Poly (lactic acid) foaming

Progress in Polymer Science

Volumn 39, Issue 10, 2014, Pages 1721-1741

  Nofar, Mohammadreza ^a   Park, Chul B ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO   (Canada)

Author keywords

Blowing agent; Foaming; PLA; Poly (lactic acid); Polylactide; Review

Indexed keywords

REVIEWS; RUNWAY FOAMING;

PLA; POLY LACTIC ACID; POLY LACTIDE;

BLOWING AGENTS;

EID: 84907857139     PISSN: 00796700     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2014.04.001     Document Type: Review

References (181)

1. D.W. Grijpma, and A.J. Pennings (Co)polymers of l-lactide, 2. Mechanical properties Macromol Chem Phys 195 1994 1649 1663
2. G. Perego, G.D. Gella, and C. Bastioli Effect of molecular weight and crystallinity on poly(lactic acid) mechanical properties J Appl Polym Sci 59 1996 37 43
3. R.G. Sinclair The case for polylactic acid as a commodity packaging plastic J Macromol Sci Pure Appl Chem 33 1996 585 597
4. H. Tsuji, and Y. Ikada Blends of aliphatic polyesters. II. Hydrolysis of solution-cast blends from poly(l-lactide) and poly(E-caprolactone) in phosphate-buffered solution J Appl Polym Sci 67 1998 405 415
5. O. Martin, and L. Averous Poly(lactic acid): plasticization and properties of biodegradable multiphase systems Polymer 42 2001 6209 6219
6. B. Gupta, N. Revagade, and J. Hilborn Poly(lactic acid) fiber: an overview Prog Polym Sci 32 2007 455 482
7. J. Lunt Large scale production, properties and commercial applications of polylactic acid polymers Polym Degrad Stab 59 1998 145 152
8. R.E. Drumright, P.R. Gruber, and D.E. Henton Polylactic acid technology Adv Mater 12 2000 1841 1846
9. Q. Fang, and M.A. Hanna Characteristics of biodegradable Mater-Bi®-starch based foams as affected by ingredient formulations Ind Crops Prod 13 2001 219 227
10. R. Auras, B. Harte, and S. Selke An overview of polylactides as packaging materials Macromol Biosci 4 2004 835 864
11. D.J. Garlotta A literature review of poly(lactic acid) J Polym Environ 9 2001 63 84
12. A. Bandyopadhyay, and G.C. Basak Studies on photocatalytic degradation of polystyrene Mater Sci Technol 23 2007 307 314
13. E. Kosior, R.M. Braganca, and P. Fowler Lightweight compostable packaging: literature review 2006 The Waste & Resources Action Programme Banbury, UK 49 pp.
14. Ajioka M, Enomoto K, Yamaguchi A, Suzuki K, Watanabe T, Kitahara Y. Degradable foam and use of same. US Pat 5,447,962; 1995.
15. L.T. Lim, R. Auras, and M. Rubino Processing technologies for poly(lactic acid) Prog Polym Sci 33 2008 820 852
16. Y. Di, S. Iannace, E. Di Maio, and L. Nicolais Reactively modified poly(lactic acid): properties and foam processing Macromol Mater Eng 290 2005 1083 1090
17. A.G. Mikos, A.J. Thorsen, L.A. Czerwonka, Y. Bao, R. Langer, D.G. Winslow, and J.P. Vacanti Preparation and characterization of poly (l-lactide acid) foams Polymer 35 1994 1068 1070
18. J. Dorgan, R.H. Lehermeier, and M. Mang Thermal and rheological properties of commercial-grade poly(lactic acid) J Polym Environ 8 2000 1 9
19. J. Dorgan Rheology of poly(lactic acid) R. Auras, L.T. Lim, S.E.M. Selke, H. Tsuji, Poly(lactic acid): synthesis, structures, properties, processing and applications 2010 John Wiley & Sons New York 125 139
20. J. Dorgan, J. Janzen, M. Clayton, S. Hait, and D. Knauss Melt rheology of variable l-content poly(lactic acid) J Rheol 45 2005 607 619
21. L.I. Palade, H. Lehermeier, and J. Dorgan Melt rheology of high l-content poly(lactic acid) Macromolecules 34 2001 1384 1390
22. J. Dorgan, and J. Williams Melt rheology of poly(lactic acid): entanglement and chain architecture effects J Rheol 43 1999 1141 1155
23. K. Sungsanit, N. Kao, S.N. Bhattacharya, and S. Pivsaart Physical and rheological properties of plasticized linear and branched PLA Korea-Aust Rheol J 22 2010 187 195
