Acute kidney injury by radiographic contrast media: Pathogenesis and prevention

BioMed Research International

Volumn 2014, Issue , 2014, Pages

  Andreucci, Michele ^a   Faga, Teresa ^a   Pisani, Antonio ^b   Sabbatini, Massimo ^b   Michael, Ashour ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY MAGNA GRAECIA OF CATANZARO   (Italy)

^b UNIVERSITY OF NAPLES FEDERICO II   (Italy)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AMINOPHYLLINE; ANTIOXIDANT; CALCIUM CHANNEL BLOCKING AGENT; CONTRAST MEDIUM; CREATININE; DIURETIC AGENT; DOPAMINE; DOPAMINE RECEPTOR STIMULATING AGENT; HYDROXYMETHYLGLUTARYL COENZYME A REDUCTASE INHIBITOR; IODINATED CONTRAST MEDIUM; NEBIVOLOL; NITRIC OXIDE; PROSTAGLANDIN E1; REACTIVE OXYGEN METABOLITE; STEROID; THEOPHYLLINE;

ACUTE KIDNEY FAILURE; ANEMIA; ANGIOCARDIOGRAPHY; BLOOD VOLUME; CLINICAL FEATURE; COMPUTER ASSISTED TOMOGRAPHY; CONTRAST INDUCED NEPHROPATHY; CREATININE BLOOD LEVEL; CREATININE CLEARANCE; DIABETES MELLITUS; GLOMERULUS FILTRATION RATE; HEMODIALYSIS; HEMOFILTRATION; HUMAN; INCIDENCE; INTENSIVE CARE UNIT; KIDNEY FUNCTION; KIDNEY TRANSPLANTATION; MULTIPLE MYELOMA; NEPHROTOXICITY; OSMOLALITY; PATHOGENESIS; REVIEW; SEPSIS; VISCOSITY; ACUTE KIDNEY INJURY; RADIOGRAPHY; RISK FACTOR;

ACUTE KIDNEY INJURY; CONTRAST MEDIA; HUMANS; INCIDENCE; RADIOGRAPHY; RISK FACTORS;

EID: 84907396055     PISSN: 23146133     EISSN: 23146141     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1155/2014/362725     Document Type: Review

References (202)

1. M. Andreucci, R. Solomon, and A. Tasanarong, "Side effects of radiographic contrast media: pathogenesis, risk factors, prevention," in Side Effects of Radiographic Contrast Media, M. Andreucci, R. Solomon, and A. Tasanarong, Eds., Special Issue BioMed Research International, 2014.
2. H. S. Thomsen and S. K. Morcos, "Contrast media and the kidney: european society of urogenital radiology (ESUR) guidelines," The British Journal of Radiology, vol. 76, no. 908, pp. 513-518, 2003.
3. R. Mehran and E. Nikolsky, "Contrast-induced nephropathy: definition, epidemiology, and patients at risk," Kidney International. Supplement, no. 100, pp. S11-S15, 2006.
4. R. W. Katzberg and J. H. Newhouse, "Intravenous contrast medium-induced nephrotoxicity: is the medical risk really as great as we have come to believe?" Radiology, vol. 256, no. 1, pp. 21-28, 2010.
5. A. S. Levey, J. P. Bosch, J. B. Lewis, T. Greene, N. Rogers, and D. Roth, "Amore accuratemethod toestimate glomerular filtration rate from serum creatinine: a new prediction equation," Annals of Internal Medicine, vol. 130, no. 6, pp. 461-470, 1999.
6. A. S. Levey, L. A. Stevens, C. H. Schmid et al., "Anewequation to estimate glomerular filtration rate," Annals of Internal Medicine, vol. 150, no. 9, pp. 604-612, 2009.
7. D. W. Cockcroft and M. H. Gault, "Prediction of creatinine clearance fromserum creatinine," Nephron, vol. 16, no. 1, pp. 31-41, 1976.
8. V. E. Andreucci, G. Fuiano, D. Russo, and M. Andreucci, "Vasomotor nephropathy in the elderly," Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation, vol. 13, supplement 7, pp. 17-24, 1998.
9. V. E. Andreucci, G. Fuiano, P. Stanziale, and M. Andreucci, "Role of renal biopsy in the diagnosis and prognosis of acute renal failure," Kidney International, Supplement, vol. 53, no. 66, pp. S91-S95, 1998.
10. T. G. Gleeson and S. Bulugahapitiya, "Contrast-induced nephropathy," The American Journal of Roentgenology, vol. 183, no. 6, pp. 1673-1689, 2004.
11. L. M. Curtis and A. Agarwal, "HOpe for contrast-induced acute kidney injury," Kidney International, vol. 72, no. 8, pp. 907-909, 2007.
12. R. Solomon, "Contrast-induced acute kidney injury: is there a risk after intravenous contrast?" Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology, vol. 3, no. 5, pp. 1242-1243, 2008.
13. S. D. Weisbord and P. M. Palevsky, "Prevention of contrasti-nduced nephropathy with volume expansion," Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 273-280, 2008.
14. R. J. Bruce, A. Djamali, K. Shinki, S. J. Michel, J. P. Fine, and M. A. Pozniak, "Background fluctuation of kidney function versus contrast-induced nephrotoxicity," The American Journal of Roentgenology, vol. 192, no. 3, pp. 711-718, 2009.
15. A. M. Mitchell, A. E. Jones, J. A. Tumlin, and J. A. Kline, "Incidence of contrast-induced nephropathy after contrastenhanced computed tomography in the outpatient setting," Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology, vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 4-9, 2010.
16. M. S. Davenport, S. Khalatbari, R. H. Cohan, J. R. Dillman, J. D. Myles, and J. H. Ellis, "Contrastmaterial-induced nephrotoxicity and intravenous low-osmolality iodinated contrast material: risk stratification by using estimated glomerular filtration rate," Radiology, vol. 268, no. 3, pp. 719-728, 2013.
17. M. S. Davenport, S. Khalatbari, J. R. Dillman, R. H. Cohan, E. M. Caoili, and J. H. Ellis, "Contrast material-induced nephrotoxicity and intravenous low-osmolality iodinated contrast material," Radiology, vol. 267, no. 1, pp. 94-105, 2013.
18. R. J. McDonald, J. S. McDonald, J. P. Bida et al., "Intravenous contrast material-induced nephropathy: causal or coincident phenomenon?" Radiology, vol. 267, no. 1, pp. 106-118, 2013.
19. J. S. McDonald, R. J. McDonald, J. Comin et al., "Frequency of acute kidney injury following intravenous contrast medium administration: a systematic review and meta-analysis," Radiology, vol. 267, no. 1, pp. 119-128, 2013.
20. M. Rudnick and H. Feldman, "Contrast-induced nephropathy: what are the true clinical consequences?" Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 263-272, 2008.
