Consequences of renal failure on non-renal clearance of drugs

Clinical Pharmacokinetics

Volumn 53, Issue 6, 2014, Pages 521-532

  Lalande, Laure ^a   Charpiat, Bruno ^a   Leboucher, Gilles ^a   Tod, Michel ^a,b  

^a HOSPICES CIVILS DE LYON   (France)

^b UNIVERSITÉ LYON 1   (France)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARYLAMINE ACETYLTRANSFERASE; CYTOCHROME P450 2D6; CYTOCHROME P450 2E1; CYTOCHROME P450 3A; CYTOCHROME P450 3A4; CYTOCHROME P450 3A5; DEXAMETHASONE; DRUG METABOLIZING ENZYME; ENDOTHELIN 1; GLUCURONOSYLTRANSFERASE 1A1; GLUCURONOSYLTRANSFERASE 1A6; GLUCURONOSYLTRANSFERASE 2B7; ISONIAZID; MESSENGER RNA; MIDAZOLAM; MULTIDRUG RESISTANCE ASSOCIATED PROTEIN 2; PHENOBARBITAL; RIFAMPICIN; SOLUTE CARRIER ORGANIC ANION TRANSPORTER 1B1; UREMIC TOXIN; CARRIER PROTEIN;

ACUTE KIDNEY FAILURE; CHRONIC KIDNEY FAILURE; CONFORMATIONAL TRANSITION; CREATININE CLEARANCE; DNA MODIFICATION; DRUG ABSORPTION; DRUG BIOAVAILABILITY; DRUG CLEARANCE; DRUG DISPOSITION; DRUG METABOLISM; DRUG TRANSPORT; END STAGE RENAL DISEASE; ENZYME ACTIVITY; FIRST PASS EFFECT; GLOMERULUS FILTRATION RATE; GLUCURONIDATION; HEMODIALYSIS; HUMAN; KIDNEY CLEARANCE; LIVER CLEARANCE; MAXIMUM PLASMA CONCENTRATION; PHARMACOKINETICS; PLASMA PROTEIN BINDING; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTEIN EXPRESSION; PROTEIN PROCESSING; REVIEW; ANIMAL; ENZYMOLOGY; INTESTINE; LIVER; METABOLISM; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY;

ACUTE KIDNEY INJURY; ANIMALS; CARRIER PROTEINS; HUMANS; INTESTINES; KIDNEY FAILURE, CHRONIC; LIVER; PHARMACOKINETICS;

EID: 84903734970     PISSN: 03125963     EISSN: 11791926     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s40262-014-0146-1     Document Type: Review

References (100)

1. Zhang Q-L, Rothenbacher D. Prevalence of chronic kidney disease in population-based studies: systematic review. BMC Public Health. 2008;8:117.
2. Collins AJ, Foley RN, Chavers B, Gilbertson D, Herzog C, Ishani A, et al. US Renal Data System 2013 annual data report. Am J Kidney Dis. 2014;63:A7.
3. Coresh J, Selvin E, Stevens LA, Manzi J, Kusek JW, Eggers P, et al. Prevalence of chronic kidney disease in the United States. JAMA. 2007;298:2038-47. (Pubitemid 350074801)
4. Reidenberg MM. The biotransformation of drugs in renal failure. Am J Med. 1977;62:482-5. (Pubitemid 8081016)
5. Marbury TC, Ruckle JL, Hatorp V, Andersen MP, Nielsen KK, Huang WC, et al. Pharmacokinetics of repaglinide in subjects with renal impairment. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2000;67:7-15. (Pubitemid 30078382)
6. Muirhead GJ, Wilner K, Colburn W, Haug-Pihale G, Rouviex B. The effects of age and renal and hepatic impairment on the pharmacokinetics of sildenafil. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 2002;53(Suppl 1):21S-30S.
7. Molander L, Hansson A, Lunell E, Alainentalo L, Hoffmann M, Larsson R. Pharmacokinetics of nicotine in kidney failure. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2000;68:250-60.
