The Effects of Age on Second Language Grammar and Speech Production

Journal of Psycholinguistic Research

Volumn 43, Issue 4, 2014, Pages 397-420

  Huang, Becky H ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS AT SAN ANTONIO   (United States)

Author keywords

Age of learning effects; Foreign accents; Mandarin speaking immigrants; Multiple critical periods; Second language grammar

Indexed keywords

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; AGE; FEMALE; HUMAN; LANGUAGE; LINGUISTICS; MALE; MULTILINGUALISM; PHYSIOLOGY; SPEECH; YOUNG ADULT;

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; AGE FACTORS; FEMALE; HUMANS; LANGUAGE; LINGUISTICS; MALE; MULTILINGUALISM; SPEECH; YOUNG ADULT;

EID: 84902316973     PISSN: 00906905     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s10936-013-9261-7     Document Type: Article

References (87)

1. Abrahamsson, N., & Hyltenstam, K. (2009). Age of onset and nativelikeness in a second language: Listener perception versus linguistic scrutiny. Language Learning, 59(2), 249-306.
2. Abrahamsson, N., & Hyltenstam, K. (2008). The robustness of aptitude effects in near native second language acquisition. Studies in second language acquisition, 30(4), 481-509.
3. Asher, J., & Garcia, R. (1969). The optimal age to learn a foreign language. Modern Language Journal, 53, 334-341.
4. Au, T. K., Knightly, L. M., Jun, S.-A., & Oh, J. S. (2002). Overhearing a language during childhood. Psychological Science, 13, 238-243.
5. Bever, T. (1981). Normal acquisition processes explain the critical period for language learning. In K. Diller (Ed.), Individual differences in language learning aptitude (pp. 176-198). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
6. Bialystok, E. (2002). On the reliability of robustness: A reply to DeKeyser. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 24, 481-488.
7. Bialystok, E., & Miller, B. (1999). The problem of age in second language acquisition: Influences from language, task, and structure. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 2, 127-145.
8. Birdsong, D. (2007). Nativelike pronunciation among late learners of French as a second language. In O.-S. Bohn & M. J. Munro. (Eds.), Language experience in second language speech learning: In honor of James Emil Flege (pp. 99-116). New York: Multilingual Matters.
9. Birdsong, D., & Molis, M. (2001). On the evidence for maturational constraints in second language acquisition. Journal of Memory and Language, 44, 235-249.
10. Brown, R. (1973). A first language: The early stages. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
11. Cook, V. (1991). The poverty-of-the-stimulus argument and multi-competence. Second Language Research, 7, 103-117.
12. DeKeyser, R. M. (2000). The robustness of critical period effects in second language acquisition. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 22, 499-533.
13. DeKeyser, R., & Larsen-Hall, J. (2005). What does the critical period really mean? In J. F. Kroll & A. M. B. D. Groot (Eds.), Handbook of bilingualism: Psycholinguistic approaches (pp. 499-533). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
14. DeKeyser, R. M., Alfi-Shabtay, I., & Ravid, D. (2010). Cross-linguistic evidence for the nature of age effects in second language acquisition. Applied Psycholinguistics, 31(3), 413-438.
15. Dörnyei, Z. (2005). The psychology of the language learner: Individual differences in second language acquisition. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
16. Eubank, L., & Gregg, K. (1999). Critical periods and (second) language acquisition: Divide et impera. In D. Birdsong (Ed.), Second language acquisition and the critical period hypothesis (pp. 65-99). Mahwah, NJ: L. Erlbaum.
17. Flege, J. E. (2009). Give input a chance!. In T. Piske & M. Young-Scholten (Eds.), Input matters in SLA (pp. 175-190). New York: Multilingual Matters.
18. Flege, J., Munro, M., & MacKay, I. (1995). Factors affecting degree of perceived foreign accent in a second language. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 97, 3125-3134.
19. Flege, J. E., Yeni-Komshian, G. H., & Liu, S. (1999). Age constraints on second-language acquisition. Journal of Memory and Language, 41, 78-104.
20. Gardner, R. C. (1985). Social psychology and second language learning: The role of attitudes and motivation. London: Edward Arnold.
21. Gass, S. (1997). Input, interaction and the second language learner. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
22. Hahne, A., Mueller, J. L., & Clahsen, H. (2003). Second language learners' processing of inflected words: Behavioral and ERP evidence for storage and decomposition. Essex Research Reports in Linguistics, 45, 1-43.
23. Hakuta, K., Bialystok, E., & Wiley, E. (2003). Critical evidence: A test of the critical-period hypothesis for second-language acquisition. Psychological Science, 14, 31-37.
24. Han, Z.-H. (2004). Fossilization in adult second language acquisition. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
25. Harley, B., & Hart, D. (1997). Language aptitude and second language proficiency in classroom learners of different starting ages. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 19(3), 379-400.