21. K. Lakhal, S. Ehrmann, A. Chaari et al., "Acute kidney injury network definition of contrast-induced nephropathy in the critically ill: incidence and outcome," Journal of Critical Care, vol. 26, no. 6, pp. 593-599, 2011.
22. G. Fuiano, D. Mancuso, C. Indolfi et al., "Early detection of progressive renal dysfunction in patients with coronary artery disease," Kidney International, vol. 68, no. 6, pp. 2773-2780, 2005.
23. R. J. Solomon, R. Mehran, M. K. Natarajan et al., "Contrastinduced nephropathy and long-term adverse events: cause and effect?" Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology, vol. 4, no. 7, pp. 1162-1169, 2009.
24. P. J. Scanlon, D. P. Faxon, A. M. Audet et al., "ACC/AHA guidelines for coronary angiography: executive summary and recommendations. A report of the American College of Cardiology/ American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines (Committee on Coronary Angiography) developed in collaboration with the Society for Cardiac Angiography and Interventions," Circulation, vol. 99, no. 17, pp. 2345-2357, 1999.
25. P. A. McCullough, R. Wolyn, L. L. Rocher, R. N. Levin, and W. W. O'Neill, "Acute renal failure after coronary intervention: Incidence, risk factors, and relationship tomortality," American Journal of Medicine, vol. 103, no. 5, pp. 368-375, 1997.
26. S. W. Murphy, B. J. Barrett, and P. S. Parfrey, "Contrast nephropathy," Journal of the American Society of Nephrology, vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 177-182, 2000.
27. S. Detrenis, M. Meschi, S. Musini, and G. Savazzi, "Lights and shadows on the pathogenesis of contrast-induced nephropathy: state of the art," Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation, vol. 20,no. 8, pp. 1542-1550, 2005.
28. M. M. Sendeski, "Pathophysiology of renal tissue damage by iodinated contrast media," Clinical and Experimental Pharmacology and Physiology, vol. 38, no. 5, pp. 292-299, 2011.
29. M. Sendeski, A. Patzak, T. L. Pallone, C. Cao, A. E. Persson, and P. B. Persson, "Iodixanol, constriction of medullary descending vasa recta, and risk for contrast medium-induced nephropathy," Radiology, vol. 251, no. 3, pp. 697-704, 2009.
30. A. J. Giaccia, M. C. Simon, and R. Johnson, "The biology of hypoxia: the role of oxygen sensing in development, normal function, and disease," Genes and Development, vol. 18, no. 18, pp. 2183-2194, 2004.
31. M. Sabbatini, M. Santillo, A. Pisani et al., "Inhibition of Ras/ERK1/2 signaling protects against postischemic renal injury," American Journal of Physiology: Renal Physiology, vol. 290, no. 6, pp. F1408-F1415, 2006.
32. S. N. Heyman, S. Rosen, M. Khamaisi, J. Idée, and C. Rosenberger, "Reactive oxygen species and the pathogenesis of radiocontrast-induced nephropathy," Investigative Radiology, vol. 45, no. 4, pp. 188-195, 2010.
33. P. Dawson, M. J. G. Harrison, and E. Weisblatt, "Effect of contrast media on red cell filtrability and morphology," The British Journal of Radiology, vol. 56, no. 670, pp. 707-710, 1983.
34. A. Pisani, E. Riccio, M. Andreucci et al., "Role of reactive oxygen species in pathogenesis of radiocontrast-induced nephropathy," BioMed Research International, vol. 2013, Article ID 868321, 6 pages, 2013.
35. P. Pacher, J. S. Beckman, and L. Liaudet, "Nitric oxide and peroxynitrite in health and disease," Physiological Reviews, vol. 87, no. 1, pp. 315-424, 2007.
36. S. I. Myers, L. Wang, F. Liu, and L. L. Bartula, "Iodinated contrast induced renal vasoconstriction is due in part to the downregulation of renal cortical and medullary nitric oxide synthesis," Journal of Vascular Surgery, vol. 44, no. 2, pp. 383-391, 2006.
37. A. Pisani, M. Sabbatini, E. Riccio, Rossano, R., Andreucci, M., Capasso, C., De Luca, V., Carginale, V., Bizzarri, M., Borrelli, A., Schiattarella, A., Santangelo, M., Mancini, A. "Effect of a recombinant manganese superoxide dismutase on prevention of contrast-induced acute kidney injury," Clinical and Experimental Nephrology, 18(3), pp. 424-431, 2014.
38. C. Gospos, N. Freudenberg, J. Staubesand, K. Mathias, and X. Papacharlampos, "The effect of contrast media on the aortic endothelium of rats," Radiology, vol. 147, no. 3, pp. 685-688, 1983.
39. S. N. Heyman, B. A. Clark, N. Kaiser et al., "Radiocontrast agents induce endothelin release in vivo and in vitro," Journal of the American Society of Nephrology, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 58-65, 1992.
40. S. N. Heyman, S. Rosen, and C. Rosenberger, "Renal parenchymal hypoxia, hypoxia adaptation, and the pathogenesis of radiocontrast nephropathy," Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 288-296, 2008.
41. A. Caiazza, L. Russo, M. Sabbatini, and D. Russo, "Hemodynamic and tubular changes induced by contrast media," BioMed Research International, vol. 2014, Article ID 578974, 7 pages, 2014.
42. K. Hardiek, R. E. Katholi, V. Ramkumar, and C. Deitrick, "Proximal tubule cell response to radiographic contrast media," The American Journal of Physiology: Renal Physiology, vol. 280, no. 1, pp. F61-F70, 2001.
43. M. C. Heinrich, M. K. Kuhlmann, A. Grgic, M. Heckmann, B. Kramann, and M. Uder, "Cytotoxic effects of ionic highosmolar, nonionic monomeric, and nonionic iso-osmolar dimeric iodinated contrast media on renal tubular cells in vitro," Radiology, vol. 235, no. 3, pp. 843-849, 2005.
44. A. Michael, T. Faga, A. Pisani et al., "Molecular mechanisms of renal cellular nephrotoxicity due to radiocontrast media," BioMed Research International, vol. 2014, Article ID 249810, 10 pages, 2014.
45. M. Andreucci, A. Michael, C. Kramers et al., "Renal ischemia/reperfusion and ATP depletion/repletion in LLC-PK 1 cells result in phosphorylation of FKHR and FKHRL1," Kidney International, vol. 64, no. 4, pp. 1189-1198, 2003.
46. M. Andreucci, G. Fuiano, P. Presta et al., "Downregulation of cell survival signalling pathways and increased cell damage in hydrogen peroxide-treated human renal proximal tubular cells by alpha-erythropoietin," Cell Proliferation, vol. 42, no. 4, pp. 554-561, 2009.
47. M. Andreucci, "Contrast media and nephrotoxicity: a molecular conundrum," Giornale Italiano di Nefrologia, vol. 28, no. 4, p. 355, 2011.
48. M. Andreucci, G. Lucisano, T. Faga et al., "Differential activation of signaling pathways involved in cell death, survival and inflammation by radiocontrast media in human renal proximal tubular cells," Toxicological Sciences, vol. 119, no. 2, pp. 408-416, 2011.