24. D. Carlson, and P. Dubois Free radical branching of polylactide by reactive extrusion Polym Eng Sci 38 1998 311 321
25. Y. Di, S. Iannace, E. Di Maio, and L. Nicolais Poly(lactic acid)/organoclay nanocomposites: thermal, rheological properties and foam processing J Polym Sci B: Polym Phys 43 2005 689 698
26. S.Y. Gu, J. Ren, and B. Dong Melt rheology of polylactide/montmorillonite nanocomposites J Polym Sci B: Polym Phys 45 2007 3189 3196
27. S.Y. Gu, C.Y. Zou, K. Zhou, and J. Ren Structure-rheology responses of polylactide/calcium carbonate composites J Appl Polym Sci 114 2009 1648 1655
28. R. Krishnamoorti, and K. Yurekli Rheology of polymer layered silicate nanocomposites Curr Opin Colloid Interface Sci 6 2001 464 470
29. M. Pluta Melt compounding of polylactide/organoclay: structure and properties of nanocomposites J Polym Sci B: Polym Phys 44 2006 3392 3405
30. S.S. Ray Rheology of polymer/layered silicate nanocomposites J Ind Eng Chem 12 2006 811 842
31. S.S. Ray, and M. Okamoto New polylactide/layered silicate nanocomposites. 6 Melt rheology and foam processing Macromol Mater Eng 288 2003 936 944
32. S.S. Ray, P. Maiti, M. Okamoto, K. Yamada, and K. Ueda New polylactide/layered silicate nanocomposites. 1. Preparation, characterization and properties Macromolecules 35 2002 3104 3110
33. B. Wang, T. Wan, and W. Zeng Dynamic rheology and morphology of polylactide/organic montmorillonite nanocomposites J Appl Polym Sci 121 2011 1032 1039
34. D. Wu, L. Wu, L. Wu, and M. Zhang Rheology and thermal stability of polylactide/clay nanocomposites Polym Degrad Stab 91 2006 3149 3155
35. S. Saeidlou, M. Huneault, H. Li, and C.B. Park Poly(lactic acid) crystallization Prog Polym Sci 37 2012 1657 1677
36. R.M. Rasal, A.V. Janorkar, and D.E. Hirt Poly(lactic acid) modifications Prog Polym Sci 35 2010 338 356
37. M. Mihai, M.A. Huneault, and B.D. Favis Rheology and extrusion foaming of chain-branched poly(lactic acid) Polym Eng Sci 50 2010 629 642
38. J. Wang, W. Zhu, H. Zhang, and C.B. Park Continuous processing of low-density, microcellular poly(lactic acid) foams with controlled cell morphology and crystallinity Chem Eng Sci 75 2012 390 399
39. M. Mihai, M.A. Huneault, and B.D. Favis Crystallinity development in cellular poly(lactic acid) in the presence of supercritical carbon dioxide J Appl Polym Sci 113 2009 2920 2932
40. M. Nofar, and C.B. Park Heterogeneous cell nucleation mechanisms in polylactide foaming S. Iannace, C.B. Park, Biofoams: science and applications of bio-based cellular and porous materials 2015 CRC Press Boca Raton, FL [in press]
41. Y. Srithep, P. Nealey, and L.S. Turng Effects of annealing time and temperature on the crystallinity, heat resistance behavior and mechanical properties of injection molded poly(lactic acid) (PLA) Polym Eng Sci 53 2013 580 588
42. A. Ameli, D. Jahani, M. Nofar, P. Jung, and C.B. Park processing and characterization of solid and foamed injection-molded polylactide with talc J Cell Plast 49 2013 351 374
43. 2 solution Fluid Phase Equilib 270 2008 15 22
44. Y. Sato, M. Yurugi, K. Fujiwara, S. Takishima, and H. Masuoka Solubilities of carbon dioxide and nitrogen in polystyrene under high temperature and pressure Fluid Phase Equilib 125 1996 129 138
45. G. Li, H. Li, L.S. Turng, S. Gong, and C. Zhang Measurement of gas solubility and diffusivity in polylactide Fluid Phase Equilib 246 2006 158 166
46. H. Li, L.J. Lee, and D.L. Tomasko Effect of carbon dioxide on the interfacial tension of polymer melts Ind Eng Chem Res 43 2004 509 514
47. 2 in linear and branched polypropylene using a magnetic suspension balance and a PVT apparatus J Chem Eng Data 55 2010 4885 4895
