Update on HIV dementia and HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders

Current Neurology and Neuroscience Reports

Volumn 14, Issue 8, 2014, Pages

  Brew, Bruce J ^a,b,c   Chan, Phillip ^d  

^a UNIVERSITY OF NEW SOUTH WALES   (Australia)

^b ST VINCENT S HOSPITAL   (Australia)

^c St Vincent's Centre for Applied Medical Research   (Australia)

^d QUEEN ELIZABETH HOSPITAL   (Hong Kong)

Author keywords

Cognitive impairment; Combined antiretroviral therapy; HIV; HIV associated neurocognitive disorder

Indexed keywords

ANTIRETROVIRUS AGENT; NEOPTERIN; NEUROFILAMENT PROTEIN;

CD4 LYMPHOCYTE COUNT; CLINICAL FEATURE; COGNITIVE DEFECT; DIFFUSION TENSOR IMAGING; DRUG EFFICACY; HIV ASSOCIATED DEMENTIA; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS INFECTION; OUTCOME ASSESSMENT; PATHOGENESIS; PATIENT MONITORING; PROTEIN CEREBROSPINAL FLUID LEVEL; REVIEW; SCREENING; COGNITION DISORDERS; COMPLICATION;

AIDS DEMENTIA COMPLEX; COGNITION DISORDERS; HIV INFECTIONS; HUMANS;

EID: 84902230109     PISSN: 15284042     EISSN: 15346293     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s11910-014-0468-2     Document Type: Review

References (87)

