Pharmacologic therapy for cardiovascular risk reduction in patients with the metabolic syndrome

Current Pharmaceutical Design

Volumn 20, Issue 31, 2014, Pages 5025-5038

  Gouni Berthold, Ioanna ^a   Berthold, Heiner K ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF COLOGNE   (Germany)

^b EVANGELISCHES KRANKENHAUS   (Germany)

Author keywords

Dysglycemia; Dyslipidemia; Hypertension; Hyperuricemia; Metabolic syndrome; Smoking

Indexed keywords

2,4 THIAZOLIDINEDIONE DERIVATIVE; ACARBOSE; ACETYLSALICYLIC ACID; ANGIOTENSIN RECEPTOR ANTAGONIST; ANTILIPEMIC AGENT; BETA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; BILE ACID SEQUESTRANT; C REACTIVE PROTEIN; CALCIUM CHANNEL BLOCKING AGENT; DIPEPTIDYL CARBOXYPEPTIDASE INHIBITOR; GLUCAGON LIKE PEPTIDE 1 RECEPTOR AGONIST; GLUCOSE; HYDROCHLOROTHIAZIDE; HYDROXYMETHYLGLUTARYL COENZYME A REDUCTASE INHIBITOR; INSULIN; LISINOPRIL; LOW DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN CHOLESTEROL; METFORMIN; PIOGLITAZONE; ANTIDIABETIC AGENT; DRUG COMBINATION; INCRETIN; ASPIRIN PLUS HYDROCHLOROTHIAZIDE PLUS LISINOPRIL PLUS SIMVASTATIN; ATORVASTATIN; COLESEVELAM; FENOFIBRATE; FIBRIC ACID DERIVATIVE; LOSARTAN; NICOTINIC ACID; ROSUVASTATIN; SIMVASTATIN; THIAZIDE DIURETIC AGENT; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG;

ARTICLE; BODY MASS; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; CHOLESTEROL BLOOD LEVEL; CLINICAL TRIAL (TOPIC); DYSGLYCEMIA; DYSLIPIDEMIA; FOLLOW UP; GLUCOSE BLOOD LEVEL; GLUCOSE METABOLISM; GLUCOSE TRANSPORT; HIGH RISK PATIENT; HUMAN; HYPERTENSION; HYPERURICEMIA; IMPAIRED GLUCOSE TOLERANCE; INSULIN RESISTANCE; INSULIN SENSITIVITY; INSULIN TREATMENT; LIFESTYLE MODIFICATION; METABOLIC SYNDROME X; NON INSULIN DEPENDENT DIABETES MELLITUS; PASSIVE SMOKING; PATHOGENESIS; PHARMACEUTICAL CARE; PRIMARY PREVENTION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN BLOOD LEVEL; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL (TOPIC); RISK REDUCTION; SMOKING; SMOKING CESSATION; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW (TOPIC); WAIST CIRCUMFERENCE; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES; COMPLICATION; DRUG COMBINATION; DYSLIPIDEMIAS; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CAROTID ATHEROSCLEROSIS; CORRELATION ANALYSIS; DRUG MIXTURE; DRUG SAFETY; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTION; NONHUMAN; PILL; POLYPILL; RENIN ANGIOTENSIN ALDOSTERONE SYSTEM; TREATMENT OUTCOME;

ACARBOSE; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES; DRUG COMBINATIONS; DYSLIPIDEMIAS; HUMANS; HYDROXYMETHYLGLUTARYL-COA REDUCTASE INHIBITORS; HYPOGLYCEMIC AGENTS; HYPOLIPIDEMIC AGENTS; INCRETINS; INSULIN; METABOLIC SYNDROME X; METFORMIN; RISK REDUCTION BEHAVIOR; THIAZOLIDINEDIONES;

EID: 84906247609     PISSN: 13816128     EISSN: 18734286     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2174/1381612819666131206111721     Document Type: Article

References (185)

1. Executive Summary of The Third Report of The National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, And Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol In Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III). JAMA 2001; 285: 2486-97.
2. Alberti KG, Eckel RH, Grundy SM, et al. Harmonizing the metabolic syndrome: a joint interim statement of the International Diabetes Federation Task Force on Epidemiology and Prevention; National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute; American Heart Association; World Heart Federation; International Atherosclerosis Society; and International Association for the Study of Obesity. Circulation 2009; 120: 1640-5.
3. Eckel RH, Alberti KG, Grundy SM, Zimmet PZ. The metabolic syndrome. Lancet 2010; 375: 181-3.
4. Gami AS, Witt BJ, Howard DE, et al. Metabolic syndrome and risk of incident cardiovascular events and death: a systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. J Am Coll Cardiol 2007; 49: 403-14.
5. Mottillo S, Filion KB, Genest J, et al. The metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular risk a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Am Coll Cardiol 2010; 56: 1113-32.
6. Bruno G, Merletti F, Biggeri A, et al. Metabolic syndrome as a predictor of all-cause and cardiovascular mortality in type 2 diabetes: the Casale Monferrato Study. Diabetes Care 2004; 27: 2689-94.
7. Sattar N, McConnachie A, Shaper AG, et al. Can metabolic syndrome usefully predict cardiovascular disease and diabetes? Outcome data from two prospective studies. Lancet 2008; 371: 1927-35.