48. S.H. Mahmood, M. Keshtkar, and C.B. Park Determination of carbon dioxide solubility in polylactide acid with accurate PVT properties J Chem Thermodyn 70 2013 13 23
49. Y. Sato, K. Inohara, S. Takishima, H. Masuoka, M. Imaizumi, H. Yamamoto, and M. Takasugi Pressure-volume-temperature behavior of polylactide, poly (butylenes succinate), and poly (butylenes succinate-co-adipate) Polym Eng Sci 40 2000 2602 2609
50. G. Li, and C.B. Park A crystallization kinetics study of polycarbonate under high-pressure carbon dioxide and various crystallization temperatures by using magnetic suspension balance J Appl Polym Sci 118 2010 2898 2903
51. N.S. Oliveira, J. Dorgan, J.A.P. Coutinho, A. Ferreira, J.L. Daridon, and I.M. Marrucho Gas solubility of carbon dioxide in poly(lactic acid) at high pressures J Polym Sci B: Polym Phys 44 2006 1010 1019
52. 2 solubility and diffusivity in poly(l-lactide) and poly(d,l-lactide-co-glycolide) by magnetic suspension balance J Supercrit Fluids 47 2008 296 301
53. S.H. Mahmood, A. Ameli, N. Hossieny, and C.B. Park The interfacial tension of polylactide acid in supercritical carbon dioxide J Chem Thermodyn 2014 10.1016/j.jct.2014.02.017
54. 2 Polym Eng Sci 44 2004 186 196
55. L. Yu, H. Liu, and K. Dean Thermal behaviour of poly(lactic acid) in contact with compressed carbon dioxide Polym Int 58 2009 368 372
56. D. Li, T. Liu, L. Zhao, X. Lian, and W. Yuan Foaming of poly(lactic acid) based on its nonisothermal crystallization behavior under compressed carbon dioxide Ind Eng Chem Res 50 2011 1997 2007
57. L. Yu, H. Liu, K. Dean, and L. Chen Cold crystallization and post-melting crystallization of PLA plasticized by compressed carbon dioxide J Polym Sci B: Polym Phys 46 2008 2630 2636
58. J. Reignier, J. Tatibouet, and R. Gendron Effect of dissolved carbon dioxide on the glass transition and crystallization of poly(lactic acid) as probed by ultrasonic measurements J Appl Polym Sci 112 2009 1345 1355
59. 2 on the crystallization behavior of linear and branched PLA Polymer 53 2012 3341 3353
60. 2 mixtures Polymer 54 2013 2382 2391
61. 2, and He Polymer 54 2013 6471 6478
62. 2 Macromol Mater Eng 2014 10.1002/mame.201300474
63. M. Avrami Kinetics of phase change, II transformation time relations for random distribution of nuclei J Chem Phys 8 1940 212 224
64. X. Liao, A.V. Nawaby, and P.S. Whitfield Carbon dioxide-induced crystallization in poly(l-lactic acid) and its effect on foam morphologies Polym Int 59 2010 1709 1718
65. H.E. Kissinger Variation of peak temperature with heating rate in different thermal analysis J Res Nat Bur Stand 57 1956 217 221
66. S.T. Lee, L. Leonard, and J. Jun Study of thermoplastic PLA foam extrusion J Cell Plast 44 2008 293 305
67. C. Marrazzo, E. Di Maio, and S. Iannace Conventional and nanometric nucleating agents in poly(e-caprolactone) foaming: crystals vs. bubbles nucleation Polym Eng Sci 48 2008 336 344
68. C. Wang, S.N. Leung, M. Bussmann, W.T. Zhai, and C.B. Park Numerical investigation of nucleating agent-enhanced heterogeneous nucleation Ind Eng Chem Res 49 2010 12783 12792
69. S.N. Leung, A. Wong, C. Wang, and C.B. Park Mechanism of extensional stress-induced cell formation in polymeric foaming processes with the presence of nucleating agents J Supercrit Fluids 63 2012 187 198
70. P.A.M. Lips, W. Velthoen, P.J. Dijkstra, M. Wessling, and J. Feijen Gas foaming of segmented poly(ester amide) films Polymer 46 2005 9396 9403
71. 2 batch foaming Ind Eng Chem Res 50 2011 3247 3252
72. A. Wong, Y. Guo, and C.B. Park Fundamental mechanisms of cell nucleation in polypropylene foaming with supercritical carbon dioxide - effects of extensional stresses and crystals J Supercrit Fluids 79 2013 142 151