1. Brew BJ. AIDS dementia complex. In: Brew BJ, editor. HIV neurology. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2001.
2. McArthur JC, Brew BJ, Nath A. Neurological complications of HIV infection. Lancet Neurol. 2005;4(9):543-55. (Pubitemid 41139976)
3. Robertson KR, Smurzynski M, Parsons TD, Wu K, Bosch RJ, Wu J, et al. The prevalence and incidence of neurocognitive impairment in the HAART era. AIDS. 2007;21:1915-21. (Pubitemid 47329768)
4. Cysique LA, Brew BJ. Prevalence of non-confounded HIV-associated neurocognitive impairment in the context of plasma HIV RNA suppression. J Neurovirol. 2011;17(2):176-83.
5. Hinkin CH, Castellon SA, Durvasula RS, Hardy DJ, Lam MN, Mason KI, et al.Medication adherence among HIV+adults: effects of cognitive dysfunction and regimen complexity. Neurology. 2002;59:1944-50. (Pubitemid 36076569)
6. Marcotte TD, Heaton RK, Wolfson T, Taylor MJ, Alhassoon O, Arfaa K, et al. The impact of HIV-related neuropsychological dysfunction on driving behavior. J Int Neuropsychol Soc. 1999;5(7):579-92. (Pubitemid 30047684)
7. Albert SM, Marder K, Dooneief G, Bell K, Sano M, Todak G, et al. Neuropsychologic impairment in early HIV infection. A risk factor for work disability. Arch Neurol. 1995;52:525-30.
8. Wilkie FL, Goodkin K, Eisdorfer C, Feaster D, Morgan R, Fletcher MA, et al.Mild cognitive impairment and risk of mortality in HIV-1 infection. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci. 1998;10(2):125-32. (Pubitemid 28241360)
9. Sacktor NC, Bacellar H, Hoover DR, Nance-Sproson TE, Selnes OA, Miller EN, et al. Psychomotor slowing in HIV infection: a predictor of dementia, AIDS and death. J Neurovirol. 1996;2:404-10. (Pubitemid 27011093)
10. Mayeux R, Stern Y, Tang MX, Todak G, Marder K, Sano M, et al. Mortality risks in gay men with human immunodeficiency virus infection and cognitive impairment. Neurology. 1993;43(1):176-82. (Pubitemid 23035377)
11. Cysique LA, Maruff P, Brew BJ. Prevalence and pattern of neuropsychological impairment in human immunodeficiency virus infected/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS) patients across pre and post-highly active antiretroviral therapy eras: a combined study of two cohorts. J Neurovirol. 2004;10:350-7. (Pubitemid 40109622)
12. Heaton RK, Franklin DR, Ellis RJ, McCutchan JA, Letendre SL, Leblanc S, et al. HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders before and during the era of combination antiretroviral therapy: differences in rates, nature, and predictors. J Neurovirol. 2011;17:3-16.
13. Valcour V, Watters MR, Williams AE, Sacktor N, McMurtray A, Shikuma C. Aging exacerbates extrapyramidal motor signs in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. J Neurovirol. 2008;14:362-7. (Pubitemid 352762875)
14. Tisch S, Brew B. Parkinsonism in HIV-infected patients on highly active antiretroviral therapy. Neurology. 2009;73:401-3.
15. Power C, Scenes OF, Grim JA, McArthur JC. HIV Dementia Scale: a rapid screening test. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol. 1995;8:273-8.
16. Bottiggi KA, Chang JJ, Schmitt FA, Avison MJ, Mootoor Y, Nath A, et al. The HIV Dementia Scale: predictive power in mild dementia and HAART. J Neurol Sci. 2007;260:11-5. (Pubitemid 47212187)
17. Skinner S, Adewale AJ, DeBlock L, Gill MJ, Power C. Neurocognitive screening tools in HIV/AIDS: comparative performance among patients exposed to antiretroviral therapy. HIV Med. 2009;10:246-52.
18. Morgan EE, Woods SP, Scott JC, Childers M, Beck JM, Ellis RJ, et al. Predictive validity of demographically adjusted normative standards for the HIV Dementia Scale. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol. 2008;30:83-90.
19. Sacktor NC, Wong M, Nakasujja N, Skolasky RL, Selnes OA, Musisi S, et al. The International HIV Dementia Scale: a new rapid screening test for HIV dementia. AIDS. 2005;19:1367-74. (Pubitemid 41800672)
20. Njamnshi AK, Djientcheu Vde P, Fonsah JY, Yepnjio FN, Njamnshi DM, Muna WE. The International HIV Dementia Scale is a useful screening tool for HIV-associated dementia/cognitive impairment in HIV-infected adults in Yaounde-Cameroon. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2008;49:393-7.
21. Lu GM, Brew BJ, Siefried KJ, Draper B, Cysique LA. Is the HIV Dementia Scale a reliable tool for assessing HIV-related neurocognitive decline? J AIDS Clin Res. 2013;5:269.
22. Cysique LA, Maruff P, Darby D, Brew BJ. The assessment of cognitive function in advanced HIV-1 infection and AIDS dementia complex using a new computerised cognitive test battery. Arch Clin Neuropsychol. 2006;21:185-94. (Pubitemid 43117194)
23. Maruff P, Thomas E, Cysique LA, BrewB, CollieA, Snyder P, et al. Validity of the CogState brief battery: relationship to standardized tests and sensitivity to cognitive impairment in mild traumatic brain injury, schizophrenia, and AIDS dementia complex. Arch Clin Neuropsychol. 2009;24:165-78.
24. Edén A, Fuchs D, Hagberg L, Nilsson S, Spudich S, Svennerholm B, et al. HIV-1 viral escape in cerebrospinal fluid of subjects on suppressive antiretroviral treatment. J Infect Dis. 2010;202:1819-25.
25. Canestri A, Lescure FX, Jaureguiberry S, Moulignier A, Amiel C, Marcelin AG, et al. Discordance between cerebral spinal fluid and plasma HIV replication in patients with neurological symptoms who are receiving suppressive antiretroviral therapy. Clin Infect Dis. 2010;50(5):773-8.
26. PelusoMJ, Ferretti F, Peterson J, Lee E, Fuchs D, Boschini A, et al. Cerebrospinal fluid HIVescape associated with progressive neurologic dysfunction in patients on antiretroviral therapy with well controlled plasma viral load. AIDS. 2012;26:1765-74.