8. Grundy SM. Does the metabolic syndrome exist? Diabetes Care 2006; 29: 1689-92.
9. Kahn R, Buse J, Ferrannini E, Stern M. The metabolic syndrome: time for a critical appraisal: joint statement from the American Diabetes Association and the European Association for the Study of Diabetes. Diabetes Care 2005; 28: 2289-304.
10. Prasad H, Ryan DA, Celzo MF, Stapleton D. Metabolic syndrome: definition and therapeutic implications. Postgrad Med 2012; 124: 21-30.
11. Saboya C, Arasaki CH, Matos D, Lopes-Filho GJ. Relationship Between the Preoperative Body Mass Index and the Resolution of Metabolic Syndrome Following Roux-en-Y Gastric Bypass. Metab Syndr Relat Disord 2012; 10: 292-6.
12. Dhindsa S, Jialal I. Bariatric surgery for the metabolic syndrome: magic bullet or not? Metab Syndr Relat Disord 2012; 10: 241-3.
13. LaMonte MJ, Barlow CE, Jurca R, et al. Cardiorespiratory fitness is inversely associated with the incidence of metabolic syndrome: a prospective study of men and women. Circulation 2005; 112: 505-12.
14. Finley CE, LaMonte MJ, Waslien CI, et al. Cardiorespiratory fitness, macronutrient intake, and the metabolic syndrome: the Aerobics Center Longitudinal Study. J Am Diet Assoc 2006; 106: 673-9.
15. Ilanne-Parikka P, Eriksson JG, Lindstrom J, et al. Effect of lifestyle intervention on the occurrence of metabolic syndrome and its components in the Finnish Diabetes Prevention Study. Diabetes Care 2008; 31: 805-7.
16. Reiner Z, Catapano AL, De BG, et al. ESC/EAS Guidelines for the management of dyslipidaemias: the Task Force for the management of dyslipidaemias of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) and the European Atherosclerosis Society (EAS). Eur Heart J 2011; 32: 1769-818.
17. Lee DC, Sui X, Church TS, et al. Changes in fitness and fatness on the development of cardiovascular disease risk factors hypertension, metabolic syndrome, and hypercholesterolemia. J Am Coll Cardiol 2012; 59: 665-72.
18. Grundy SM, Cleeman JI, Daniels SR, et al. Diagnosis and management of the metabolic syndrome: an American Heart Association/National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Scientific Statement. Circulation 2005; 112: 2735-52.
19. Grundy SM. Metabolic syndrome: connecting and reconciling cardiovascular and diabetes worlds. J Am Coll Cardiol 2006; 47: 1093-100.
20. Reaven GM. Insulin resistance, the insulin resistance syndrome, and cardiovascular disease. Panminerva Med 2005; 47: 201-10.
21. Hanley AJ, Wagenknecht LE, D'Agostino RB, Jr., Zinman B, Haffner SM. Identification of subjects with insulin resistance and beta-cell dysfunction using alternative definitions of the metabolic syndrome. Diabetes 2003; 52: 2740-7.
22. Kanno K, Hirata Y, Numano F, et al. Endothelin-1 and vasculitis. JAMA 1990; 264: 2868.
23. Gerstein HC, Bosch J, Dagenais GR, et al. Basal insulin and cardiovascular and other outcomes in dysglycemia. N Engl J Med 2012; 367: 319-28.
24. DeFronzo RA, Abdul-Ghani M. Type 2 diabetes can be prevented with early pharmacological intervention. Diabetes Care 2011; 34 Suppl 2: S202-S209.
25. Knowler WC, Barrett-Connor E, Fowler SE, et al. Reduction in the incidence of type 2 diabetes with lifestyle intervention or metformin. N Engl J Med 2002; 346: 393-403.
26. Knowler WC, Fowler SE, Hamman RF, et al. 10-year follow-up of diabetes incidence and weight loss in the Diabetes Prevention Program Outcomes Study. Lancet 2009; 374: 1677-86.
27. Orchard TJ, Temprosa M, Goldberg R, et al. The effect of metformin and intensive lifestyle intervention on the metabolic syndrome: the Diabetes Prevention Program randomized trial. Ann Intern Med 2005; 142: 611-9.
28. Samaras K, Wand H, Law M, et al. Prevalence of metabolic syndrome in HIV-infected patients receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy using International Diabetes Foundation and Adult Treatment Panel III criteria: associations with insulin resistance, disturbed body fat compartmentalization, elevated C-reactive protein, and [corrected] hypoadiponectinemia. Diabetes Care 2007; 30: 113-9.
29. Bonfanti P, Giannattasio C, Ricci E, et al. HIV and metabolic syndrome: a comparison with the general population. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2007; 45: 426-31.
30. Worm SW, Friis-Moller N, Bruyand M, et al. High prevalence of the metabolic syndrome in HIV-infected patients: impact of different definitions of the metabolic syndrome. AIDS 2010; 24: 427-35.
31. Hadigan C, Meigs JB, Corcoran C, et al. Metabolic abnormalities and cardiovascular disease risk factors in adults with human immunodeficiency virus infection and lipodystrophy. Clin Infect Dis 2001; 32: 130-9.
32. Fitch KV, Lo J, Abbara S, et al. Increased coronary artery calcium score and noncalcified plaque among HIV-infected men: relationship to metabolic syndrome and cardiac risk parameters. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2010; 55: 495-9.
33. Chiasson JL, Josse RG, Gomis R, et al. Acarbose for prevention of type 2 diabetes mellitus: the STOP-NIDDM randomised trial. Lancet 2002; 359: 2072-7.