49. M. Andreucci, G. Fuiano, P. Presta et al., "Radiocontrast media cause dephosphorylation of Akt and downstream signaling targets in human renal proximal tubular cells," Biochemical Pharmacology, vol. 72, no. 10, pp. 1334-1342, 2006.
50. M. Andreucci, T. Faga, D. Russo et al., "Differential activation of signaling pathways by low-osmolar and iso-osmolar radiocontrast agents in human renal tubular cells," Journal of Cellular Biochemistry, vol. 115, pp. 281-289, 2014.
51. P. Dawson, J. Pitfield, and K. Skinnemoen, "Isomeric purity and supersaturation of iopamidol," British Journal of Radiology, vol. 56, no. 670, pp. 711-713, 1983.
52. M. Andreucci, T. Faga, G. Lucisano et al., "Mycophenolic acid inhibits the phosphorylation of NF-κB and JNKs and causes a decrease in IL-8 release in H2O2-treated human renal proximal tubular cells," Chemico-Biological Interactions, vol. 185, no. 3,pp. 253-262, 2010.
53. M. A. Cunha and N. Schor, "Effects of gentamicin, lipopolysaccharide, and contrast media on immortalized proximal tubular cells," Renal Failure, vol. 24, no. 5, pp. 655-658, 2002.
54. A. Peer, Z. Averbukh, S. Berman, D. Modai, M. Averbukh, and J. Weissgarten, "Contrast media augmented apoptosis of cultured renal mesangial, tubular, epithelial, endothelial, and hepatic cells," Investigative Radiology, vol. 38, no. 3, pp. 177-182, 2003.
55. J. A. Neyra, S. Shah, R. Mooney, G. Jacobsen, J. Yee, and J. E. Novak, "Contrast-induced acute kidney injury following coronary angiography: a cohort study of hospitalized patients with or without chronic kidney disease," Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation, vol. 28, no. 6, pp. 1463-1471, 2013.
56. K. J. Hardiek, R. E. Katholi, R. S. Robbs, and C. E. Katholi, "Renal effects of contrast media in diabetic patients undergoing diagnostic or interventional coronary angiography," Journal of Diabetes and Its Complications, vol. 22, no. 3, pp. 171-177, 2008.
57. C. L. Manske, J. M. Sprafka, J. T. Strony, and Y. Wang, "Contrast nephropathy in azotemic diabetic patients undergoing coronary angiography," American Journal of Medicine, vol. 89, no. 5, pp. 615-620, 1990.
58. M. Khamaisi, I. Raz, V. Shilo et al., "Diabetes and radiocontrast media increase endothelin converting enzyme-1 in the kidney," Kidney International, vol. 74, no. 1, pp. 91-100, 2008.
59. A. Pflueger, T. S. Larson, K. A. Nath, B. F. King, J. M. Gross, and F. G. Knox, "Role of adenosine in contrastmedia-induced acute renal failure in diabetes mellitus," Mayo Clinic Proceedings, vol. 75, no. 12, pp. 1275-1283, 2000.
60. M. Pakfetrat, M. H. Nikoo, L. Malekmakan et al., "Comparison of risk factors for contrast-induced acute kidney injury between patients with and without diabetes," Hemodialysis International, vol. 14, no. 4, pp. 387-392, 2010.
61. M. R. Rudnick, S. Goldfarb, and J. Tumlin, "Contrast-induced nephropathy: is the picture any clearer?" Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 261-262, 2008.
62. S. Morabito, V. Pistolesi, G. Benedetti et al., "Incidence of contrast-induced acute kidney injury associated with diagnostic or interventional coronary angiography," Journal of Nephrology, vol. 25, no. 6, pp. 1098-1107, 2012.
63. A. Kolonko, F. Kokot, and A. Wie¸cek, "Contrast-associated nephropathy: old clinical problem and new therapeutic perspectives," Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation, vol. 13,no. 3, pp. 803-806, 1998.
64. S. K. Morcos, "Contrast media-induced nephrotoxicity - questions and answers," British Journal of Radiology, vol. 71, pp. 357-365, 1998.
65. R. K. Gupta, A. Kapoor, S. Tewari, N. Sinha, and R. K. Sharma, "Captopril for prevention of contrast-induced nephropathy in diabetic patients: a randomised study," Indian Heart Journal, vol. 51, no. 5, pp. 521-526, 1999.
66. S. B. Duan, Y. H. Wang, F. Y. Liu et al., "The protective role of telmisartan against nephrotoxicity induced by X-ray contrast media in rat model," Acta Radiologica, vol. 50, no. 7, pp. 754-759, 2009.
67. M. Cirit, O. Toprak, M. Yesil et al., "Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors as a risk factor for contrast-induced nephropathy," Nephron: Clinical Practice, vol. 104, no. 1,pp. c20-c27, 2006.
68. D. Kiski, W. Stepper, E. Brand, G. Breithardt, and H. Reinecke, "Impact of renin-angiotensin-aldosterone blockade by angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors or AT-1 blockers on frequency of contrast medium-induced nephropathy: a posthoc analysis from the Dialysis-versus-Diuresis (DVD) trial," Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation, vol. 25, no. 3, pp. 759-764, 2010.
69. M. Y. Rim, H. Ro, W. C. Kang et al., "The effect of renin-angiotensin- aldosterone system blockade on contrast-induced acute kidney injury: a propensity-matched study," The American Journal of Kidney Diseases, vol. 60, no. 4, pp. 576-582, 2012.
70. Z. Umruddin, K. Moe, and K. Superdock, "ACE inhibitor or angiotensin II receptor blocker use is a risk factor for contrastinduced nephropathy," Journal of Nephrology, vol. 25, no. 5, pp. 776-781, 2012.
71. M. A. C. Onuigbo and N. T. C. Onuigbo, "Does reninangiotensin aldosterone system blockade exacerbate contrast-induced nephropathy in patients with chronic kidney disease? A prospective 50-month mayo clinic study," Renal Failure, vol. 30, no. 1, pp. 67-72, 2008.
72. J. L. Rosenstock, R. Bruno, J. K. Kim et al., "The effect of withdrawal of ACE inhibitors or angiotensin receptor blockers prior to coronary angiography on the incidence of contrast-induced nephropathy," International Urology and Nephrology, vol. 40, no. 3, pp. 749-755, 2008.
73. M. Andreucci, S. Federico, and V. E. Andreucci, "Edema and acute renal failure," Seminars in Nephrology, vol. 21, no. 3, pp. 251-256, 2001.
74. E. D. Bartels, G. C. Brun, A. Gammeltoft, and P. A. Gjorup, "Acute anuria following intravenous pyelography in a patient with myelomatosis," Acta Medica Scandinavica, vol. 150, pp. 297-302, 1954.