8. Dreisbach AW, Lertora JJL. The effect of chronic renal failure on hepatic drug metabolism and drug disposition. Semin Dial. 2003;16:45-50. (Pubitemid 37356766)
9. Gibson TP. Renal disease and drug metabolism: an overview. Am J Kidney Dis. 1986;8:7-17. (Pubitemid 16009430)
10. Nolin TD, Frye RF, Matzke GR. Hepatic drug metabolism and transport in patients with kidney disease. Am J Kidney Dis. 2003;42:906-25. (Pubitemid 37322908)
11. Talbert RL. Drug dosing in renal insufficiency. J Clin Pharmacol. 1994;34:99-110. (Pubitemid 24079914)
12. Vanholder R, Van Landschoot N, De Smet R, Schoots A, Ringoir S. Drug protein binding in chronic renal failure: evaluation of nine drugs. Kidney Int. 1988;33:996-1004.
13. Lam YW, Banerji S, Hatfield C, Talbert RL. Principles of drug administration in renal insufficiency. Clin Pharmacokinet. 1997;32:30-57. (Pubitemid 27037847)
14. Elston AC, Bayliss MK, Park GR. Effect of renal failure on drug metabolism by the liver. Br J Anaesth. 1993;71:282-90. (Pubitemid 23229393)
15. Benet LZ, Hoener B. Changes in plasma protein binding have little clinical relevance. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2002;71:115-21. (Pubitemid 34271114)
16. Leblond FA, Giroux L, Villeneuve JP, Pichette V. Decreased in vivo metabolism of drugs in chronic renal failure. Drug Metab Dispos. 2000;28:1317-20.
17. Tanaka E, Breimer DD. In vivo function tests of hepatic drugoxidizing capacity in patients with liver disease. J Clin Pharm Ther. 1997;22:237-49. (Pubitemid 28098714)
18. Leblond F, Guévin C, Demers C, Pellerin I, Gascon-Barré M, Pichette V. Downregulation of hepatic cytochrome P450 in chronic renal failure. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2001;12:326-32. (Pubitemid 32116374)
19. Guévin C, Michaud J, Naud J, Leblond FA, Pichette V. Downregulation of hepatic cytochrome p450 in chronic renal failure: role of uremic mediators. Br J Pharmacol. 2002;137:1039-46. (Pubitemid 35440744)
20. Leblond FA, Petrucci M, Dubé P, Bernier G, Bonnardeaux A, Pichette V. Downregulation of intestinal cytochrome p450 in chronic renal failure. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2002;13:1579-85. (Pubitemid 34579247)
21. Kanfer A, Stamatakis G, Torlotin JC, Fredj G, Kenouch S, Méry JP. Changes in erythromycin pharmacokinetics induced by renal failure. Clin Nephrol. 1987;27:147-50. (Pubitemid 17032833)
22. Bianchetti G, Graziani G, Brancaccio D, Morganti A, Leonetti G, Manfrin M, et al. Pharmacokinetics and effects of propranolol in terminal uraemic patients and in patients undergoing regular dialysis treatment. Clin Pharmacokinet. 1976;1:373-84.
23. Zhou S-F, Liu J-P, Chowbay B. Polymorphism of human cytochrome P450 enzymes and its clinical impact. Drug Metab Rev. 2009;41:89-295.
24. Yiannakopoulou EC. Pharmacogenomics of phase II metabolizing enzymes and drug transporters: clinical implications. Pharmacogenomics J. 2013;13:105-9.
25. Kim YG, Shin JG, Shin SG, Jang IJ, Kim S, Lee JS, et al. Decreased acetylation of isoniazid in chronic renal failure. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1993;54:612-20. (Pubitemid 24028444)
26. Kirwan CJ, MacPhee IAM, Lee T, Holt DW, Philips BJ. Acute kidney injury reduces the hepatic metabolism of midazolam in critically ill patients. Intensive Care Med. 2012;38:76-84.
27. Dowling TC, Briglia AE, Fink JC, Hanes DS, Light PD, Stackiewicz L, et al. Characterization of hepatic cytochrome p4503A activity in patients with end-stage renal disease. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2003;73:427-34. (Pubitemid 36549827)
28. Simard E, Naud J, Michaud J, Leblond FA, Bonnardeaux A, Guillemette C, et al. Downregulation of hepatic acetylation of drugs in chronic renal failure. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2008;19:1352-9.