73. A. Wong, S.F.L. Wijnands, T. Kuboki, and C.B. Park Mechanisms of nanoclay-enhanced plastic foaming processes - effects of nanoclay intercalation and exfoliation J Nanoparticle Res 15 2013 1815 1829
74. J.S. Colton, and N.P. Suh The nucleation of microcellular thermoplastic foam with additives: Part I: Theoretical considerations Polym Eng Sci 27 1987 485 492
75. J.S. Colton, and N.P. Suh The nucleation of microcellular thermoplastic foam with additives: Part II: Experimental results and discussion Polym Eng Sci 27 1987 493 499
76. J.J. Kolstad Crystallization kinetics of poly(l-lactide-co-mesolactide) J Appl Polym Sci 62 1996 1079 1091
77. H. Li, and M.A. Huneault Effect of nucleation and plasticization on the crystallization of poly(lactic acid) Polymer 48 2007 6855 6866
78. H. Tsuji, H. Takai, and S.K. Saha Isothermal and non-isothermal crystallization behavior of poly(l-lactic acid): effects of stereocomplex as nucleating agent Polymer 47 2006 3826 3837
79. A. Pei, Q. Zhou, and L.A. Berglund Functionalized cellulose nanocrystals as biobased nucleation agents in poly(l-lactide) (PLLA)-crystallization and mechanical property effects Compos Sci Technol 70 2010 815 821
80. F. De Santis, R. Pantani, and G. Titomanlio Nucleation and crystallization kinetics of poly(lactic acid) Thermochim Acta 522 2011 128 134
81. Park CB, Nofar M. A method for the preparation of PLA bead foams. US Pat PCT appl PCT/050231, filed on 28 March 2013.
82. M. Nofar Expanded PLA bead foaming: analysis of crystallization kinetics and development of a novel technology [PhD thesis] 2013 University of Toronto 301 pp.
83. Sasaki H, Ogiyama K, Hira A, Hashimoto K, Tokoro H. Production method of foamed polypropylene resin beads. US Pat 6,838,488 B2; 2005.
84. Braun F. Method for producing expanded or expandable polyolefin particles. US Pat 6,723,760 B2; 2004.
85. J.B. Choi, M.J. Chung, and J.S. Yoon Formation of double melting peak of poly(propylene-co-ethylene-co-1-butene) during the preexpansion process for production of expanded polypropylene Ind Eng Chem Res 44 2013 2776 2780
86. M. Nofar, Y. Guo, and C.B. Park Double crystal melting peak generation for expanded polypropylene bead foam manufacturing Ind Eng Chem Res 52 2013 2297 2303
87. 2: influence of the rheological properties and the process parameters on the cellular structure J Supercrit Fluids 58 2011 177 188
88. C. Marrazzo, E. Di Maio, and S. Iannace Foaming of synthetic and natural biodegradable polymers J Cell Plast 43 2007 123 133
89. S. Pilla, S.G. Kim, G.K. Auer, S. Gong, and C.B. Park Microcellular extrusion-foaming of polylactide with chain-extender Polym Eng Sci 49 2009 1653 1660
90. S. Pilla, A. Kramschuster, L. Yang, J. Lee, S. Gong, and L.S. Turng Microcellular injection-molding of polylactide with chain-extender Mater Sci Eng C 29 2009 1258 1265
91. D.M. Bigg Polylactide copolymers: effect of copolymer ratio and end capping on their properties Adv Polym Technol 24 2005 69 82
92. J.P. Garancher, and A. Fernyhough Crystallinity effects in polylactic acid-based foams J Cell Plast 48 2012 387 397
93. T. Fujiwara, T. Yamaoka, Y. Kimura, and K.J. Wynne Poly(lactide) swelling and melting behavior in supercritical carbon dioxide and postventing porous material Biomacromolecules 6 2005 2370 2373
94. D. Preechawong, M. Peesan, P. Supaphol, and R. Rujiravanit Preparation and characterization of starch/poly(l-lactic acid) hybrid foams Carbohydr Polym 59 2005 329 337
95. A. Hao, Y. Geng, Q. Xu, Z. Lu, and L. Yu Study of different effects on foaming process of biodegradable PLA/starch composites in supercritical/compressed carbon dioxide J Appl Polym Sci 109 2008 2679 2686
96. M. Mihai, M.A. Huneault, B.D. Favis, and H. Li Extrusion foaming of semi-crystalline PLA and PLA/thermoplastic starch blends Macromol Biosci 7 2007 907 920