75. P. E. Perillie and H. O. Conn, "Acute renal failure after intravenous pyelography in plasma cell myeloma," Journal of the American Medical Association, vol. 167, pp. 2186-2189, 1958.
76. W. Scheitlin, G. Martz, and U. Brunner, "Acute renal failure following intravenous pyelography in multiple myeloma," Schweizerische Medizinische Wochenschrift, vol. 90, pp. 84-87, 1960.
77. G. H. Myers Jr. and D. M. Witten, "Acute renal failure after excretory urography in multiple myeloma," The American Journal of Roentgenology, Radium Therapy, and Nuclear Medicine, vol. 113, no. 3, pp. 583-588, 1971.
78. D. J. Cohen, W. H. Sherman, E. F. Osserman, and G. B. Appel, "Acute renal failure in patients with multiple myeloma," American Journal of Medicine, vol. 76, no. 2, pp. 247-256, 1984.
79. C. S. McCarthy and J. A. Becker, "Multiple myeloma and contrast media," Radiology, vol. 183, no. 2, pp. 519-521, 1992.
80. J. K. Pahade, C. A. LeBedis, V. D. Raptopoulos et al., "Incidence of contrast-induced nephropathy in patients with multiple myeloma undergoing contrast-enhanced CT," American Journal of Roentgenology, vol. 196, no. 5, pp. 1094-1101, 2011.
81. M. Andreucci, R. Solomon, and A. Tasanarong, "Side effects of radiographic contrast media: pathogenesis, risk factors, and prevention," BioMed Research International, vol. 2014, Article ID 741018, 20 pages, 2014.
82. P. Aspelin, P. Aubry, S. G. Fransson, R. Strasser, R. Willenbrock, and K. J. Berg, "Nephrotoxic effects in high-risk patients undergoing angiography," The New England Journal of Medicine, vol. 348, no. 6, pp. 491-499, 2003.
83. R. W. Katzberg, "Urography into the 21st century: new contrast media, renal handling, imaging characteristics, and nephrotoxicity," Radiology, vol. 204, no. 2, pp. 297-312, 1997.
84. C. P. Taliercio, R. E. Vlietstra, D. M. Ilstrup et al., "A randomized comparison of the nephrotoxicity of iopamidol and diatrizoate in high risk patients undergoing cardiac angiography," Journal of the American College of Cardiology, vol. 17, no. 2, pp. 384-390, 1991.
85. B. J. Barrett and E. J. Carlisle, "Metaanalysis of the relative nephrotoxicity of high- and low-osmolality iodinated contrast media," Radiology, vol. 188, no. 1, pp. 171-178, 1993.
86. B. J. Barrett, "Contrast nephrotoxicity," Journal of the American Society of Nephrology, vol. 5, no. 2, pp. 125-137, 1994.
87. N. Chalmers and R. W. Jackson, "Comparison of iodixanol and iohexol in renal impairment," British Journal of Radiology, vol. 72, pp. 701-703, 1999.
88. M. Dong, Z. Jiao, T. Liu, F. Guo, and G. Li, "Effect of administration route on the renal safety of contrast agents: ameta-analysis of randomized controlled trials," Journal of Nephrology, vol. 25, no. 3, pp. 290-301, 2012.
89. M. C. Heinrich, L. Häberle, V. Müller, W. Bautz, and M. Uder, "Nephrotoxicity of iso-osmolar iodixanol compared with nonionic low-osmolar contrastmedia:meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials," Radiology, vol. 250, no. 1, pp. 68-86, 2009.
90. M. J. Kuhn, N. Chen, D. V. Sahani et al., "The PREDICT study: A randomized double-blind comparison of contrast-induced nephropathy after low- or isoosmolar contrast agent exposure," American Journal of Roentgenology, vol. 191, no. 1, pp. 151-157, 2008.
91. R. J. Solomon, M. K. Natarajan, S. Doucet et al., "Cardiac angiography in renally impaired patients (CARE) study: a randomized double-blind trial of contrast-induced nephropathy in patients with chronic kidney disease," Circulation, vol. 115, no. 25, pp. 3189-3196, 2007.
92. M. Reed, P. Meier, U. U. Tamhane, K. B. Welch, M. Moscucci, and H. S. Gurm, "The relative renal safety of iodixanol compared with low-osmolar contrast media. A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials," Cardiovascular Interventions, vol. 2, no. 7, pp. 645-654, 2009.
93. L. Bolognese, G. Falsini, C. Schwenke et al., "Impact of iso-osmolar versus low-osmolar contrast agents on contrast-induced nephropathy and tissue reperfusion in unselected patients with ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction undergoing primary percutaneous coronary intervention (from the Contrast Media and Nephrotoxicity Following Primary Angioplasty for Acute Myocardial Infarction [CONTRAST-AMI] Trial)," American Journal of Cardiology, vol. 109, no. 1, pp. 67-74, 2012.
94. E. Seeliger, D. C. Lenhard, and P. B. Persson, "Contrast media viscosity versus osmolality in kidney injury: lessons from animal studies," BioMed Research International, vol. 2014, Article ID 358136, 15 pages, 2014.
95. G. Jost, H. Pietsch, J. Sommer et al., "Retention of iodine and expression of biomarkers for renal damage in the kidney after application of iodinated contrast media in rats," Investigative Radiology, vol. 44, no. 2, pp. 114-123, 2009.
96. K. Dyvik, K. Dyrstad, and A. Tronstad, "Relationship between viscosity and determined injection pressure in angiography catheters for common roentgen contrast media," Acta Radiologica. Supplementum, vol. 399, pp. 43-49, 1995.
97. J. Ueda, A. Nygren, P. Hansell, and H. R. Ulfendahl, "Effect of intravenous contrast media on proximal and distal tubular hydrostatic pressure in the rat kidney," Acta Radiologica, vol. 34, no. 1, pp. 83-87, 1993.
98. V. E. Andreucci, D. Russo, B. Cianciaruso, and M. Andreucci, "Some sodium, potassium and water changes in the elderly and their treatment," Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation, vol. 11, supplement 9, pp. 9-17, 1996.
99. E. Lancelot, J. Idée, C. Laclédère, R. Santus, and C. Corot, "Effects of two dimeric iodinated contrast media on renal medullary blood perfusion and oxygenation in dogs," Investigative Radiology, vol. 37, no. 7, pp. 368-375, 2002.
100. J. Ueda, A. Nygren, M. Sjöquist, E. Jacobsson, H. R. Ulfendahl, and Y. Araki, "Iodine concentrations in the rat kidney measured by x-ray microanalysis: comparison of concentrations and viscosities in the proximal tubules and renal pelvis after intravenous injections of contrastmedia," Acta Radiologica, vol. 39, no. 1, pp. 90-95, 1998.
101. E. Seeliger, K. Becker, M. Ladwig, T. Wronski, P. B. Persson, and B. Flemming, "Up to 50-fold increase in urine viscosity with isoosmolar contrastmedia in the rat," Radiology, vol. 256, no. 2, pp. 406-414, 2010.