29. Osborne R, Joel S, Grebenik K, Trew D, Slevin M. The pharmacokinetics of morphine and morphine glucuronides in kidney failure. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1993;54:158-67. (Pubitemid 23265046)
30. Yu C, Ritter JK, Krieg RJ, Rege B, Karnes TH, Sarkar MA. Effect of chronic renal insufficiency on hepatic and renal udpglucuronyltransferases in rats. Drug Metab Dispos. 2006;34:621-7.
31. Benet LZ, Cummins CL, Wu CY. Transporter-enzyme interactions: implications for predicting drug-drug interactions from in vitro data. Curr Drug Metab. 2003;4:393-8. (Pubitemid 37279364)
32. Lam JL, Okochi H, Huang Y, Benet LZ. In vitro and in vivo correlation of hepatic transporter effects on erythromycin metabolism: characterizing the importance of transporterenzyme interplay. Drug Metab Dispos. 2006;34:1336-44. (Pubitemid 44079874)
33. Benet LZ, Cummins CL, Wu CY. Unmasking the dynamic interplay between efflux transporters and metabolic enzymes. Int J Pharm. 2004;277:3-9. (Pubitemid 38670415)
34. Ho RH, Kim RB. Transporters and drug therapy: implications for drug disposition and disease. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2005;78:260-77. (Pubitemid 41254111)
35. Gehr TW, Sica DA, Slugg PH, Hammett JL, Raymond R, Ford NF. The pharmacokinetics of pravastatin in patients on chronic hemodialysis. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 1997;53:117-21. (Pubitemid 27491663)
36. Sun H, Frassetto L, Benet LZ. Effects of renal failure on drug transport and metabolism. Pharmacol Ther. 2006;109:1-11. (Pubitemid 41740811)
37. Tsujimoto M, Hatozaki D, Shima D, Yokota H, Furukubo T, Izumi S, et al. Influence of serum in hemodialysis patients on the expression of intestinal and hepatic transporters for the excretion of pravastatin. Ther Apher Dial. 2012;16:580-7.
38. Naud J, Michaud J, Boisvert C, Desbiens K, Leblond FA, Mitchell A, et al. Down-regulation of intestinal drug transporters in chronic renal failure in rats. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2007;320:978-85. (Pubitemid 46294060)
39. Okabe H, Hashimoto Y, Inui KI. Pharmacokinetics and bioavailability of tacrolimus in rats with experimental renal dysfunction. J Pharm Pharmacol. 2000;52:1467-72. (Pubitemid 32058644)
40. Laouari D, Yang R, Veau C, Blanke I, Friedlander G. Two apical multidrug transporters, P-gp and MRP2, are differently altered in chronic renal failure. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol. 2001;280:F636-45.
41. Naud J, Michaud J, Leblond FA, Lefrancois S, Bonnardeaux A, Pichette V. Effects of chronic renal failure on liver drug transporters. Drug Metab Dispos. 2008;36:124-8.
42. Michaud J, Dubé P, Naud J, Leblond FA, Desbiens K, Bonnardeaux A, et al. Effects of serum from patients with chronic renal failure on rat hepatic cytochrome P450. Br J Pharmacol. 2005;144:1067-77. (Pubitemid 40593005)
43. Michaud J, Nolin TD, Naud J, Dani M, Lafrance J-P, Leblond FA, et al. Effect of hemodialysis on hepatic cytochrome P450 functional expression. J Pharmacol Sci. 2008;108:157-63.
44. Nolin TD, Appiah K, Kendrick SA, Le P, McMonagle E, Himmelfarb J. Hemodialysis acutely improves hepatic CYP3A4 metabolic activity. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2006;17:2363-7. (Pubitemid 44300952)
45. Terao N, Shen DD. Reduced extraction of I-propranolol by perfused rat liver in the presence of uremic blood. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1985;233:277-84. (Pubitemid 15122021)
46. Michaud J, Naud J, Chouinard J, Désy F, Leblond FA, Desbiens K, et al. Role of parathyroid hormone in the downregulation of liver cytochrome P450 in chronic renal failure. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2006;17:3041-8. (Pubitemid 44707764)
47. Hanada K, Ogawa R, Son K, Sasaki Y, Kikkawa A, Ichihara S, et al. Effects of indoxylsulfate on the in vitro hepatic metabolism of various compounds using human liver microsomes and hepatocytes. Nephron Physiol. 2006;103:179-86.