26. Hoff, E. (2005). Language Development (3rd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning.
27. Huang, B. H., & Jun, S.-A. (2011). The effect of age on the acquisition of second language prosody. Language and Speech, 54(3), 387-414.
28. Hurford, J. (1991). The evolution of the critical period for language acquisition. Cognition, 40, 159-201.
29. Hyltenstam, K., & Abrahamsson, N. (2001). Age and L2 learning: The hazards of matching practical "implications" with theoretical "facts". TESOL Quarterly, 35(1), 1-170.
30. Hyltenstam, K., & Abrahamsson, N. (2003). Maturational constraints in SLA. In C. J. Doughty & M. H. Long (Eds.), The handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 539-588). Malden, MA: Blackwell.
31. Hyltenstam, K., Bylund, E., Abrahamsson, N., & Park, H.-S. (2009). Dominant-language replacement: The case of international adoptees. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 12(2), 121-140.
32. Ioup, G., Boustagui, E., El Tigi, M., & Moselle, M. (1994). Reexamining the critical period hypothesis: A case study of successful adult SLA in a naturalistic environment. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 16, 73-98.
33. Jia, G., & Aaronson, D. (2003). A longitudinal study of Chinese children and adolescents learning English in the US. Applied Psycholinguistics, 24, 131-161.
34. Jia, G., Aaronson, D., & Wu, Y. H. (2002). Long-term language attainment of bilingual immigrants: Predictive factors and language group differences. Applied Psycholinguistics, 23, 599-621.
35. Jia, G. X., Strange, W., Wu, Y., Collado, J., & Guan, Q. (2006). Perception and production of English vowels by Mandarin speakers: Age-related differences vary with amount of L2 exposure. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 119(2), 1118-1130.
36. Johnson, J. S., & Newport, E. L. (1989). Critical period effects in second language learning: The influence of maturational state on the acquisition of English as a second language. Cognitive Psychology, 21, 60-99.
37. Johnson, J. S., & Newport, E. L. (1991). Critical period effects on universal properties of language: The status of subjacency in the acquisition of a second language. Cognition, 39, 215-258.
38. Krashen, S. D. (1981). Second language acquisition and second language learning. New York: Pergamon Press.
39. Krashen, S. D., Long, M. A., & Scarcella, R. C. (1979). Age, rate, and eventual attainment in second language acquisition. TESOL Quarterly, 13, 573-582.
40. Knightly, L. M., Jun, S.-A., Oh, J. S., & Au, T. K. (2003). Production benefits of childhood overhearing. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 114(1), 465-474.
41. Lardiere, D. (2007). Ultimate attainment in second language acquisition: A case study. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
42. Larson-Hall, J. (2006). What does more time buy you? Another look at the effects of long-term residence on production accuracy of English /r/ and /l/ by Japanese speakers. Language and Speech, 49(4), 521-548.
43. Lenneberg, E. H. (1976). Biological foundations of language. New York: Wiley and Sons.
44. Long, M. (1990). Maturational constraints on language development. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 12, 251-285.
45. Long, M. H. (2003). Stabilization and fossilization in interlanguage development. In C. J. Doughty & M. H. Long (Eds.), Handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 487-535). Malden, MA: Blackwell.
46. Long, M. H. (2005). Problems with supposed counter-evidence to the critical period hypothesis. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 43(4), 287-317.
47. Marian, V., Blumenfeld, K. H., & Kaushanskaya, M. (2007). The language proficiency and experience questionnaire (LEAP-Q): Assessing language profiles in bilinguals and multilinguals. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing, 50, 940-967.
48. Marinova-Todd, S. (2003). Comprehensive analysis of ultimate attainment in adult second language acquisition. Ph. D. dissertation, Harvard University.
49. Marinova-Todd, S. H., Marshall, D. B., & Snow, C. E. (2000). Three misconceptions about age and L2 learning. TESOL Quarterly, 34, 9-34.
50. Marinova-Todd, S. H., Marshall, D. B., & Snow, C. E. (2001). Missing the point: A response to Hyltenstam and Abrahamsson. TESOL Quarterly, 35(1), 171-176.
51. The MathWorks Inc. (2003). MATLAB version 6. 5. 1. Natick, Massachusetts.
52. Mayberry, R. I., & Lock, E. (2003). Age constraints on first versus second language acquisition: Evidence for linguistic plasticity and epigenesis. Brain and Language, 87, 369-383.
53. McDonald, J. L. (2000). Grammaticality judgments in a second language: Influences of age of acquisition and native language. Applied Psycholinguistics, 21, 395-423.
54. McDonald, J. L. (2006). Beyond the critical period: Processing-based explanation for poor grammaticality judgment performance by late second language learners. Journal of Memory and Language, 55, 381-401.
55. Molfese, D. L., Freeman, R. B, Jr, & Palermo, D. S. (1975). The ontogeny of brain lateralization for speech and nonspeech stimuli. Brain and Language, 2, 356-368.