34. Hanefeld M, Karasik A, Koehler C, Westermeier T, Chiasson JL. Metabolic syndrome and its single traits as risk factors for diabetes in people with impaired glucose tolerance: the STOP-NIDDM trial. Diab Vasc Dis Res 2009; 6: 32-7.
35. Sullivan SD, Ratner RE. Should the metabolic syndrome patient with prediabetes be offered pharmacotherapy? Curr Diab Rep 2011; 11: 91-8.
36. Quilici S, Chancellor J, Maclaine G, et al. Cost-effectiveness of acarbose for the management of impaired glucose tolerance in Sweden. Int J Clin Pract 2005; 59: 1143-52.
37. Papaetis GS, Orphanidou D, Panagiotou TN. Thiazolidinediones and type 2 diabetes: from cellular targets to cardiovascular benefit. Curr Drug Targets 2011; 12: 1498-512.
38. DeFronzo RA, Banerji M, Bray GA, et al. Actos Now for the prevention of diabetes (ACT NOW) study. BMC Endocr Disord 2009; 9: 17.
39. DeFronzo RA, Tripathy D, Schwenke DC, et al. Pioglitazone for diabetes prevention in impaired glucose tolerance. N Engl J Med 2011; 364: 1104-15.
40. Xiang AH, Peters RK, Kjos SL, et al. Effect of pioglitazone on pancreatic beta-cell function and diabetes risk in Hispanic women with prior gestational diabetes. Diabetes 2006; 55: 517-22.
41. Esposito K, Ciotola M, Carleo D, et al. Effect of rosiglitazone on endothelial function and inflammatory markers in patients with the metabolic syndrome. Diabetes Care 2006; 29: 1071-6.
42. Kermode-Scott B. Meta-analysis confirms raised risk of bladder cancer from pioglitazone. BMJ 2012; 345: e4541.
43. Neumiller JJ. Incretin pharmacology: A review of the incretin effect and current incretin-based therapies. Cardiovasc Hematol Agents Med Chem 2012.
44. Heo KS, Fujiwara K, Abe JI. Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 and its Cardiovascular Effects. Curr Atheroscler Rep 2012.
45. Rosenstock J, Klaff LJ, Schwartz S, et al. Effects of exenatide and lifestyle modification on body weight and glucose tolerance in obese subjects with and without pre-diabetes. Diabetes Care 2010; 33: 1173-5.
46. Astrup A, Rossner S, Van GL, et al. Effects of liraglutide in the treatment of obesity: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Lancet 2009; 374: 1606-16.
47. Gerstein H, Yusuf S, Riddle MC, Ryden L, Bosch J. Rationale, design, and baseline characteristics for a large international trial of cardiovascular disease prevention in people with dysglycemia: the ORIGIN Trial (Outcome Reduction with an Initial Glargine Intervention). Am Heart J 2008; 155: 26-32, 32.
48. Gerstein HC, Bosch J, Dagenais GR, et al. Basal insulin and cardiovascular and other outcomes in dysglycemia. N Engl J Med 2012; 367: 319-28.
49. Nathan DM, Davidson MB, DeFronzo RA, et al. Impaired fasting glucose and impaired glucose tolerance: implications for care. Diabetes Care 2007; 30: 753-9.
50. Nathan DM, Davidson MB, DeFronzo RA, et al. Impaired fasting glucose and impaired glucose tolerance: implications for care. Diabetes Care 2007; 30: 753-9.
51. Catapano AL, Reiner Z, De BG, et al. ESC/EAS Guidelines for the management of dyslipidaemias The Task Force for the management of dyslipidaemias of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) and the European Atherosclerosis Society (EAS). Atherosclerosis 2011; 217: 3-46.
52. Grundy SM. Pre-diabetes, metabolic syndrome, and cardiovascular risk. J Am Coll Cardiol 2012; 59: 635-43.
53. Athyros VG, Tziomalos K, Karagiannis A, Mikhailidis DP. Dyslipidaemia of obesity, metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes mellitus: the case for residual risk reduction after statin treatment. Open Cardiovasc Med J 2011; 5: 24-34.
54. Mikhailidis DP, Elisaf M, Rizzo M, et al. European panel on low density lipoprotein (LDL) subclasses: a statement on the pathophysiology, atherogenicity and clinical significance of LDL subclasses: executive summary. Curr Vasc Pharmacol 2011; 9: 531-2.
55. Mikhailidis DP, Elisaf M, Rizzo M, et al. European panel on low density lipoprotein (LDL) subclasses: a statement on the pathophysiology, atherogenicity and clinical significance of LDL subclasses. Curr Vasc Pharmacol 2011; 9: 533-71.
56. Pyorala K, Ballantyne CM, Gumbiner B, et al. Reduction of cardiovascular events by simvastatin in nondiabetic coronary heart disease patients with and without the metabolic syndrome: subgroup analyses of the Scandinavian Simvastatin Survival Study (4S). Diabetes Care 2004; 27: 1735-40.
57. Girman CJ, Rhodes T, Mercuri M, et al. The metabolic syndrome and risk of major coronary events in the Scandinavian Simvastatin Survival Study (4S) and the Air Force/Texas Coronary Atherosclerosis Prevention Study (AFCAPS/TexCAPS). Am J Cardiol 2004; 93: 136-41.