48. Masereeuw R, Terlouw SA, van Aubel RA, Russel FG, Miller DS. Endothelin B receptor-mediated regulation of ATP-driven drug secretion in renal proximal tubule. Mol Pharmacol. 2000;57:59-67. (Pubitemid 30033260)
49. Nolin TD, Frye RF, Le P, Sadr H, Naud J, Leblond FA, et al. ESRD impairs nonrenal clearance of fexofenadine but not midazolam. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2009;20:2269-76.
50. Sun H, Huang Y, Frassetto L, Benet LZ. Effects of uremic toxins on hepatic uptake and metabolism of erythromycin. Drug Metab Dispos. 2004;32:1239-46. (Pubitemid 39410907)
51. Nolin TD, Naud J, Leblond FA, Pichette V. Emerging evidence of the impact of kidney disease on drug metabolism and transport. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2008;83:898-903. (Pubitemid 351704931)
52. Nolin TD. Altered nonrenal drug clearance in ESRD. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens. 2008;17:555-9.
53. Mutsaers HAM, Wilmer MJG, Reijnders D, Jansen J, van den Broek PHH, Forkink M, et al. Uremic toxins inhibit renal metabolic capacity through interference with glucuronidation and mitochondrial respiration. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2013;1832:142-50.
54. Tsujimoto M, Nagano Y, Hosoda S, Shiraishi A, Miyoshi A, Hiraoka S, et al. Effects of decreased vitamin D and accumulated uremic toxin on human CYP3A4 activity in patients with end-stage renal disease. Toxins (Basel). 2013;5:1475-85.
55. Philips BJ, Lane K, Dixon J, Macphee I. The effects of acute renal failure on drug metabolism. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol. 2014;10:11-23.
56. Vilay AM, Churchwell MD, Mueller BA. Clinical review: drug metabolism and nonrenal clearance in acute kidney injury. Crit Care. 2008;12:235.
57. Macias WL, Mueller BA, Scarim SK. Vancomycin pharmacokinetics in acute renal failure: preservation of nonrenal clearance. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1991;50:688-94.
58. Mueller BA, Scarim SK, Macias WL. Comparison of imipenem pharmacokinetics in patients with acute or chronic renal failure treated with continuous hemofiltration. Am J Kidney Dis. 1993;21:172-9. (Pubitemid 23087610)
59. Yu SY, Chung HC, Kim EJ, Kim SH, Lee I, Kim SG, et al. Effects of acute renal failure induced by uranyl nitrate on the pharmacokinetics of intravenous theophylline in rats: the role of CYP2E1 induction in 1,3-dimethyluric acid formation. J Pharm Pharmacol. 2002;54:1687-92. (Pubitemid 36018819)
60. Okabe H, Yano I, Hashimoto Y, Saito H, Inui K. Evaluation of increased bioavailability of tacrolimus in rats with experimental renal dysfunction. J Pharm Pharmacol. 2002;54:65-70. (Pubitemid 34116224)
61. Okabe H, Higashi T, Ohta T, Hashimoto Y. Intestinal absorption and hepatic extraction of propranolol and metoprolol in rats with bilateral ureteral ligation. Biol Pharm Bull. 2004;27:1422-7. (Pubitemid 41701686)
62. Lee YH, Lee MH, Shim CK. Decreased systemic clearance of diltiazem with increased hepatic metabolism in rats with uranyl nitrate-induced acute renal failure. Pharm Res. 1992;9:1599-606.
63. Choi JS, Lee JH, Burm JP. Pharmacokinetics of diltiazem and its major metabolite, deacetyidiltiazem after oral administration of diltiazem in mild and medium folate-induced renal failure rabbits. Arch Pharm Res. 2001;24:333-7. (Pubitemid 33703582)
64. Lee AK, Lee JH, Kwon JW, Kim WB, Kim SG, Kim SH, et al. Pharmacokinetics of clarithromycin in rats with acute renal failure induced by uranyl nitrate. Biopharm Drug Dispos. 2004;25:273-82. (Pubitemid 39294806)
65. Lee JH, Lee MG. Effects of acute renal failure on the pharmacokinetics of telithromycin in rats: negligible effects of increase in CYP3A1 on the metabolism of telithromycin. Biopharm Drug Dispos. 2007;28:157-66. (Pubitemid 46824852)
66. Kusaba J, Kajikawa N, Kawasaki H, Kurosaki Y, Aiba T. Comparative study on altered hepatic metabolism of CYP3A substrates in rats with glycerol-induced acute renal failure. Biopharm Drug Dispos. 2012;33:22-9.