56. Moyer, A. (2004). Age, accent and experience in second language acquisition. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.
57. Moyer, A. (2009). Input as a critical means to an end: Quantity and quality of experience in L2 phonological attainment. In T. Piske & M. Young-Scholten (Eds.), Input matters in SLA (pp. 159-174). New York: Multilingual Matters.
58. Munnich, E. L. (2002). Input and maturation in the acquisition of second language spatial semantics. published Ph. D. dissertation, University of Delaware.
59. Munro, M., Flege, J., & MacKay, I. (1996). The effect of age of second language learning on the production of English vowels. Applied Psycholinguistics, 17, 313-334.
60. Munro, M., & Mann, V. (2005). Age of immersion as predictor of foreign accent. Applied Psycholinguistics, 26, 311-341.
61. Neufeld, G. G. (1980). On the adult's ability to acquire phonology. Tesol Quarterly, 14, 285-298.
62. Newport, E. L. (1990). Maturational constraints on language learning. Cognitive Science, 14, 11-28.
63. Newport, E. L., Bavelier, D., & Neville, H. J. (2001). Critical thinking about critical periods: Perspectives on a critical period for language acquisition. In E. Dupoux (Ed.), Language, brain and cognitive development: Essays in honor of Jacques Mehler. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
64. Oh, J. S., Jun, S.-A., Knightly, L. M., & Au, T. K. (2003). Holding on to childhood language memory. Cognition, 86, B53-B64.
65. Oh, J. S., Au, T. K.-F., & Jun, S.-A. (2010). Early childhood language memory in the speech perception of international adoptees. Journal of Child Language, 36, 1-10.
66. Oyama, S. (1973). A sensitive period for the acquisition of a second language. Unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, Harvard University.
67. Oyama, S. (1976). A sensitive period for the acquisition of a nonnative phonological system. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 5, 261-283.
68. Oyama, S. (1978). The sensitive period and comprehension of speech. Working Papers on Bilingualism, 16, 1-17.
69. Patkowski, M. S. (1980). The sensitive period for the acquisition of syntax in a second language. Language Learning, 30, 449-472.
70. Pinker, S. (1994). The language instinct: How the mind creates language. New York: Morrow.
71. Piske, T., MacKay, I. R., & Flege, J. E. (2001). Factors affecting degree of foreign accent in an L2: A review. Journal of Phonetics, 29, 191-215.
72. Pulvermuller, F., & Schumann, J. (1994). Neurobiological mechanisms of language acquisition. Language Learning, 44, 681-734.
73. Purcell, E., & Suter, R. (1980). Predictors of pronunciation accuracy: A reexamination. Language Learning, 30, 271-287.
74. Ramsey, F. L., & Schafer, D. W. (2002). The statistical sleuth: A course in methods of data analysis. Australia: Duxbury/Thomson Learning.
75. Schneiderman, E. I., & Desmarais, C. (1988). A neuropsychological substrate for talent in second-language acquisition. In L. K. Obler & D. Fein (Eds.), The exceptional brain. Neuropsychology of talent and special abilities (pp. 103-126). New York: The Guilford.
76. Schumann, J. (1978). Second language acquisition: The pidginization hypothesis. In E. M. Hatch (Ed.), Second language acquisition: A book of readings (pp. 256-271). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
77. Scovel, T. (1988). A time to speak: A psycholinguistic inquiry into the critical period for human speech. Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
78. Singh, L., Liederman, J., Mierzejewski, R., & Barnes, J. (2011). Rapid reacquisition of native phoneme contrasts after disuse: You do not always lose what you do not use. Developmental Science, 14(5), 949-959.
79. Singleton, D. (1989). Language acquisition: The age factor. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
80. Stevens, G. (1999). Age at immigration and second language proficiency among foreign-born adults. Language in Society, 21, 157-169.
81. Suter, R. W. (1976). Predictors of pronunciation accuracy in second language learning. Language Learning, 26(2), 233-253.
82. Thompson, I. (1991). Foreign accents revisited: The English pronunciation of Russian immigrants. Language Learning, 41, 177-204.
83. Weber-Fox, C., & Neville, H. J. (1996). Maturational constraints on functional specializations for language processing: ERP and behavioral evidence in bilingual speakers. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 8, 231-256.
84. Werker, J. F., & Tees, R. C. (2005). Speech perception as a window for understanding plasticity and commitment in language systems of the brain. Developmental Psychobiology, 46(3), 233-251.
85. Wexler, K. (1998). Maturation and growth of grammar. In W. C. Ritchie & T. K. Bhatia (Eds.), Handbook of child language acquisition (pp. 55-110). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
86. White, L., & Genesee, F. (1996). How native is near-native? The issue of ultimate attainment in adult second language acquisition. Second Language Research, 12, 233-265.
87. Yeni-Komshian, G., Flege, J., & Liu, S. (2000). Pronunciation proficiency in the first and second languages of Korean-English bilinguals. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 3(2), 131-150.