102. G. Jost, P. Lengsfeld, D. C. Lenhard, H. Pietsch, J. Hütter, and M. A. Sieber, "Viscosity of iodinated contrast agents during renal excretion," European Journal of Radiology, vol. 80,no. 2, pp. 373-377, 2011.
103. J. Ueda, A. Nygren, P. Hansell, and U. Erikson, "Influence of contrast media on single nephron glomerular filtration rate in rat kidney: a comparison between diatrizoate, iohexol, ioxaglate, and iotrolan," Acta Radiologica, vol. 33,no. 6, pp. 596-599, 1992.
104. A. S. Gomes, J. D. Baker, V. Martin-Paredero et al., "Acute renal dysfunction aftermajor arteriography," The American Journal of Roentgenology, vol. 145, no. 6, pp. 1249-1253, 1985.
105. P. McCullough, "Outcomes of contrast-induced nephropathy: experience in patients undergoing cardiovascular intervention," Catheterization and Cardiovascular Interventions, vol. 67, no. 3, pp. 335-343, 2006.
106. S. Harkonen and C. Kjellstrand, "Contrast nephropathy," American Journal of Nephrology, vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 69-77, 1981.
107. K. Kato, N. Sato, T. Yamamoto, Y. Iwasaki, K. Tanaka, and K. Mizuno, "Valuable markers for contrast-induced nephropathy in patients undergoing cardiac catheterization," Circulation Journal, vol. 72, no. 9, pp. 1499-1505, 2008.
108. M. Nunag, M. Brogan, and R. Garrick, "Mitigating contrastinduced acute kidney injury associated with cardiac catheterization," Cardiology in Review, vol. 17, no. 6, pp. 263-269, 2009.
109. L. Byrd and R. L. Sherman, "Radiocontrast-induced acute renal failure: a clinical and pathophysiologic review," Medicine, vol. 58, no. 3, pp. 270-279, 1979.
110. G. A. Khoury, J. C. Hopper, Z. Varghese et al., "Nephrotoxicity of ionic and non-ionic contrast material in digital vascular imaging and selective renal arteriography," British Journal of Radiology, vol. 56, no. 669, pp. 631-635, 1983.
111. R. D. Moore, E. P. Steinberg, N. R. Powe et al., "Nephrotoxicity of high-osmolality versus low-osmolality contrast media: randomized clinical trial," Radiology, vol. 182, no. 3, pp. 649-655, 1992.
112. D. R. Campbell, B. K. Flemming, W. F. Mason, S. A. Jackson, D. J. Hirsch, and K. J. MacDonald, "A comparative study of the nephrotoxicity of iohexol, iopamidol and ioxaglate in peripheral angiography," Canadian Association of Radiologists Journal, vol. 41, no. 3, pp. 133-137, 1990.
113. E. Nikolsky, R. Mehran, Z. Lasic et al., "Low hematocrit predicts contrast-induced nephropathy after percutaneous coronary interventions," Kidney International, vol. 67, no. 2, pp. 706-713, 2005.
114. T. S. Ahuja, N. Niaz, and M. Agraharkar, "Contrast-induced nephrotoxicity in renal allograft recipients," Clinical Nephrology, vol. 54, no. 1, pp. 11-14, 2000.
115. D. Fliser, M. Laville, A. Covic et al., "A European Renal Best Practice (ERBP) position statement on the Kidney Disease Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) clinical practice guidelines on acute kidney injury: part 1: definitions, conservative management and contrast-induced nephropathy," Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation, vol. 27, no. 12, pp. 4263-4272, 2012.
116. K. R. Thomson and D. K. Varma, "Safe use of radiographic contrast media," Australian Prescriber, vol. 33, no. 1, pp. 19-22, 2010.
117. Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) Acute Kidney Injury Work Group, "KDIGO clinical practice guideline for acute kidney injury," Kidney International, vol. 2, pp. 1-138, 2012.
118. R. G. Cigarroa, R. A. Lange, R. H. Williams, and L. D. Hillis, "Dosing of contrastmaterial to prevent contrastnephropathy in patients with renal disease," The American Journal of Medicine, vol. 86, no. 6, pp. 649-652, 1989.
119. W. K. Laskey, C. Jenkins, F. Selzer et al., "Volume-to-creatinine clearance ratio: a pharmacokinetically based risk factor for prediction of early creatinine increase after percutaneous coronary intervention," Journal of the American College of Cardiology, vol. 50, no. 7, pp. 584-590, 2007.
120. H. S. Gurm, S. R. Dixon, D. E. Smith et al., "Renal functionbased contrast dosing to define safe limits of radiographic contrast media in patients undergoing percutaneous coronary interventions," Journal of the American College of Cardiology, vol. 58, no. 9, pp. 907-914, 2011.
121. J. J. Keaney, C. M. Hannon, and P. T. Murray, "Contrast-induced acute kidney injury: how much contrast is safe?" Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation, vol. 28, no. 6, pp. 1376-1383, 2013.
122. C. Mueller, "Prevention of contrast-induced nephropathy with volume supplementation," Kidney international. Supplement, no. 100, pp. S16-S19, 2006.
123. C. E. A. Balemans, L. J. M. Reichert, B. I. H. van Schelven, J. A. J. G. van den Brand, and J. F. M. Wetzels, "Epidemiology of contrast material-induced nephropathy in the era of hydration," Radiology, vol. 263, no. 3, pp. 706-713, 2012.
124. H. S. Thomsen, "Guidelines for contrast media from the European Society of Urogenital Radiology," American Journal of Roentgenology, vol. 181, no. 6, pp. 1463-1471, 2003.
125. R. Solomon and H. L. Dauerman, "Contrast-induced acute kidney injury," Circulation, vol. 122, no. 23, pp. 2451-2455, 2010.
126. G. J. Merten, W. P. Burgess, L. V. Gray et al., "Prevention of contrast-induced nephropathy with sodium bicarbonate: a randomized controlled trial," Journal of the American Medical Association, vol. 291, no. 19, pp. 2328-2334, 2004.
127. M. Masuda, T. Yamada, T. Mine et al., "Comparison of usefulness of sodium bicarbonate versus sodium chloride to prevent contrast-induced nephropathy in patients undergoing an emergent coronary procedure," The American Journal of Cardiology, vol. 100, no. 5, pp. 781-786, 2007.
128. A. Tamura, Y. Goto, K. Miyamoto et al., "Efficacy of single-bolus administration of sodium bicarbonate to prevent contrastinduced nephropathy in patients with mild renal insufficiency undergoing an elective coronary procedure," The American Journal of Cardiology, vol. 104, no. 7, pp. 921-925, 2009.
129. S. D. Navaneethan, S. Singh, S. Appasamy, R. E. Wing, and A. R. Sehgal, "Sodiumbicarbonate therapy for prevention of contrast-induced nephropathy: a systematic review and meta-analysis," American Journal of Kidney Diseases, vol. 53, no. 4, pp. 617-627, 2009.