67. Heinemeyer G, Gramm HJ, Roots I, Dennhardt R, Simgen W. The kinetics of metamizol and its metabolites in critical-care patients with acute renal dysfunction. Eur J Clin Pharmacol. 1993;45:445-50. (Pubitemid 23361944)
68. Huang ZH, Murakami T, Okochi A, Yumoto R, Nagai J, Takano M. Expression and function of P-glycoprotein in rats with glycerol-induced acute renal failure. Eur J Pharmacol. 2000;406:453-60.
69. Obialo CI, Okonofua EC, Nzerue MC, Tayade AS, Riley LJ. Role of hypoalbuminemia and hypocholesterolemia as copredictors of mortality in acute renal failure. Kidney Int. 1999;56:1058-63. (Pubitemid 29411733)
70. Naud J, Nolin TD, Leblond FA, Pichette V. Current understanding of drug disposition in kidney disease. J Clin Pharmacol. 2012;52:10S-22S.
71. Nolin TD, Unruh ML. Clinical relevance of impaired nonrenal drug clearance in ESRD. Semin Dial. 2010;23:482-5.
72. Dreisbach AW. The influence of chronic renal failure on drug metabolism and transport. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2009;86:553-6.
73. Yeung CK, Shen DD, Thummel KE, Himmelfarb J. Effects of chronic kidney disease and uremia on hepatic drug metabolism and transport. Kidney Int. 2014;85:522-8.
74. Velenosi TJ, Fu AYN, Luo S, Wang H, Urquhart BL. Downregulation of hepatic CYP3A and CYP2C mediated metabolism in rats with moderate chronic kidney disease. Drug Metab Dispos. 2012;40:1508-14.
75. Joy MS, Frye RF, Nolin TD, Roberts BV, La MK, Wang J, et al. In vivo alterations in drug metabolism and transport pathways in patients with chronic kidney diseases. Pharmacotherapy. 2014;34:114-22.
76. Viell B, Krause B, Vestweber KH, Schaaf S, Scholl H. Transintestinal elimination of ciprofloxacin in humans-concomitant assessment of its metabolites in serum, ileum and colon. Infection. 1992;20:324-7. (Pubitemid 23009990)
77. US Department of Health and Human Services, Food and Drug Administration, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research (CDER), Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research (CBER). Guidance for Industry. Pharmacokinetics in patients with impaired renal function-study design, data analysis, and impact on dosing and labeling. 1998. http://www.fda.gov/downloads/ Drugs/ GuidanceComplianceRegulatoryInformation/Guidances/ucm072127.pdf. Accessed 1 Sep 2013.
78. Zhang Y, Zhang L, Abraham S, Apparaju S, Wu T-C, Strong JM, et al. Assessment of the impact of renal impairment on systemic exposure of new molecular entities: evaluation of recent new drug applications. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2009;85:305-11.
79. Ibrahim S, Honig P, Huang SM, Gillespie W, Lesko LJ, Williams RL. Clinical pharmacology studies in patients with renal impairment: past experience and regulatory perspectives. J Clin Pharmacol. 2000;40:31-8.
80. Huang S-M, Temple R, Xiao S, Zhang L, Lesko LJ. When to conduct a renal impairment study during drug development: US Food and Drug Administration perspective. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2009;86:475-9.
81. US Department of Health and Human Services, Food and Drug Administration, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research (CDER). Guidance for Industry. Pharmacokinetics in patients with impaired renal function - study design, data analysis, and impact on dosing and labeling. 2010. http://www.fda.gov/downloads/ Drugs/.../Guidances/UCM204959.pdf. Accessed 1 Sep 2013.
82. Cockcroft DW, Gault MH. Prediction of creatinine clearance from serum creatinine. Nephron. 1976;16:31-41.
83. Levey AS, Bosch JP, Lewis JB, Greene T, Rogers N, Roth D. A more accurate method to estimate glomerular filtration rate from serum creatinine: a new prediction equation. Modification of Diet in Renal Disease Study Group. Ann Intern Med. 1999;130:461-70. (Pubitemid 29135798)
84. Levey AS, Stevens LA, Schmid CH, Zhang YL, Castro AF 3rd, Feldman HI, et al. A new equation to estimate glomerular filtration rate. Ann Intern Med. 2009;150:604-12.