58. Swislocki AL, Siegel D, Jialal I. Pharmacotherapy for the metabolic syndrome. Curr Vasc Pharmacol 2012; 10: 187-205.
59. Sattar N, Gaw A, Scherbakova O, et al. Metabolic syndrome with and without C-reactive protein as a predictor of coronary heart disease and diabetes in the West of Scotland Coronary Prevention Study. Circulation 2003; 108: 414-9.
60. Singh V, Deedwania P. Reducing morbidity and mortality in high risk patients with statins. Vasc Health Risk Manag 2009; 5: 495-507.
61. Ridker PM, Danielson E, Fonseca FA, et al. Reduction in C-reactive protein and LDL cholesterol and cardiovascular event rates after initiation of rosuvastatin: a prospective study of the JUPITER trial. Lancet 2009; 373: 1175-82.
62. Devaraj S, Siegel D, Jialal I. Statin therapy in metabolic syndrome and hypertension post-JUPITER: what is the value of CRP? Curr Atheroscler Rep 2011; 13: 31-42.
63. Rajpathak SN, Kumbhani DJ, Crandall J, et al. Statin therapy and risk of developing type 2 diabetes: a meta-analysis. Diabetes Care 2009; 32: 1924-9.
64. Preiss D, Seshasai SR, Welsh P, et al. Risk of incident diabetes with intensive-dose compared with moderate-dose statin therapy: a meta-analysis. JAMA 2011; 305: 2556-64.
65. Ridker PM, Pradhan A, MacFadyen JG, Libby P, Glynn RJ. Cardiovascular benefits and diabetes risks of statin therapy in primary prevention: an analysis from the JUPITER trial. Lancet 2012; 380: 565-71.
66. Culver AL, Ockene IS, Balasubramanian R, et al. Statin use and risk of diabetes mellitus in postmenopausal women in the Women's Health Initiative. Arch Intern Med 2012; 172: 144-52.
67. Watts GF, Ooi EM. Balancing the cardiometabolic benefits and risks of statins. Lancet 2012; 380: 541-3.
68. Koh KK, Quon MJ, Sakuma I, et al. Differential metabolic effects of rosuvastatin and pravastatin in hypercholesterolemic patients. Int J Cardiol 2011.
69. Koh KK, Sakuma I, Quon MJ. Differential metabolic effects of distinct statins. Atherosclerosis 2011; 215: 1-8.
70. Taylor F, Ward K, Moore TH, et al. Statins for the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2011; 1: CD004816.
71. Jialal I, Smith G. Managing the dyslipidemia of metabolic syndrome: beyond statin therapy. Metab Syndr Relat Disord 2012; 10: 159-60.
72. Poudyal H, Panchal SK, Diwan V, Brown L. Omega-3 fatty acids and metabolic syndrome: effects and emerging mechanisms of action. Prog Lipid Res 2011; 50: 372-87.
73. Canner PL, Furberg CD, McGovern ME. Benefits of niacin in patients with versus without the metabolic syndrome and healed myocardial infarction (from the Coronary Drug Project). Am J Cardiol 2006; 97: 477-9.
74. Vittone F, Chait A, Morse JS, et al. Niacin plus Simvastatin Reduces Coronary Stenosis Progression Among Patients with Metabolic Syndrome Despite a Modest Increase in Insulin Resistance: A Subgroup Analysis of the HDL-Atherosclerosis Treatment Study (HATS). J Clin Lipidol 2007; 1: 203-10.
75. Boden WE, Probstfield JL, Anderson T, et al. Niacin in patients with low HDL cholesterol levels receiving intensive statin therapy. N Engl J Med 2011; 365: 2255-67.
76. Nicholls SJ. Is niacin ineffective? Or did AIM-HIGH miss its target? Cleve Clin J Med 2012; 79: 38-43.
77. Michos ED, Sibley CT, Baer JT, Blaha MJ, Blumenthal RS. Niacin and statin combination therapy for atherosclerosis regression and prevention of cardiovascular disease events: reconciling the AIM-HIGH (Atherothrombosis Intervention in Metabolic Syndrome With Low HDL/High Triglycerides: Impact on Global Health Outcomes) trial with previous surrogate endpoint trials. J Am Coll Cardiol 2012; 59: 2058-64.
78. Bloomgarden Z, Handelsman Y. Did AIM-HIGH aim too low? J Diabetes 2012; 4: 1-2.
79. Nicholls SJ. The AIM-HIGH (Atherothrombosis Intervention in Metabolic Syndrome With Low HDL/High Triglycerides: Impact on Global Health Outcomes) trial: to believe or not to believe? J Am Coll Cardiol 2012; 59: 2065-7.
80. Keech A, Simes RJ, Barter P, et al. Effects of long-term fenofibrate therapy on cardiovascular events in 9795 people with type 2 diabetes mellitus (the FIELD study): randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2005; 366: 1849-61.
81. Scott R, Donoghoe M, Watts GF, et al. Impact of metabolic syndrome and its components on cardiovascular disease event rates in 4900 patients with type 2 diabetes assigned to placebo in the FIELD randomised trial. Cardiovasc Diabetol 2011; 10: 102.
82. Secondary prevention by raising HDL cholesterol and reducing triglycerides in patients with coronary artery disease: the Bezafibrate Infarction Prevention (BIP) study. Circulation 2000; 102: 21-7.
