & Guthrie, J. T. (1977). The concept and measurement of functional literacy. Reading Research Quarterly, 13(4), 485–507.
93. Kirsch, I. S., & Guthrie, J. T. (1984). Prose comprehension and text search as a function of reading volume. Reading Research Quarterly, 19, 331–342.
94. Kirsch, I. S., Jungeblut, A., & Campbell, A. (1992). Beyond the school door: The literacy needs of job seekers served by the U.S. Department of Labor. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service.
95. Kirsch, I. S., Jungeblut, A., Jenkins, L., & Kolstad, A. (1993). Adult literacy in America: A first look at the results of the National Adult Literacy Survey (NCES 93–275). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics.
96. Kirsch, I. S., & Mosenthal, P. B. (1989). Building documents by combining simple lists. Journal of Reading, 33, 132–133.
97. Kirsch, I. S., & Mosenthal, P. B. (1990). Exploring document literacy: Variables underlying the performance of young adults. Reading Research Quarterly, 25(1), 5–30.
98. Kirsch, I., Yamamoto, K., Norris, N., Rock, D., Jungeblut, A., O’Reilly, P., Berlin, M., Mohadjer, L., Waksberg, J., Goksel, H., Burke, J., Rieger, S., Green, J., Klein M., Campbell, A., Jenkins, L., Kolstad, A., Mosenthal, P., & Baldi, S. (2001). Technical report and data file user’s manual for the 1992 National Adult Literacy Survey (NCES 2001-457). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics.
99. Kruidenier, J. (2002). Research-based practices for adult basic education reading instruction: A guide to the research for reading professionals. Washington, DC: National Institute for Literacy.
100. Kutner, M., Greenberg, E., Ying, J., Boyle, B., Hsu, Y., Dunleavy, E., & White, S. (2007). Literacy in everyday life: Results from the 2003 National Assessment of Adult Literacy (NCES 2007-480). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics.
101. Laufer, B. (1988). What percentage of text-lexis is essential for comprehension? In C. Lauren & M. Nordmann (Eds.), Special language: From humans to thinking machines (pp. 316–323). Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.
102. Leech, G., Rayson, P., & Wilson, A. (2001). Word frequencies in written and spoken English: Based on the British National Corpus. London: Longman.
103. Lehman, S., & Schraw, G. (2002). Effects of coherence and relevance on shallow and deep text processing. Journal of Educational Psychology, 94(3), 738–750.
104. Lipson, M. Y., & Wixson, K. K. (2009). Assessment and instruction of reading and writing difficulties: An interactive approach (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
105. Lombard, M., Snyder-Duch, J., & Bracken, C. C. (2002). Content analysis in mass communication: assessment and reporting of intercoder reliability. Human Communication Research, 28, 587–604.
106. Mathews, M.M. (1966). Teaching reading. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
107. Mayer, R. E., Lewis, A. B., & Hegarty, M. (1992). Mathematical misunderstandings: Qualitative reasoning about quantitative problems. In J. I. D. Campbell (Ed.), The nature and origin of mathematical skills (pp. 137–153). Amsterdam: Elsevier.
108. McCloskey, M., Aliminosa, D., & Sokol, S. M. (1991). Facts, rules and procedures in normal calculation: Evidence from multiple single-patient studies of impaired arithmetic fact retrieval. Brain and Cognition, 17, 154–203.
109. McCloskey, M., Harley, W., & Sokol, S. M. (1991). Models of arithmetic fact retrieval: An evaluation in light of findings from normal and brain-damaged subjects. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 17, 377–397.
110. McCloskey, M., Weigle, S. C., & Yancey, K. (2008). Functional writing framework for the National Assessment of Adult Literacy (NAAL) [Unpublished contractor report.] Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics.
111. McShane, S. (2005). Applying research in reading instruction for adults: First steps for teachers. Louisville, KY: National Center for Family Literacy.
112. MetaMetrics. (2007). The Lexile framework for reading: Technical report. Durham, NC: Author.
113. Meyer, B. J., Marsiske, M., & Willis, S. L. (1993). Text processing variables predict the readability of everyday documents read by older adults. Reading Research Quarterly, 28, 234–249.
114. Mikulecky, L. (1982). Job literacy: The relationship between school preparation and workplace actuality. Reading Research Quarterly, 17, 400–419.
115. Millis, K. K., & Just, M. A. (1995). Causal connectives increase inference generation. Discourse Processes, 20, 29–49.
116. Mosenthal, P. B. (1996). Understanding the strategies of document literacy and their conditions of use. Journal of Educational Psychology, 88(2), 314–332.
117. Mosenthal, P. B., & Kirsch, I. S. (1991). Toward an explanatory model of document literacy. Discourse Processes, 14(2), 147–180.