130. E. A. J. Hoste, J. J. De Waele, S. A. Gevaert, S. Uchino, and J. A. Kellum, "Sodium bicarbonate for prevention of contrast-induced acute kidney injury: A systematic review and metaanalysis," Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation, vol. 25, no. 3, pp. 747-758, 2010.
131. M. Joannidis, M. Schmid, and C. J. Wiedermann, "Prevention of contrast media-induced nephropathy by isotonic sodium bicarbonate: a meta-analysis," Wiener Klinische Wochenschrift, vol. 120, no. 23-24, pp. 742-748, 2008.
132. M. Pakfetrat, M. H.Nikoo, L. Malekmakan et al., "Acomparison of sodium bicarbonate infusion versus normal saline infusion and its combination with oral acetazolamide for prevention of contrast-induced nephropathy: A randomized, double-blind trial," International Urology and Nephrology, vol. 41, no. 3, pp. 629-634, 2009.
133. J. Jang, H. Jin, J. Seo et al., "Sodium bicarbonate therapy for the prevention of contrast-induced acute kidney injury - a systematic review and meta-analysis," Circulation Journal, vol. 76, no. 9, pp. 2255-2265, 2012.
134. S. Zoungas, T. Ninomiya, R. Huxley et al., "Systematic review: sodium bicarbonate treatment regimens for the prevention of contrast-induced nephropathy," Annals of Internal Medicine, vol. 151, no. 9, pp. 631-638, 2009.
135. S. S. Brar, S. Hiremath, G. Dangas, R. Mehran, S. K. Brar, and M. B. Leon, "Sodium bicarbonate for the prevention of contrast induced-acute kidney injury: a systematic review and meta-analysis," Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology, vol. 4, no. 10, pp. 1584-1592, 2009.
136. L. Shavit, R. Korenfeld, M. Lifschitz, A. Butnaru, and I. Slotki, "Sodium bicarbonate versus sodium chloride and oral N-acetylcysteine for the prevention of contrast-induced nephropathy in advanced chronic kidney disease," Journal of Interventional Cardiology, vol. 22, no. 6, pp. 556-563, 2009.
137. A. Vasheghani-Farahani, G. Sadigh, S. E. Kassaian et al., "Sodium bicarbonate in preventing contrast nephropathy in patients at risk for volume overload: a randomized controlled trial," Journal of Nephrology, vol. 23, no. 2, pp. 216-223, 2010.
138. A. M. From, B. J. Bartholmai, A. W. Williams, S. S. Cha, A. Pflueger, and F. S. McDonald, "Sodium bicarbonate is associated with an increased incidence of contrast nephropathy: a retrospective cohort study of 7977 patients at Mayo Clinic," Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 10-18, 2008.
139. H. C. Lee, S. H. Sheu, I. H. Liu et al., "Impact of short-duration administration of N-acetylcysteine, probucol and ascorbic acid on contrast-induced cytotoxicity," Journal of Nephrology, vol. 25, no. 1, pp. 56-62, 2012.
140. R. Safirstein, L. Andrade, and J. M. Vieira, "Acetylcysteine and nephrotoxic effects of radiographic contrast agents - a new use for an old drug," The New England Journal of Medicine, vol. 343, no. 3, pp. 210-212, 2000.
141. M. Tepel, M. van der Giet, C. Schwarzfeld, U. Laufer, D. Liermann, and W. Zidek, "Prevention of radiographic-contrast-agent-induced reductions in renal function by acetylcysteine," The New England Journal of Medicine, vol. 343, no. 3, pp. 180-184, 2000.
142. C. S. R. Baker, A. Wragg, S. Kumar, R. de Palma, L. R. I. Baker, and C. J. Knight, "A rapid protocol for the prevention of contrast-induced renal dysfunction: the RAPPID study," Journal of the American College of Cardiology, vol. 41, no. 12, pp. 2114-2118, 2003.
143. C. Briguori, A. Colombo, A. Violante et al., "Standard vs double dose of N-acetylcysteine to prevent contrast agent associated nephrotoxicity," European Heart Journal, vol. 25, no. 3, pp. 206-211, 2004.
144. S. Jo, B. Koo, J. Park et al., "N-acetylcysteine versus AScorbic acid for Preventing contrast-Induced nephropathy in patients with renal insufficiency undergoing coronary angiography. NASPI study-a prospective randomized controlled trial," American Heart Journal, vol. 157, no. 3, pp. 576-583, 2009.
145. J. D. Durham, C. Caputo, J. Dokko et al., "A randomized controlled trial of N-acetylcysteine to prevent contrast nephropathy in cardiac angiography," Kidney International, vol. 62, no. 6, pp. 2202-2207, 2002.
146. S. Allaqaband, R. Tumuluri, A. M. Malik et al., "Prospective randomized study of N-acetylcysteine, fenoldopam, and saline for prevention of radiocontrast-induced nephropathy," Catheterization and Cardiovascular Interventions, vol. 57, no. 3, pp. 279-283, 2002.
147. I. Goldenberg, M. Shechter, S. Matetzky et al., "Oral acetylcysteine as an adjunct to saline hydration for the prevention of contrast-induced nephropathy following coronary angiography: a randomized controlled trial and review of the current literature," European Heart Journal, vol. 25, no. 3, pp. 212-218, 2004.
148. L. C. Coyle, A. Rodriguez, R. E. Jeschke, A. Simon-Lee, K. C. Abbott, and A. J. Taylor, "Acetylcysteine In Diabetes (AID): a randomized study of acetylcysteine for the prevention of contrast nephropathy in diabetics," The American Heart Journal, vol. 151, no. 5, pp. 1032.e9-1032.e12, 2006.
149. F. Ferrario, M. T. Barone, G. Landoni et al., "Acetylcysteine and non-ionic isosmolar contrast-induced nephropathy - a randomized controlled study," Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation, vol. 24, no. 10, pp. 3103-3107, 2009.
150. N. Pannu, B. Manns, H. Lee, and M. Tonelli, "Systematic review of the impact of N-acetylcysteine on contrast nephropathy," Kidney International, vol. 65, no. 4, pp. 1366-1374, 2004.
151. H. S. Gurm, D. E. Smith, O. Berwanger et al., "Contemporary use and effectiveness of n-acetylcysteine in preventing contrastinduced nephropathy among patients undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention," JACC:Cardiovascular Interventions, vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 98-104, 2012.
152. K. Spargias, E. Alexopoulos, S. Kyrzopoulos et al., "Ascorbic acid prevents contrast-mediated nephropathy in patients with renal dysfunction undergoing coronary angiography or intervention," Circulation, vol. 110, no. 18, pp. 2837-2842, 2004.
153. E. Alexopoulos, K. Spargias, S. Kyrzopoulos et al., "Contrastinduced acute kidney injury in patients with renal dysfunction undergoing a coronary procedure and receiving non-ionic low-osmolar versus iso-osmolar contrast media," American Journal of the Medical Sciences, vol. 339, no. 1, pp. 25-30, 2010.