83. Rizzo M, Pernice V, Frasheri A, et al. Small, dense low-density lipoproteins (LDL) are predictors of cardio- and cerebro-vascular events in subjects with the metabolic syndrome. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2009; 70: 870-5.
84. Sancho-Rodriguez N, Aviles-Plaza FV, Granero-Fernandez E, et al. Observational study of lipid profile and LDL particle size in patients with metabolic syndrome. Lipids Health Dis 2011; 10: 162.
85. Koba S, Yokota Y, Hirano T, et al. Small LDL-cholesterol is superior to LDL-cholesterol for determining severe coronary atherosclerosis. J Atheroscler Thromb 2008; 15: 250-60.
86. Vega GL, Dunn FL, Grundy SM. Effect of colesevelam hydrochloride on glycemia and insulin sensitivity in men with the metabolic syndrome. Am J Cardiol 2011; 108: 1129-35.
87. Lopez-Huertas E. The effect of EPA and DHA on metabolic syndrome patients: a systematic review of randomised controlled trials. Br J Nutr 2012; 107 Suppl 2: S185-S194.
88. Rizzo M, Berneis K. Low-density lipoprotein size and cardiovascular risk assessment. QJM 2006; 99: 1-14.
89. Brady LM, Williams CM, Lovegrove JA. Dietary PUFA and the metabolic syndrome in Indian Asians living in the UK. Proc Nutr Soc 2004; 63: 115-25.
90. Hartwich J, Malec MM, Partyka L, et al. The effect of the plasma n-3/n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid ratio on the dietary LDL phenotype transformation - insights from the LIPGENE study. Clin Nutr 2009; 28: 510-5.
91. Perez-Martinez P, Moreno-Conde M, Cruz-Teno C, et al. Dietary fat differentially influences regulatory endothelial function during the postprandial state in patients with metabolic syndrome: from the LIPGENE study. Atherosclerosis 2010; 209: 533-8.
92. Banegas JR, Lopez-Garcia E, Dallongeville J, et al. Achievement of lipoprotein goals among patients with metabolic syndrome at high cardiovascular risk across Europe. The EURIKA study. Int J Cardiol 2011.
93. Bener A, Zirie M, Musallam M, Khader YS, Al-Hamaq AO. Prevalence of metabolic syndrome according to Adult Treatment Panel III and International Diabetes Federation criteria: a population-based study. Metab Syndr Relat Disord 2009; 7: 221-9.
94. Ishizaka N, Ishizaka Y, Toda E, et al. Hypertension is the most common component of metabolic syndrome and the greatest contributor to carotid arteriosclerosis in apparently healthy Japanese individuals. Hypertens Res 2005; 28: 27-34.
95. Gress TW, Nieto FJ, Shahar E, Wofford MR, Brancati FL. Hypertension and antihypertensive therapy as risk factors for type 2 diabetes mellitus. Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities Study. N Engl J Med 2000; 342: 905-12.
96. Cooper-Dehoff R, Cohen JD, Bakris GL, et al. Predictors of development of diabetes mellitus in patients with coronary artery disease taking antihypertensive medications (findings from the INternational VErapamil SR-Trandolapril STudy [INVEST]). Am J Cardiol 2006; 98: 890-4.
97. Siegel D, Meier J, Maas C, Lopez J, Swislocki AL. The effect of body mass index on fasting blood glucose after initiation of thiazide therapy in hypertensive patients. Am J Hypertens 2008; 21: 438-42.
98. Tweeddale MG, Ogilvie RI, Ruedy J. Antihypertensive and biochemical effects of chlorthalidone. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1977; 22: 519-27.
99. Carlsen JE, Kober L, Torp-Pedersen C, Johansen P. Relation between dose of bendrofluazide, antihypertensive effect, and adverse biochemical effects. BMJ 1990; 300: 975-8.
100. Major outcomes in high-risk hypertensive patients randomized to angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor or calcium channel blocker vs diuretic: The Antihypertensive and Lipid-Lowering Treatment to Prevent Heart Attack Trial (ALLHAT). JAMA 2002; 288: 2981-97.
101. Savage PJ, Pressel SL, Curb JD, et al. Influence of long-term, low-dose, diuretic-based, antihypertensive therapy on glucose, lipid, uric acid, and potassium levels in older men and women with isolated systolic hypertension: The Systolic Hypertension in the Elderly Program. SHEP Cooperative Research Group. Arch Intern Med 1998; 158: 741-51.
102. Kostis JB, Wilson AC, Freudenberger RS, et al. Long-term effect of diuretic-based therapy on fatal outcomes in subjects with isolated systolic hypertension with and without diabetes. Am J Cardiol 2005; 95: 29-35.
103. Taylor EN, Hu FB, Curhan GC. Antihypertensive medications and the risk of incident type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2006; 29: 1065-70.
104. Pollare T, Lithell H, Berne C. A comparison of the effects of hydrochlorothiazide and captopril on glucose and lipid metabolism in patients with hypertension. N Engl J Med 1989; 321: 868-73.
105. Reaven GM, Clinkingbeard C, Jeppesen J, et al. Comparison of the hemodynamic and metabolic effects of low-dose hydrochloro-thiazide and lisinopril treatment in obese patients with high blood pressure. Am J Hypertens 1995; 8: 461-6.
106. Siegel D, Saliba P, Haffner S. Glucose and insulin levels during diuretic therapy in hypertensive men. Hypertension 1994; 23: 688-94.