97. J.F. Zhang, and X. Sun Biodegradable foams of poly(lactic acid)/starch. I. Extrusion condition and cellular size distribution J Appl Polym Sci 106 2007 857 862
98. J.F. Zhang, and X. Sun Biodegradable foams of poly(lactic acid)/starch. II. Cellular structure and water resistance J Appl Polym Sci 106 2007 3058 3062
99. H. Yuan, Z. Liu, and J. Ren Preparation, characterization and foaming behavior of poly(lactic acid)/poly(butylene adipate-co-butylene terephthalate) blend Polym Eng Sci 49 2009 1004 1012
100. A. Kramschuster, and L.S. Turng An injection molding process for manufacturing highly porous and interconnected biodegradable polymer matrices for use as tissue engineering scaffolds J Biomed Mater Res B 92 2010 366 376
101. S. Pilla, S.G. Kim, G.K. Auer, S. Gong, and C.B. Park Microcellular extrusion foaming of poly(lactide)/poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) blends Mater Sci Eng C 30 2010 255 262
102. K. Li, Z. Cui, X. Sun, L.S. Turng, and H.X. Huang Effects of nanoclay on the morphology and physical properties of solid and microcellular injection molded polyactide/poly(butylenes adipate-co-terephthalate) (PLA/PBAT) nanocomposites and blends J Biobased Mater Bioenergy 5 2011 442 451
103. H.B. Zhao, Z. Cui, X. Sun, L.S. Turng, and X.F. Peng The morphology and properties of injection molded solid and microcellular polylactic acid/polyhydroxybutyrate-valerate (PLA/PHBV) blends Ind Eng Chem Res 52 2013 2569 2581
104. A. Kramschuster, S. Pilla, S. Gong, A. Chandra, and L.S. Turng Injection molded solid and microcellular polylactide compounded with recycled paper shopping bag fibers Int Polym Process 22 2007 436 445
105. S. Pilla, A. Kramschuster, J. Lee, G.K. Auer, S. Gong, and L.S. Turng Microcellular and solid polylactide-flax fiber composites Compos Interfaces 16 2009 869 890
106. 2 Macromol Mater Eng 294 2009 620 624
107. L.M. Matuana, and O. Faruk Effect of gas saturation conditions on the expansion ratio of microcellular poly(lactic acid)/wood-flour composites Express Polym Lett 4 2010 621 631
108. C.I. Boissard, P.E. Bourban, C.J.G. Plummer, R.C. Neagu, and J.A.E. Manson Cellular biocomposites from polylactide and microfibrillated cellulose J Cell Plast 48 2012 445 458
109. C.B. Park, D.F. Baldwin, and N.P. Suh Effect of the pressure drop rate on cell nucleation in continuous processing of microcellular polymers Polym Eng Sci 35 1995 432 440
110. L.M. Matuana, C.B. Park, and J.J. Balatinecz Cell morphology and property relationships of microcellular foamed PVC/wood-fiber composites Polym Eng Sci 38 1998 1862 1872
111. P. Rachtanapun, S.E.M. Selke, and L.M. Matuana Relationship between cell morphology and impact strength of microcellular foamed high density polyethylene/polypropylene blends Polym Eng Sci 44 2004 1551 1560
112. M. Shimbo, I. Higashitani, and Y. Miyano Mechanism of strength improvement of foamed plastics having fine cell J Cell Plast 43 2007 157 167
113. K.A. Seeler, and V. Kumar Tension-tension fatigue of microcellular polycarbonate: initial results J Reinf Plast Compos 12 1993 359 376
114. N.C. Hilyard, and A. Cunningham Low density cellular plastics: physical basis of behaviour 1994 Chapman and Hall London 369
115. J.A. Martínez-Díez, M.A. Rodríguez-Pérez, J.A. de Saja, L.O. Arcos y Rábago, and O.A. Almanza The thermal conductivity of a polyethylene foam block produced by a compression molding process J Cell Plast 37 2001 21 42
116. E. Solórzano, M.A. Rodriguez-Perez, J. Lázaro, and J.A. de Saja Influence of solid phase conductivity and cellular structure on the heat transfer mechanisms of cellular materials: diverse case studies Adv Eng Mater 11 2009 818 824
117. Ahmed MS. Design and Manufacturing of Novel Microcellular Acoustical Foams. PhD thesis, University of Toronto, 2007. 178 pp.