154. U. Sadat, A. Usman, J. H. Gillard, and J. R. Boyle, "Does ascorbic acid protect against contrast-induced acute kidney injury in patients undergoing coronary angiography: a systematic review with meta-analysis of randomized, controlled trials," Journal of the American College of Cardiology, vol. 62, pp. 2167-2175, 2013.
155. A. Boscheri, C.Weinbrenner, B. Botzek, K. Reynen, E. Kuhlisch, and R. H. Strasser, "Failure of ascorbic acid to prevent contrast-media induced nephropathy in patientswith renal dysfunction," Clinical Nephrology, vol. 68, no. 5, pp. 279-286, 2007.
156. A. Tasanarong, A. Vohakiat, P. Hutayanon, and D. Piyayotai, "New strategy of α-and γ-tocopherol to prevent contrastinduced acute kidney injury in chronic kidney disease patients undergoing elective coronary procedures," Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation, vol. 28, no. 2, pp. 337-344, 2013.
157. L. Kabasakal, A. Ö. Şehirli, Ş. Çetinel, E. Cikler, N. Gedik, and G. Şener, "Mesna (2-mercaptoethane sulfonate) prevents ischemia/reperfusion induced renal oxidative damage in rats," Life Sciences, vol. 75, no. 19, pp. 2329-2340, 2004.
158. U. Ludwig, M. K. Riedel, M. Backes, A. Imhof, R. Muche, and F. Keller, "MESNA (sodium 2-mercaptoethanesulfonate) for prevention of contrast medium-induced nephrotoxicity - controlled trial," Clinical Nephrology, vol. 75, no. 4, pp. 302-308, 2011.
159. O. Toprak, M. Cirit, M. Tanrisev et al., "Preventive effect of nebivolol on contrast-induced nephropathy in rats," Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation, vol. 23, no. 3, pp. 853-859, 2008.
160. Ö. Günebakmaz, M. G. Kaya, F. Koc et al., "Does nebivolol prevent contrast-induced nephropathy in humans?" Clinical Cardiology, vol. 35, no. 4, pp. 250-254, 2012.
161. M. Andreucci, "[Statins in CIN: a problem at least partly solved?]," Giornale Italiano di Nefrologia, vol. 30, no. 3, 2013.
162. S. Khanal, N. Attallah, D. E. Smith et al., "Statin therapy reduces contrast-induced nephropathy: an analysis of contemporary percutaneous interventions," American Journal of Medicine, vol. 118, no. 8, pp. 843-849, 2005.
163. G. Patti, A. Nusca, M. Chello et al., "Usefulness of statin pretreatment to prevent contrast-induced nephropathy and to improve long-term outcome in patients undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention," American Journal of Cardiology, vol. 101, no. 3, pp. 279-285, 2008.
164. B. C. Zhang, W. M. Li, and Y. W. Xu, "High-dose statin pretreatment for the prevention of contrast-induced nephropathy: a meta-analysis," Canadian Journal of Cardiology, vol. 27, no. 6, pp. 851-858, 2011.
165. M. Leoncini, A. Toso, M. Maioli, F. Tropeano, and F. Bellandi, "Statin treatment before percutaneous cononary intervention," Journal of Thoracic Disease, vol. 5, no. 3, pp. 335-342, 2013.
166. M. Sabbatini, A. Pisani, F. Uccello et al., "Atorvastatin improves the course of ischemic acute renal failure in aging rats," Journal of the American Society of Nephrology, vol. 15,no. 4, pp. 901-909, 2004.
167. D. Yang, S. Lin, L. Wei, and W. Shang, "Effects of short- and long-termhypercholesterolemia on contrast-induced acute kidney injury," American Journal of Nephrology, vol. 35,no. 1, pp. 80-89, 2012.
168. K. E. Al-Otaibi, A. M. Al Elaiwi, M. Tariq, and A. K. Al-Asmari, "Simvastatin attenuates contrast-induced nephropathy through modulation of oxidative stress, proinflammatory myeloperoxidase, and nitric oxide," Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity, vol. 2012, Article ID 831748, 8 pages, 2012.
169. C. Quintavalle, D. Fiore, F. de Micco et al., "Impact of a high loading dose of atorvastatin on contrast-induced acute kidney injury," Circulation, vol. 126, no. 25, pp. 3008-3016, 2012.
170. Y. Han, G. Zhu, L. Han et al., "Short-term rosuvastatin therapy for prevention of contrast-induced acute kidney injury in patients with diabetes and chronic kidney disease," Journal of the American College of Cardiology, vol. 63, no. 1, pp. 62-70, 2014.
171. M. Leoncini, A. Toso, M. Maioli, F. Tropeano, S. Villani, and F. Bellandi, "Early high-dose rosuvastatin for contrast-induced nephropathy prevention in acute coronary syndrome: results from the PRATO-ACS study (protective effect of rosuvastatin and antiplatelet therapy on contrast-induced acute kidney injury and myocardial damage in patients with Acute Coronary Syndrome)," Journal of the American College of Cardiology, vol. 63, pp. 71-79, 2014.
172. S. Yoshida, H. Kamihata, S. Nakamura et al., "Prevention of contrast-induced nephropathy by chronic pravastatin treatment in patients with cardiovascular disease and renal insufficiency," Journal of Cardiology, vol. 54, no. 2, pp. 192-198, 2009.
173. M. A. Muñoz, P. R. Maxwell, K. Green, D. W. Hughes, and R. L. Talbert, "Pravastatin versus simvastatin for prevention of contrast-induced nephropathy," Journal of Cardiovascular Pharmacology and Therapeutics, vol. 16, no. 3-4, pp. 376-379, 2011.
174. S. Acikel, H. Muderrisoglu, A. Yildirir et al., "Prevention of contrast-induced impairment of renal function by short-term or long-term statin therapy in patients undergoing elective coronary angiography," Blood Coagulation and Fibrinolysis, vol. 21, no. 8, pp. 750-757, 2010.
175. G. Patti, E. Ricottini, A. Nusca et al., "Short-term, high-dose atorvastatin pretreatment to prevent contrast-induced nephropathy in patients with acute coronary syndromes undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention (from the ARMYDA-CIN [atorvastatin for reduction ofmyocardial damage during angioplasty-contrast-induced nephropathy] trial," American Journal of Cardiology, vol. 108, no. 1, pp. 1-7, 2011.
176. F. Ribichini, A. Gambaro, M. Pighi et al., "Effects of prednisone on biomarkers of tubular damage induced by radiocontrast in interventional cardiology," Journal of Nephrology, vol. 26, no. 3, pp. 586-593, 2013.
177. G. Marenzi, C. Ferrari, I. Marana et al., "Prevention of contrast nephropathy by furosemide with matched hydration: the MYTHOS (induced diuresis with matched hydration compared to standard hydration for contrast induced nephropathy prevention) trial," JACC: Cardiovascular Interventions, vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 90-97, 2012.