85. Wu C-Y, Benet LZ. Predicting drug disposition via application of BCS: transport/absorption/elimination interplay and development of a biopharmaceutics drug disposition classification system. Pharm Res. 2005;22:11-23. (Pubitemid 40558141)
86. Shugarts S, Benet LZ. The role of transporters in the pharmacokinetics of orally administered drugs. Pharm Res. 2009;26:2039-54.
87. Reyes M, Benet LZ. Effects of uremic toxins on transport and metabolism of different biopharmaceutics drug disposition classification system xenobiotics. J Pharm Sci. 2011;100: 3831-42.
88. Uchida N, Kurata N, Shimada K, Nishimura Y, Yasuda K, Hashimoto M, et al. Changes of hepatic microsomal oxidative drug metabolizing enzymes in chronic renal failure (CRF) rats by partial nephrectomy. Jpn J Pharmacol. 1995;68:431-9.
89. Dani M, Boisvert C, Michaud J, Naud J, Lefrançois S, Leblond FA, et al. Down-regulation of liver drug-metabolizing enzymes in a murine model of chronic renal failure. Drug Metab Dispos. 2010;38:357-60.
90. Kévorkian JP, Michel C, Hofmann U, Jacqz-Aigrain E, Kroemer HK, Peraldi MN, et al. Assessment of individual CYP2D6 activity in extensive metabolizers with renal failure: comparison of sparteine and dextromethorphan. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1996;59:583-92. (Pubitemid 26193892)
91. Rostami-Hodjegan A, Kroemer HK, Tucker GT. In-vivo indices of enzyme activity: the effect of renal impairment on the assessment of CYP2D6 activity. Pharmacogenetics. 1999;9:277-86. (Pubitemid 29376371)
92. Dreisbach AW, Japa S, Gebrekal AB, Mowry SE, Lertora JJL, Kamath BL, et al. Cytochrome P4502C9 activity in end-stage renal disease. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2003;73:475-7. (Pubitemid 36549832)
93. De Martin S, Orlando R, Bertoli M, Pegoraro P, Palatini P. Differential effect of chronic renal failure on the pharmacokinetics of lidocaine in patients receiving and not receiving hemodialysis. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2006;80:597-606. (Pubitemid 44908268)
94. Frye RF, Matzke GR, Alexander ACM, Palevsky P, Rault R, Branch RA. Effect of renal insufficiency on CYP activity. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1996;59:155.
95. Vinik HR, Reves JG, Greenblatt DJ, Abernethy DR, Smith LR. The pharmacokinetics of midazolam in chronic renal failure patients. Anesthesiology. 1983;59:390-4. (Pubitemid 14227510)
96. Holzer B, Stieger B, Folkers G, Meier PJ, Fattinger K. Differential regulation of basolateral and canalicular transporter expression in rat liver in chronic renal failure. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2005;77:P34.
97. Veau C, Leroy C, Banide H, Auchère D, Tardivel S, Farinotti R, et al. Effect of chronic renal failure on the expression and function of rat intestinal P-glycoprotein in drug excretion. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2001;16:1607-14. (Pubitemid 32750452)
98. Okabe H, Hasunuma M, Hashimoto Y. The hepatic and intestinal metabolic activities of P450 in rats with surgery- and druginduced renal dysfunction. Pharm Res. 2003;20:1591-4. (Pubitemid 37268273)
99. Moon YJ, Lee AK, Chung HC, Kim EJ, Kim SH, Lee DC, et al. Effects of acute renal failure on the pharmacokinetics of chlorzoxazone in rats. Drug Metab Dispos. 2003;31:776-84. (Pubitemid 36617668)
100. Chung HC, Kim SH, Lee MG, Kim SG. Increase in urea in conjunction with L-arginine metabolism in the liver leads to induction of cytochrome P450 2E1 (CYP2E1): the role of urea in CYP2E1 induction by acute renal failure. Drug Metab Dispos. 2002;30:739-46. (Pubitemid 34579111)