118. Kabumoto A, Nakayama K, Ito M, Ono S, Yoshida N. Method for manufacturing a foamed plastics of saturated polyester using a cyclic tetramer as foaming agent. US Pat 5,458,832; 1995.
119. Kabumoto A, Yoshida N, Ito M, Okada M. Method of manufacturing thermoplastic polyester foam sheet. US Pat 5,723,510; 1998.
120. M. Okamoto, P.H. Nam, P. Maiti, T. Kotaka, T. Nakayama, M. Takada, M. Ohshima, A. Usuki, N. Hasegawa, and H. Okamoto Biaxial flow-induced alignment of silicate layers in polypropylene/clay nanocomposite foam Nano Lett 1 2001 503 505
121. Y. Srithep, L.S. Turng, R. Sabo, and C. Clemons Nanofibrillated cellulose (NFC) reinforced polyvinyl alcohol (pvoh) nanocomposites: properties, solubility of carbon dioxide, and foaming Cellulose 19 2012 1209 1210
122. A. Wong, and C.B. Park The effects of extensional stresses on the foamability of polystyrene-talc composites blown with carbon dioxide Chem Eng Sci 75 2012 49 62
123. Y.H. Lee, K.H. Wang, C.B. Park, and M. Sain Effects of clay dispersion on the foam morphology of LDPE/clay nanocomposites J Appl Polym Sci 103 2007 2129 2130
124. W. Zheng, Y.H. Lee, and C.B. Park Use of nanoparticles for improving the foaming behaviors of linear PP J Appl Polym Sci 117 2010 2972 2980
125. J. Shen, C.C. Zeng, and L.J. Lee Synthesis of polystyrene-carbon nanofibers nanocomposite foams Polymer 46 2005 5218 5220
126. H. Kharbas, P. Nelson, M. Yuan, S. Gong, and L.S. Turng Effects of nano-fillers and process conditions on the microstructure and mechanical properties of microcellular injection molded polyamide nanocomposites Polym Compos 24 2003 655 671
127. 2 Polym Eng Sci 43 2003 1261 1270
128. Z. Zhu, C.B. Park, and J. Zong Challenges to the formation of nano cells in foaming processes Int Polym Process 23 2008 270 276
129. Thiagarajan C, Sriraman R, Chaudhari D, Kumar M, Pattanayak A. Nano-cellular polymer foam and methods for making them. US Pat 7,838,108 B2; 2010.
130. Y. Fujimoto, S.S. Ray, M. Okamoto, A. Ogami, K. Yamada, and K. Ueda Well-controlled biodegradable nanocomposite foams: from microcellular to nanocellular Macromol Rapid Commun 24 2003 457 461
131. Y. Ema, M. Ikeya, and M. Okamoto Foam processing and cellular structure of polylactide-based nanocomposites Polymer 47 2006 5350 5359
132. S. Pilla, A. Kramschuster, S. Gong, A. Chandra, and L.S. Turng Solid and microcellular polylactide-carbon nanotube nanocomposites Int Polym Process 5 2007 418 428
133. A. Kramschuster, S. Gong, L.S. Turng, T. Li, and T. Li Injection molded solid and microcellular polylactide and polylactide nanocomposites J Biobased Mater Bioenergy 1 2007 37 45
134. M. Bitou, and M. Okamoto Fabrication of porous 3-D structure from poly(l-lactide)-based nanocomposite foam via enzymatic degradation Int Polym Process 5 2007 1 9
135. M. Bitou, and M. Okamoto Fabrication of porous 3-D structure from poly(l-lactide)-based nano-composite foams. Effect of foam structure on enzymatic degradation Polym Degrad Stab 93 2008 1081 1087
136. S.S. Hwang, P.P. Hsu, J.M. Yeh, K.C. Chang, and Y.Z. Lai The mechanical/thermal properties of microcellular injection-molded poly-lactic-acid nanocomposites Polym Compos 30 2009 1625 1630
137. S. Pilla, A. Kramschuster, J. Lee, C. Clemons, S. Gong, and L.S. Turng Microcellular processing of polylactide-hyperbranched polyester-nanoclay composites J Mater Sci 45 2010 2732 2746
138. 2 through a continuous-extrusion process Ind Eng Chem Res 49 2010 2186 2193