118. Nagy, E. E., & Anderson, R. C. (1984). How many words are there in printed school English? Reading Research Quarterly, 19, 304–330.
119. National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. (2000). Principles and standards for school mathematics. Reston, VA: Author.
120. National Reading Panel. (2000). Report of the National Reading Panel: Teaching children to read (Publication No. 00-4769). Washington, DC: National Institute for Child Health and Development.
121. Neuendorf, K. A. (2002). The content analysis guidebook. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
122. Oakhill, J. V., Cain, K. & Bryant, P. E. (2003). The dissociation of single-word reading and text comprehension: Evidence from component skills. Language and Cognitive Processes, 18, 443–468.
123. Perfetti, C. A. (1985). Reading ability. New York: Oxford University Press.
124. Perfetti, C. A., Landi, N., & Oakhill, J. (2005). The acquisition of reading comprehension skill. In M. J. Snowling & C. Hulme (Eds.), The science of reading: A handbook (pp. 227–247). Malden, MA: Blackwell.
125. Peterson, C. L. (1993). Background knowledge and the decomposition of literacy in skilled adult readers. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of Texas, Austin.
126. Portney, L. G., & Watkins, M. P. (1993). Foundations of clinical research: Applications to practice. Norwalk, CT: Appleton and Lange.
127. Pressley, M., & Afflerbach, P. (1995). Verbal protocols of reading: The nature of constructively responsive reading. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
128. Rayner, K., Foorman, B. R., Perfetti, C. A., Pesetsky, D., & Seidenberg, M. S. (2001). How psychological science informs the teaching of reading. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 2, 31–74.
129. Reckase, M. (2009). Multidimensional item response theory. Springer: New York.
130. Reynolds, P. L., & Symons, S. (2001). Motivational variables and children’s text search. Journal of Educational Psychology, 93(1), 14–22.
131. Rogers, R. (2004). An introduction to critical discourse analysis in education. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
132. Rose, A. M. (1980). Cognitive process analyses of aptitude. In R. E. Snow, P. A. Federico, & W. E. Montague (Eds.), Aptitude, learning, and instruction, 1. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
133. Rupp, A. A., & Templin, J. L. (2008). Unique characteristics of diagnostic classification models: A comprehensive review of the current state-of-the-art. Measurement, 6(4), 219–262.
134. Savage, R. (2006). Reading comprehension is not always the product of nonsense word decoding and linguistic comprehension: evidence from teenagers who are extremely poor readers. Scientific Studies of Reading, 10(2), 143–164.
135. Schiffrin, D. (1987). Discourse markers. Boston, MA: Cambridge University Press.
136. Seidenberg, M. S., Waters, G. S., Barnes, M. A., & Tanenhaus, M. K. (1984). When does irregular spelling or pronunciation influence word recognition? Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 23, 383–404.
137. Smith, F. (1971). Understanding reading. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
138. Snow, C. (2002). Reading for understanding: Toward an R & D program in reading comprehension. Santa Monica, CA: RAND.
139. Stanovich, K. E. (1984). The interactive-compensatory model of reading: A confluence of developmental, experimental, and educational psychology. Remedial and Special Education, 5, 11–19.
140. Steen, L. A. (1990). Pattern. In L. A. Steen (Ed.), On the Shoulders of Giants: New Approaches to Numeracy (pp. 1–10). Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
141. Stenner, A. J. (1996). Measuring reading comprehension with the Lexile framework. Durham, NC: MetaMetrics.
142. Sticht, T. G. (1977). Comprehending reading at work. In M. A. Just & P. A. Carpenter (Eds.), Cognitive processes in comprehension. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
143. Sticht, T. G. (1978). The acquisition of literacy by children and adults. In F. B. Murray & J. J. Pikulski (Eds.), The acquisition of reading. Baltimore: University Park Press.
144. Sticht, T. G., & James, J. H. (1984). Listening and reading. In R. Bar, M. L. Kamil, & P. Mosenthal (Eds.), Handbook of Reading Research (Vol. 1, pp. 293–317). New York: Routledge.
145. Strucker, J., & Davidson, R. (2001). NCSALL report: The adult reading components study. Boston: World Education/National Center for the Study of Adult Learning and Literacy.
146. Sum, A. M. (1999). Literacy in the labor force: Results from the National Adult Literacy Survey (NCES 1999–470). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics.
147. Thomas, R. M. (1985). Comparing theories of child development. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
148. Thompkins, A. C., & Binder, K. S. (2003). A comparison of the factors affecting reading performance of functionally illiterate adults and children matched by reading levels. Reading Research Quarterly, 38(2), 236–258.
149. Timmers, L., & Claeys, W. (1990). The generality of mental addition models: Simple and complex addition in a decision-production task. Memory and Cognition, 18, 310–320.