107. Pollare T, Lithell H, Selinus I, Berne C. Sensitivity to insulin during treatment with atenolol and metoprolol: a randomised, double blind study of effects on carbohydrate and lipoprotein metabolism in hypertensive patients. BMJ 1989; 298: 1152-7.
108. Lithell H, Pollare T, Vessby B. Metabolic effects of pindolol and propranolol in a double-blind cross-over study in hypertensive patients. Blood Press 1992; 1: 92-101.
109. Rapoport MI, Hurd HF. Thiazide-induced glucose intolerance treated with potassium. Arch Intern Med 1964; 113: 405-8.
110. Jacob S, Rett K, Wicklmayr M, et al. Differential effect of chronic treatment with two beta-blocking agents on insulin sensitivity: the carvedilol-metoprolol study. J Hypertens 1996; 14: 489-94.
111. Giugliano D, Acampora R, Marfella R, et al. Metabolic and cardiovascular effects of carvedilol and atenolol in non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus and hypertension. A randomized, controlled trial. Ann Intern Med 1997; 126: 955-9.
112. Bakris GL, Fonseca V, Katholi RE, et al. Metabolic effects of carvedilol vs metoprolol in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus and hypertension: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2004; 292: 2227-36.
113. Dunder K, Lind L, Zethelius B, Berglund L, Lithell H. Increase in blood glucose concentration during antihypertensive treatment as a predictor of myocardial infarction: population based cohort study. BMJ 2003; 326: 681.
114. Zappe DH, Sowers JR, Hsueh WA, et al. Metabolic and antihypertensive effects of combined angiotensin receptor blocker and diuretic therapy in prediabetic hypertensive patients with the cardiometabolic syndrome. J Clin Hypertens (Greenwich) 2008; 10: 894-903.
115. Martins RD, Alves RS, Silva GG, et al. Antihypertensive treatment and its implications on lipoprotein metabolism of patients in care by a hypertension and diabetes program in Brazil. Acta Med Port 2008; 21: 567-74.
116. Neutel JM. Metabolic manifestations of low-dose diuretics. Am J Med 1996; 101: 71S-82S.
117. Bell DS, Bakris GL, McGill JB. Comparison of carvedilol and metoprolol on serum lipid concentration in diabetic hypertensive patients. Diabetes Obes Metab 2009; 11: 234-8.
118. Ramsay LE, Yeo WW, Jackson PR. Influence of diuretics, calcium antagonists, and alpha-blockers on insulin sensitivity and glucose tolerance in hypertensive patients. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol 1992; 20 Suppl 11: S49-S53.
119. Russell RP. Side effects of calcium channel blockers. Hypertension 1988; 11: II42-II44.
120. Zhang R, Thakur V, Morse S, Reisin E. Renal and cardiovascular considerations for the nonpharmacological and pharmacological therapies of obesity-hypertension. J Hum Hypertens 2002; 16: 819-27.
121. Swislocki AL, Hoffman BB, Sheu WH, Chen YD, Reaven GM. Effect of prazosin treatment on carbohydrate and lipoprotein metabolism in patients with hypertension. Am J Med 1989; 86: 14-8.
122. Pollare T, Lithell H, Selinus I, Berne C. Application of prazosin is associated with an increase of insulin sensitivity in obese patients with hypertension. Diabetologia 1988; 31: 415-20.
123. Inukai T, Inukai Y, Matsutomo R, et al. Clinical usefulness of doxazosin in patients with type 2 diabetes complicated by hypertension: effects on glucose and lipid metabolism. J Int Med Res 2004; 32: 206-13.
124. Shionoiri H, Ashino K, Yamanaka K, et al. Effect of doxazosin therapy on glucose tolerance and lipid metabolism in hypertensive patients with impaired glucose tolerance. Clin Ther 1997; 19: 527-36.
125. Pessina AC, Ciccariello L, Perrone F, et al. Clinical efficacy and tolerability of alpha-blocker doxazosin as add-on therapy in patients with hypertension and impaired glucose metabolism. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis 2006; 16: 137-47.
126. Ueshiba H, Miyachi Y. Effect of doxazosin on insulin resistance in hypertensive patients with obesity. Horm Metab Res 2003; 35: 532-6.
127. Tamasawa N, Matsui J, Ogawa Y, et al. Effect of doxazosin on the size of LDL particle in the type 2 diabetic patients with hypertension. J Diabetes Complications 2000; 14: 135-9.
128. Kinoshita M, Shimazu N, Fujita M, et al. Doxazosin, an alpha1-adrenergic antihypertensive agent, decreases serum oxidized LDL. Am J Hypertens 2001; 14: 267-70.
129. Anichkov DA, Shostak NA, Schastnaya OV. Comparison of rilmenidine and lisinopril on ambulatory blood pressure and plasma lipid and glucose levels in hypertensive women with metabolic syndrome. Curr Med Res Opin 2005; 21: 113-9.
130. Haffner SM. Risk constellations in patients with the metabolic syndrome: epidemiology, diagnosis, and treatment patterns. Am J Med 2006; 119: S3-S9.
131. Onat A. Metabolic syndrome: nature, therapeutic solutions and options. Expert Opin Pharmacother 2011; 12: 1887-900.
132. Califf RM, Boolell M, Haffner SM, et al. Prevention of diabetes and cardiovascular disease in patients with impaired glucose tolerance: rationale and design of the Nateglinide And Valsartan in Impaired Glucose Tolerance Outcomes Research (NAVIGATOR) Trial. Am Heart J 2008; 156: 623-32.