178. R. Solomon, C. Werner, D. Mann, J. D'Elia, and P. Silva, "Effects of saline, mannitol, and furosemide on acute decreases in renal function induced by radiocontrast agents," New England Journal of Medicine, vol. 331, no. 21, pp. 1416-1420, 1994.
179. J. M. Weinstein, S. Heyman, and M. Brezis, "Potential deleterious effect of furosemide in radiocontrast nephropathy," Nephron, vol. 62, no. 4, pp. 413-415, 1992.
180. B. R. C. Kurnik, R. L. Allgren, F. C. Center, R. J. Solomon, E. R. Bates, and L. S. Weisberg, "Prospective study of atrial natriuretic peptide for the prevention of radiocontrast-induced nephropathy," American Journal of Kidney Diseases, vol. 31, no. 4, pp. 674-680, 1998.
181. D. Yang, R. Jia, and J. Tan, "Na+/Ca2+ exchange inhibitor, KB-R7943, attenuates contrast-induced acute kidney injury," Journal of Nephrology, vol. 26, pp. 877-885, 2013.
182. H.-. Neumayer, W. Junge, A. Kufner, and A. Wenning, "Prevention of radiocontrast-media-induced nephrotoxicity by the calcium channel blocker nitrendipine: a prospective randomised clinical trial," Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation, vol. 4, no. 12, pp. 1030-1036, 1989.
183. D. Russo, A. Testa, L. D. Volpe, and G. Sansone, "Randomised prospective study on renal effects of two different contrast media in humans: protective role of a calcium channel blocker," Nephron, vol. 55, no. 3, pp. 254-257, 1990.
184. B. Spangberg-Viklund, J. Berglund, T. Nikonoff, P. Nyberg, T. Skau, and R. Larsson, "Does prophylactic treatment with felodipine, a calciumantagonist, prevent low-osmolar contrastinduced renal dysfunction in hydrated diabetic and nondiabetic patients with normal or moderately reduced renal function?" Scandinavian Journal of Urology and Nephrology, vol. 30, no. 1, pp. 63-68, 1996.
185. C. M. Erley, S. H. Duda, S. Schlepckowet al., "Adenosine antagonist theophylline prevents the reduction of glomerular filtration rate after contrast media application," Kidney International, vol. 45, no. 5, pp. 1425-1431, 1994.
186. C. M. Erley, S. H. Duda, D. Rehfuss et al., "Prevention of radiocontrast-media-induced nephropathy in patients with pre-existing renal insufficiency by hydration in combination with the adenosine antagonist theophylline," Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation, vol. 14, no. 5, pp. 1146-1149, 1999.
187. R. E. Katholi, G. J. Taylor, W. P. McCann et al., "Nephrotoxicity fromcontrast media: attenuation with theophylline," Radiology, vol. 195, no. 1, pp. 17-22, 1995.
188. W. Huber, K. Ilgmann, M. Page et al., "Effect of theophylline on contrast material-induced nephropathy in patients with chronic renal insufficiency: controlled, randomized, double-blinded study," Radiology, vol. 223, no. 3, pp. 772-779, 2002.
189. A. S. Abizaid, C. E. Clark, G. S. Mintz et al., "Effects of dopamine and aminophylline on contrast-induced acute renal failure after coronary angioplasty in patients with preexisting renal insufficiency," American Journal of Cardiology, vol. 83, no. 2, pp. 260-263, 1999.
190. N. W. Shammas, M. J. Kapalis, M. Harris, D. McKinney, and E. P. Coyne, "Aminophylline does not protect against radiocontrast nephropathy in patients undergoing percutaneous angiographic procedures," Journal of Invasive Cardiology, vol. 13, no. 11, pp. 738-740, 2001.
191. S. S. Hans, B. A. Hans, R. Dhillon, C. Dmuchowski, and J. Glover, "Effect of dopamine on renal function after arteriography in patients with pre-existing renal insufficiency," The American Surgeon, vol. 64, no. 5, pp. 432-436, 1998.
192. A. A. Chamsuddin, K. J. Kowalik, H. Bjarnason et al., "Using a dopamine type 1A receptor agonist in high-risk patients to ameliorate contrast-associated nephropathy," The American Journal of Roentgenology, vol. 179, no. 3, pp. 591-596, 2002.
193. A. S. Kini, C. A. Mitre, M. Kamran et al., "Changing trends in incidence and predictors of radiographic contrast nephropathy after percutaneous coronary intervention with use of fenoldopam," American Journal of Cardiology, vol. 89, no. 8, pp. 999-1002, 2002.
194. M. Gare, Y. S. Haviv, A. Ben-Yehuda et al., "The renal effect of low-dose dopamine in high-risk patients undergoing coronary angiography," Journal of the American College of Cardiology, vol. 34, no. 6, pp. 1682-1688, 1999.
195. G. W. Stone, P. A. McCullough, J. A. Tumlin et al., "Fenoldopam mesylate for the prevention of contrast-induced nephropathy: a randomized controlled trial," Journal of the American Medical Association, vol. 290, no. 17, pp. 2284-2291, 2003.
196. A. Wang, T. Holcslaw, T. M. Bashore et al., "Exacerbation of radiocontrast nephrotoxicity by endothelin receptor antagonism," Kidney International, vol. 57, no. 4, pp. 1675-1680, 2000.
197. J. Koch, J. Plum, B. Grabensee, and U. Mödder, "Prostaglandin E1: a new agent for the prevention of renal dysfunction in high risk patients caused by radiocontrast media?" Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation, vol. 15, no. 1, pp. 43-49, 2000.
198. H. I. Miller, A. Dascalu, T. A. Rassin, Y. Wollman, T. Chernichowsky, and A. Iaina, "Effects of an acute dose of LArginine during coronary angiography in patients with chronic renal failure: a randomized, parallel, double-blind clinical trial," American Journal of Nephrology, vol. 23, no. 2, pp. 91-95, 2003.
199. T. Lehnert, E. Keller, K. Gondolf, T. Schäffner, H. Pavenstädt, and P. Schollmeyer, "Effect of haemodialysis after contrast medium administration in patients with renal insufficiency," Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation, vol. 13, no. 2, pp. 358-362, 1998.
200. R. Schindler, C. Stahl, S. Venz, K. Ludat, W. Krause, and U. Frei, "Removal of contrast media by different extracorporeal treatments," Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation, vol. 16, no. 7, pp. 1471-1474, 2001.
201. B. Vogt, P. Ferrari, C. Schönholzer et al., "Prophylactic hemodialysis after radiocontrast media in patients with renal insufficiency is potentially harmful," American Journal of Medicine, vol. 111, no. 9, pp. 692-698, 2001.
202. V. L.M. Esnault, "Radiocontrast media-induced nephrotoxicity in patients with renal failure: rationale for a new doubleblind, prospective, randomized trial testing calcium channel antagonists," Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation, vol. 17, no. 8, pp. 1362-1364, 2002.