150. Tout, D., & Schmitt, M. J. (2002). The inclusion of numeracy in adult basic education. In J. Comings, B. Garner, & C. Smith (Eds.), Annual Review of Adult Literacy and Learning (Vol. 3, pp. 152–202). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
151. Tracy, D. H., & Morrow, L. M. (2006). Lenses on reading: An introduction to theories and models. New York: The Guilford Press.
152. Van Dijk, T. A. (1980). Macrostructures. The Hague: Mouton.
153. VanLehn, K. (1990). Mind bugs: The origins of procedural misconceptions. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
154. Vellutino, F. R., Fletcher, J. M., Snowling, M. J., & Scanlon, D. R. (2004). Specific reading disability (dyslexia): What have we learned in the past four decades? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45, 2–40.
155. Vellutino, F. R., Tunmer, W. E., Jaccard, J. J., & Chen, R. (2007). Components of reading ability: Multivariate evidence for a convergent skills model of reading development. Scientific Studies of Reading, 11(1), 3–32.
156. Venezky, R. (2000). The origins of the present-day chasm between adult literacy needs and school literacy instruction. Scientific Studies of Reading, 4(1), 19–39.
157. Venezky, R., Kaplan D., & Yu, F. (2002). Literacy practices and voting behavior (NCES 2002-456). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics.
158. Vergnaud, G. (1982). A classification of cognitive tasks and operations of thought involved in addition and subtraction problems. In T. P. Carpenter, J. M. Moser, & T. A. Romberg (Eds.), Addition and subtraction: A cognitive perspective. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
159. Vergnaud, G. (1997). The nature of mathematical concepts. In T. Nunes & P. Bryant (Eds.), Learning and teaching mathematics: an international perspective (pp. 1–28). East Sussex, UK: Psychology Press.
160. Verschaffel, L., & De Corte, E. (1997). Word problems: A vehicle for promoting authentic mathematical understanding and problem solving in primary school? In T. Nunes & P. Bryant (Eds.), Learning and teaching mathematics: An international perspective (pp. 69–97). East Sussex, UK: Psychology Press.
161. Von Davier, M. (2008). A general diagnostic model applied to language testing data. British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology, 61, 287–307.
162. Wagner, D. A. (1998). Literacy: Research and measurement. In T. Husen & T. N. Postlethwaite (Eds.), International encyclopedia of education [Electronic version.] Oxford: Pergamon Press and Elsevier Science.
163. White, S. (1980). Error and contrastive analysis for Iranian ESL students. Paper presented at the National Conference of the Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL), San Francisco, CA.
164. White, S. (1990). Developing students’ reading comprehension resources. The Kamehameha Journal of Education, 1, 30–36.
165. White, S. (1995). Listening to children read aloud: Oral fluency (NCES 95-762). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics.
166. White, S., & Applebee, A. N. (in press). A comparative analysis of school-based and everyday writing assessment tasks. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics.
167. White, S., Chen, J., & Atchison, R. (2008). Relationship of preventive health practices and health literacy: A national study. American Journal of Health Behavior, 32(3), 227–242.
168. White, S., Chen, J., & Forsyth, B. (In press). Reading-related literacy activities of American adults. Time spent, task types, and cognitive skills used. Journal of Literacy Research, 42.
169. White, S., & Clement, J. (2001). Assessing the Lexile framework: Results of a panel meeting (NCES Working Paper). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics.
170. White, S., & Cohen, D. (under review). Document profile and document familiarity index: Tools for building document literacy. Manuscript submitted for publication.
171. White, S., & Dillow, S. (2006). Key concepts and features of the 2003 National Assessment of Adult Literacy (NCES 2006-471). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics.
172. White, S., & Sabatini, J. (Under review). Relationships among decoding, word reading, and reading comprehension: Evidence from the National Assessment of Adult Literacy.
173. White, S., Krenzke, T., & Sherman, D. (in press). The occurrence of low literacy among adults in U.S. states and counties. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics.
174. White, T. G., Power, M. A., & White, S. (1989). Morphological analysis: Implications for teaching and understanding vocabulary growth. Reading Research Quarterly, 24, 283–304.
175. Widaman, K. F., Geary, D. C., Cormier, P., & Little, T. D. (1989). A componential model for mental addition. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 15, 898–919.
176. Wigfield, A., Guthrie, J. T., Perencevich, K. C., Taboada, A., Klauda, S. L., McRae, A., & Barbosa, P. (2008). Role of reading engagement in mediating effects of reading comprehension instruction on reading outcomes. Psychology in the Schools, 45(5), 432–445.
177. Yussen, S. R., Stright, A. D., & Payne, B. (1993). Where is it? Searching for information in a college textbook. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 18, 240–257.
178. Zipf, G. K. (1935). The psychobiology of language. New York: Houghton-Mifflin.