133. Al-Thanoon ZA, Mahmood IH. Effects of Losartan vs. Enalapril on the Markers of Metabolic Syndrome. Oman Med J 2012; 27: 27-30.
134. Putnam K, Shoemaker R, Yiannikouris F, Cassis LA. The renin-angiotensin system: a target of and contributor to dyslipidemias, altered glucose homeostasis, and hypertension of the metabolic syndrome. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2012; 302: H1219-H1230.
135. Wright JT, Jr., Harris-Haywood S, Pressel S, et al. Clinical outcomes by race in hypertensive patients with and without the metabolic syndrome: Antihypertensive and Lipid-Lowering Treatment to Prevent Heart Attack Trial (ALLHAT). Arch Intern Med 2008; 168: 207-17.
136. Wright JT, Jr., Probstfield JL, Cushman WC, et al. ALLHAT findings revisited in the context of subsequent analyses, other trials, and meta-analyses. Arch Intern Med 2009; 169: 832-42.
137. Fang J, Alderman MH. Serum uric acid and cardiovascular mortality the NHANES I epidemiologic follow-up study, 1971-1992. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. JAMA 2000; 283: 2404-10.
138. Hoieggen A, Alderman MH, Kjeldsen SE, et al. The impact of serum uric acid on cardiovascular outcomes in the LIFE study. Kidney Int 2004; 65: 1041-9.
139. Nakagawa T, Kang DH, Feig D, et al. Unearthing uric acid: an ancient factor with recently found significance in renal and cardiovascular disease. Kidney Int 2006; 69: 1722-5.
140. Borges RL, Ribeiro AB, Zanella MT, Batista MC. Uric acid as a factor in the metabolic syndrome. Curr Hypertens Rep 2010; 12: 113-9.
141. Quinones GA, Natali A, Baldi S, et al. Effect of insulin on uric acid excretion in humans. Am J Physiol 1995; 268: E1-E5.
142. Baldwin W, McRae S, Marek G, et al. Hyperuricemia as a mediator of the proinflammatory endocrine imbalance in the adipose tissue in a murine model of the metabolic syndrome. Diabetes 2011; 60: 1258-69.
143. Chien KL, Chen MF, Hsu HC, et al. Plasma uric acid and the risk of type 2 diabetes in a Chinese community. Clin Chem 2008; 54: 310-6.
144. See LC, Kuo CF, Chuang FH, et al. Serum uric acid is independently associated with metabolic syndrome in subjects with and without a low estimated glomerular filtration rate. J Rheumatol 2009; 36: 1691-8.
145. Sui X, Church TS, Meriwether RA, Lobelo F, Blair SN. Uric acid and the development of metabolic syndrome in women and men. Metabolism 2008; 57: 845-52.
146. Dehghan A, van HM, Sijbrands EJ, Hofman A, Witteman JC. High serum uric acid as a novel risk factor for type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2008; 31: 361-2.
147. Neubs HP. The nursing shortage: crisis as opportunity. Fla Nurse 1991; 38: 4, 14.
148. Suzuki I, Yamauchi T, Onuma M, Nozaki S. Allopurinol, an inhibitor of uric acid synthesis--can it be used for the treatment of metabolic syndrome and related disorders? Drugs Today (Barc) 2009; 45: 363-78.
149. Athyros VG, Karagiannis A, Ganotakis ES, et al. Association between the changes in renal function and serum uric acid levels during multifactorial intervention and clinical outcome in patients with metabolic syndrome. A post hoc analysis of the ATTEMPT study. Curr Med Res Opin 2011; 27: 1659-68.
150. Chimonas T, Athyros VG, Ganotakis E, et al. Cardiovascular risk factors and estimated 10-year risk of fatal cardiovascular events using various equations in Greeks with metabolic syndrome. Angiology 2010; 61: 49-57.
151. Athyros VG, Elisaf MS, Alexandrides T, et al. Long-term impact of multifactorial treatment on new-onset diabetes and related cardiovascular events in metabolic syndrome: a post hoc ATTEMPT analysis. Angiology 2012; 63: 358-66.
152. Athyros VG, Giouleme O, Ganotakis ES, et al. Safety and impact on cardiovascular events of long-term multifactorial treatment in patients with metabolic syndrome and abnormal liver function tests: a post hoc analysis of the randomised ATTEMPT study. Arch Med Sci 2011; 7: 796-805.
153. Anagnostis P, Katsiki N, Adamidou F, et al. 11beta-Hydroxy-steroid dehydrogenase type 1 inhibitors: novel agents for the treatment of metabolic syndrome and obesity-related disorders? Metabolism 2012.
154. Nagy GM, Frawley LS. Suckling increases the proportions of mammotropes responsive to various prolactin-releasing stimuli. Endocrinology 1990; 127: 2079-84.
155. Kitagawa A, Ohta Y, Ohashi K. Melatonin improves metabolic syndrome induced by high fructose intake in rats. J Pineal Res 2012; 52: 403-13.
156. Ricci-Cabello I, Herrera MO, Artacho R. Possible role of milk-derived bioactive peptides in the treatment and prevention of metabolic syndrome. Nutr Rev 2012; 70: 241-55.
157. Berthold HK, Schulte DM, Lapointe JF, et al. The whey fermentation product malleable protein matrix decreases triglyceride concentrations in subjects with hypercholesterolemia: a randomized placebo-controlled trial. J Dairy Sci 2011; 94: 589-601.