139. A. Tsimpliaraki, I. Tsivintzelis, S.I. Marras, I. Zuburtikudis, and C. Panayiotou The effect of surface chemistry and nanoclay loading on the microcellular structure of porous poly(d,l,lactic acid) nanocomposites J Supercrit Fluids 57 2011 278 287
140. A. Ameli, D. Jahani, M. Nofar, and C.B. Park Development of high void fraction polylactide composite foams using injection molding: mechanical and thermal insulation properties Compos Sci Technol 90 2013 88 95
141. A.G. Mikos, M.D. Lyman, L.E. Freed, and R. Langer Wetting of poly(l-lactic acid) and poly(dl-lactic-co-glycolic acid) foams for tissue culture Biomaterials 15 1994 55 58
142. H. Lo, S. Kadiyala, S.E. Guggino, and K.W. Leong Poly (l-lactide acid) foams with cell seeding and controlled-release capacity J Biomed Mater Res 30 1996 475 484
143. A.S. Goldstein, G. Zhu, G. Morris, R.K. Meszlenyi, and A.G. Mikos Effect of osteoblastic culture conditions on the structure of poly(dl-lactic-co-glycolic acid) foam scaffolds Tissue Eng 5 1999 421 433
144. R. Zhang, and P.X. Ma Porous poly(l-lactic acid)/apatite composites created by biomimetic process J Biomed Mater Res 45 1999 285 293
145. Y.S. Nam, and T.G. Park Biodegradable polymeric microcellular foams by modified thermally induced phase separation method Biomaterials 20 1999 1783 1790
146. Y.S. Nam, J.J. Yoon, and T.G. Park A novel fabrication method of macroporous biodegradable polymer scaffolds using gas foaming salt as a porogen additive J Biomed Mater Res 53 2000 1 7
147. A.G. Mikos, and J.S. Temenoff Formation of highly porous biodegradable scaffolds for tissue engineering J Biotechnol 3 2000 1 6
148. G. Chen, T. Ushida, and T. Tateishi Preparation of poly(l-lactic acid) and poly(dl-lactic-co-glycolic acid) foams by use of ice microparticulates Biomaterials 22 2001 2563 2567
149. J. Yang, G. Shi, J. Bei, S. Wang, Y. Cao, Q. Shang, G. Yang, and W. Wang Fabrication and surface modification of macroporous poly(l-lactic acid) and poly(l-lactic-co-glycolic acid) (70/30) cell scaffolds for human skin fibroblast cell culture J Biomed Mater Res 62 2002 438 446
150. C. Tu, Q. Cai, J. Yang, Y. Wan, J. Bei, and S. Wang The fabrication and characterization of poly(lactic acid) scaffolds for tissue engineering by improved solid-liquid phase separation Polym Adv Technol 14 2003 565 573
151. J.H. Lee, T.G. Park, H.S. Park, D.S. Lee, Y.K. Lee, S.C. Yoon, and J.D. Nam Thermal and mechanical characteristics of poly(l-lactic acid) nanocomposite scaffold Biomaterials 24 2003 2773 2778
152. V. Karageorgiou, and D. Kaplan Porosity of 3D biomaterial scaffolds and osteogenesis Biomaterials 26 2005 5474 5491
153. Y. Jung, S.S. Kim, Y.H. Kim, S.H. Kim, B.S. Kim, S. Kim, C.Y. Choi, and S.H. Kim A poly(lactic acid)/calcium metaphosphate composite for bone tissue engineering Biomaterials 26 2005 6314 6322
154. D.J. Mooney, D.F. Baldwin, N.P. Suh, J.P. Vacantis, and R. Larger Novel approach to fabricate porous sponges of poly(d,l-lactic-co-glycolic acid) without the use of organic solvents Biomaterials 17 1996 1417 1422
155. M. Montjovent, L. Mathieu, B. Hinz, L.L. Applegate, P.E. Bourban, P.Y. Zambelli, J.A. Månson, and D.P. Pioletti Biocompatibility of bioresorbable poly(l-lactic acid) composite scaffolds obtained by supercritical gas foaming with human fetal bone cells Tissue Eng 11 2005 1640 1649
156. 2 as antisolvent I. Poly(l-lactic acid) J Supercrit Fluids 40 2007 317 322
157. 2 gas-foaming method as a scaffold for three-dimensional growth of Hep3B cells Biotechnol Bioenergy 100 2008 998 1009
158. R. Gendron, and M.F. Champagne Rheological behavior relevant to extrusion roaming R. Gendron, Thermoplastic foam processing: principles and development 2005 CRC Press Boca Raton, FL 42 104
159. 2: toward 100% green material Cell Polym 26 2007 83 115
160. S. Nalawade, F. Picchioni, and L.P.B.M. Janssen Supercritical carbon dioxide as a green solvent for processing polymer melts: processing aspects and applications Prog Polym Sci 31 2006 19 43
161. L.M. Matuana, O. Faruk, and C.A. Diaz Cell morphology of extrusion foamed poly(lactic acid) using endothermic chemical foaming agent Bioresour Technol 100 2009 5947 5954
162. J.W.S. Lee, and C.B. Park Use of nitrogen as a blowing agent for the production of fine-celled high-density HDPE foams Macromol Mater Eng 291 2006 1233 1244
163. J.W.S. Lee, C.B. Park, and S.G. Kim Reducing material costs with microcellular/fine-celled foaming J Cell Plast 43 2007 297 312
164. J.W.S. Lee, J. Wang, J.D. Yoon, and C.B. Park Strategies to achieve a uniform cell structure with a high void fraction in advanced structural foam molding Ind Eng Chem Res 47 2009 9457 9464
165. S. Wong, J.W.S. Lee, H.E. Naguib, and C.B. Park Effect of processing parameters on the mechanical properties of injection molded thermoplastic polyolefin (TPO) cellular foams Macromol Mater Eng 293 2008 605 613
166. Q. Guo Visualization of polymer foaming using a batch foaming simulation system with a high pressure-drop rate [PhD thesis] 2007 University of Toronto 202 pp.
167. C. Kwag, C.W. Manke, and E. Gulari Effects of dissolved gas on viscoelastic scaling and glass transition temperature of polystyrene melts Ind Eng Chem Res 40 2001 3048 3052
168. C. Kwag, C.W. Manke, and E. Gulari Rheology of molten polystyrene with dissolved supercritical and near-critical gases J Polym Sci B: Polym Phys 37 1999 2771 2781
169. N.P. Suh Microcellular plastics J.F. Stevenson, Innovation in polymer processing: molding 1996 Hanser Publishers Munich 93 133
170. Trexel Inc. Sustainable solutions for engineered plastic parts 2012 http://www.trexel.com [accessed December 2013]
171. P. Egger, M. Fischer, H. Kirschling, and A.K. Bledzki Versatility for mass production in mucell injection moulding Kunstst Plast Eur 95 2005 70 73
172. A.N.J. Sporrer, and V. Altstadt Controlling morphology of injection molded structural foams by mold design and processing parameters J Cell Plast 43 2007 313 330
173. T. Ishikawa, and M. Ohshima Visual observation and numerical studies of polymer foaming behavior of polypropylene/carbon dioxide system in a core-back injection molding process Polym Eng Sci 51 2011 1617 1625
174. 2 foaming behavior in core-back foam injection molding Polym Eng Sci 52 2012 875 883
175. N. Mills Bead foam microstructure and processing Polymer foams handbook 2007 Butterworth-Heinemann Oxford 69 83 [chapter 4]
176. K. Parker, J.P. Garancher, S. Shah, S. Weal, and A. Fernyhough Polylactic acid (PLA) foams for packaging applications S. Pilla, Handbook of bioplastics and biocomposites engineering applications 2011 Scrivener Publishing LLC Salem, MA 161 175
177. Witt M, Shah S. Methods of manufacture of polylactide acid foams. US Pat US 8,283,389 B2; 2012.
178. Noordegraaf J, Kuijstermans FPA, De Jong JPM. Particulate, expandable polymer, method for producing particulate expandable polymer, as well as a special use of the obtained foam material. US Pat 20,110,218,257 A1; 2011.
179. g higher than 60 °C foam. Eur Pat EP2137249 A2; 2009.
180. Shinohara M, Tokiwa T, Sasaki H. Expanded polylactide acid resin beads and foamed molding obtained therefrom. Eur Pat EP1378538 A1; 2004.
181. Haraguchi K, Ohta H. Expanded polylactide acid resin particles. Eur Pat EP1683 828 A2; 2005.