158. Gouni-Berthold I, Schulte DM, Krone W, et al. The whey fermentation product malleable protein matrix decreases TAG concentrations in patients with the metabolic syndrome: a randomised placebo-controlled trial. Br J Nutr 2012; 107: 1694-706.
159. Wald NJ, Law MR. A strategy to reduce cardiovascular disease by more than 80%. BMJ 2003; 326: 1419.
160. Viera AJ, Sheridan SL, Edwards T, et al. Acceptance of a Polypill approach to prevent cardiovascular disease among a sample of U.S. physicians. Prev Med 2011; 52: 10-5.
161. Carey KM, Comee MR, Donovan JL, Kanaan AO. A polypill for all? Critical review of the polypill literature for primary prevention of cardiovascular disease and stroke. Ann Pharmacother 2012; 46: 688-95.
162. Soliman EZ, Mendis S, Dissanayake WP, et al. A Polypill for primary prevention of cardiovascular disease: a feasibility study of the World Health Organization. Trials 2011; 12: 3.
163. Malekzadeh F, Marshall T, Pourshams A, et al. A pilot double-blind randomised placebo-controlled trial of the effects of fixed-dose combination therapy ('polypill') on cardiovascular risk factors. Int J Clin Pract 2010; 64: 1220-7.
164. Rodgers A, Patel A, Berwanger O, et al. An international randomised placebo-controlled trial of a four-component combination pill (polypill) in people with raised cardiovascular risk. PLoS One 2011; 6: e19857.
165. Gupta R. Burden of coronary heart disease in India. Indian Heart J 2005; 57: 632-8.
166. Combination pharmacotherapy for cardiovascular disease. Ann Intern Med 2005; 143: 593-9.
167. Joshi S. SAMTA polypill (statins, aspirin, metformin and antihypertensive agents such as thiazides and ACE inhibitors or angiotensin receptor blocker)- 'aspostatinoprilololazide folate' of type 2 asian indian diabetic. Indian Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism 2004; 6: 45-6.
168. Criqui MH, Wallace RB, Heiss G, et al. Cigarette smoking and plasma high-density lipoprotein cholesterol. The Lipid Research Clinics Program Prevalence Study. Circulation 1980; 62: IV70-IV76.
169. Cena H, Fonte ML, Turconi G. Relationship between smoking and metabolic syndrome. Nutr Rev 2011; 69: 745-53.
170. Nakanishi N, Takatorige T, Suzuki K. Cigarette smoking and the risk of the metabolic syndrome in middle-aged Japanese male office workers. Ind Health 2005; 43: 295-301.
171. Gallou-Kabani C, Junien C. Nutritional epigenomics of metabolic syndrome: new perspective against the epidemic. Diabetes 2005; 54: 1899-906.
172. Razay G, Heaton KW. Smoking habits and lipoproteins in British women. QJM 1995; 88: 503-8.
173. Eliasson B, Attvall S, Taskinen MR, Smith U. Smoking cessation improves insulin sensitivity in healthy middle-aged men. Eur J Clin Invest 1997; 27: 450-6.
174. Kawada T, Otsuka T, Inagakai H, et al. Association of smoking status, insulin resistance, body mass index, and metabolic syndrome in workers: A 1-year follow-up study. Obesity Research and Clinical Practice 2010; 4: e163-e169.
175. Moffatt RJ, Owens SG. Cessation from cigarette smoking: changes in body weight, body composition, resting metabolism, and energy consumption. Metabolism 1991; 40: 465-70.
176. Han TS, Sattar N, Lean M. ABC of obesity. Assessment of obesity and its clinical implications. BMJ 2006; 333: 695-8.
177. Pasquali R, Vicennati V. Activity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in different obesity phenotypes. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 2000; 24 Suppl 2: S47-S49.
178. Friedman AJ, Ravnikar VA, Barbieri RL. Serum steroid hormone profiles in postmenopausal smokers and nonsmokers. Fertil Steril 1987; 47: 398-401.
179. Dinas PC, Koutedakis Y, Flouris AD. Effects of active and passive tobacco cigarette smoking on heart rate variability. Int J Cardiol 2011.
180. Haarbo J, Marslew U, Gotfredsen A, Christiansen C. Postmeno-pausal hormone replacement therapy prevents central distribution of body fat after menopause. Metabolism 1991; 40: 1323-6.
181. Reaven G, Tsao PS. Insulin resistance and compensatory hyperinsulinemia: the key player between cigarette smoking and cardiovascular disease? J Am Coll Cardiol 2003; 41: 1044-7.
182. Chiang PH, Chang TY, Chen JD. Synergistic effect of fatty liver and smoking on metabolic syndrome. World J Gastroenterol 2009; 15: 5334-9.
183. Batra A. Treatment of tobacco dependence. Dtsch Arztebl Int 2011; 108: 555-64.
184. Stone NJ. Nonpharmacologic management of mixed dyslipidemia associated with diabetes mellitus and the metabolic syndrome: a review of the evidence. Am J Cardiol 2008; 102: 14L-18L.
185. Dunkley AJ, Charles K, Gray LJ, et al. Effectiveness of interventions for reducing diabetes and cardiovascular disease risk in people with metabolic syndrome: systematic review and mixed treatment comparison meta-analysis. Diabetes Obes Metab 2012; 14: 616-625.