27. Hagberg L, Cinque P, Gisslen M, Brew BJ, Spudich S, Bestetti A, et al. Cerebrospinal fluid neopterin: an informative biomarker of central nervous system immune activation in HIV-1 infection. AIDS Res Ther. 2010;7:15.
28. Peluso MJ, Meyerhoff DJ, Price RW, Peterson J, Lee E, Young AC, et al. Cerebrospinal fluid and neuroimaging biomarker abnormalities suggest early neurological injury in a subset of individuals during primary HIV infection. J Infect Dis. 2013;207:1703-12.
29. Bandaru VV, Mielke MM, Sacktor N, McArthur JC, Grant I, Letendre S, et al. A lipid storage-like disorder contributes to cognitive decline in HIV-infected subjects. Neurology. 2013;81(17):1492-9.
30. Chang L, Feger U, Ernst TM. Bioimaging. In: Gendelman HE, Grant I, Everall IP, Fox HS, Gelbard HA, Lipton SA, Swindells S, editors. The neurology of AIDS. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2012. p. 763-97.
31. Filippi CG, Ulug AM, Ryan E, Ferrando SJ, van GorpW. Diffusion tensor imaging of patients with HIV and normal-appearing white matter on MR images of the brain. Am J Neuroradiol. 2001;22:277-83. (Pubitemid 32163456)
32. Pfefferbaum A, Rosenbloom MJ, Rohlfing T, Kemper CA, Deresinski S, Sullivan EV. Frontostriatal fiber bundle compromise in HIV infection without dementia. AIDS. 2009;23:1977-85.
33. Wu Y, Storey P, Cohen BA, Epstein LG, Edelman RR, Ragin AB. Diffusion alterations in corpus callosum of patients with HIV. Am J Neuroradiol. 2006;27:656-60. (Pubitemid 44897794)
34. Chen Y, An H, Zhu H, Stone T, Smith JK, Hall C, et al. White matter abnormalities revealed by diffusion tensor imaging in non-demented and demented HIV+patients. Neuroimage. 2009;47(4):1154-62.
35. Zhu T, Zhong J, Hu R, Tivarus M, Ekholm S, Harezlak J, et al. Patterns ofwhitematter injury inHIVinfection after partial immune reconstitution: a DTI tract-based spatial statistics study. J Neurovirol. 2013;19(1):10-23.
36. Wright PW, Heaps JM, Shimony JS, Thomas JB, Ances BM. The effects of HIV and combination antiretroviral therapy on white matter integrity. AIDS. 2012;26:1501-8.
37. Thurnher MM, Castillo M, Stadler A, Rieger A, Schmid B, Sundgren PC. Diffusion-tensor MR imaging of the brain in human immunodeficiency virus-positive patients. Am J Neuroradiol. 2005;26:2275-81.
38. Chang L, Wong V, Nakama H, Watters M, Ramones D, Miller EN, et al. Greater than age-related changes in brain diffusion of HIV patients after 1 year. J NeuroImmune Pharmacol. 2008;3:265-74.
39. Pomara N, Crandall DT, Choi SJ, Johnson G, Lim KO. White matter abnormalities in HIV-1 infection: a diffusion tensor imaging study. Psychiatry Res. 2001;106:15-24. (Pubitemid 32174865)
40. Melrose RJ, Tinaz S, Castelo JM, Courtney MG, Stern CE. Compromise to fronto-stratial functioning in HIV: An FMRI investigation of the semantic event sequencing. Behav Brain Res. 2008;188:337-47.
41. Ances BM, Roc AC, Wang J, Korczykowski M, Okawa J, Stern J, et al. Caudate blood flow and volume are reduced in HIV+ neurocognitively impaired patients. Neurology. 2006;66:862-6. (Pubitemid 43739761)
42. Ernst T, Chang L, Jovicich J, Ames N, Arnold S. Abnormal brain activation on functional MRI in cognitively asymptomatic HIV patients. Neurology. 2002;59:1343-9. (Pubitemid 35285984)
43. Ances BM, Sisti D, Vaida F, Liang CL, Leontiev O, Perthen JE, et al. Resting cerebral blood flow: a potential biomarker of the effects of HIV in the brain. Neurology. 2009;73:702-8.
44. Ances BM, Roc AC, Korczykowski M, Wolf RL, Kolson DL. Combination antiretroviral therapy modulates the blood oxygen level-dependent amplitude in human immunodeficiency virus-seropositive patients. J Neurovirol. 2008;14:418-24. (Pubitemid 352762881)
45. Silva AC, Rodrigues BS, Micheletti AM, Tostes Jr S, Meneses AC, Silva-Vergara ML, et al. Neuropathology of AIDS: an autopsy review of 284 cases from Brazil comparing the finding pre- and post-HAART (highly active antiretroviral therapy) and pre- and post-mortem correlation. AIDS Res Treat. 2012. doi:10.1155/2012/186850.
46. Everall I, Vaida F, Khanlou N, Lazzaretto D, Achim C, Letendre S, et al. Cliniconeuropathologic correlates of human immunodeficiency virus in the era of antiretroviral therapy. J Neurovirol. 2009;15:360-70.
47. Churchill MJ, Wesselingh SL, Cowley D, Pardo CA, McArthur JC, Brew BJ, et al. Extensive astrocyte infection is prominent in human immunodeficiency virusassociated dementia. Ann Neurol. 2009;66:253-8.
48. Wang Z, Pekarskaya O, Bencheikh M, Chao W, Gelbard HA, Ghorpade A, et al. Reduced expression of glutamate transporter EAAT2 and impaired glutamate transport in human primary astrocytes exposed to HIV-1 or gp120. Virology. 2003;312:60-73. (Pubitemid 36918460)
49. + conductance, and glutamate flux. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol. 2000;279:C700-8.
50. .•• Eugenin EA, Clements JE, Zink MC, Berman JW. Human immunodeficiency virus infection of human astrocytes disrupts bloodbrain barrier integrity by a gap junction-dependent mechanism. J Neurosci. 2011;31:9456 -65. Eugenin et al. demonstrated how blood-brain barrier disruption and bystander apoptosis are carried out by infected astrocytes via gap junctions. This finding offer a possible explanation for cognitive decline despite effective serum viral suppression by cART.
51. Eugenin EA, Berman JW. Cytochrome c dysregulation induced by HIV infection of astrocytes results in bystander apoptosis of uninfected astrocytes by an IP3 and calcium-dependent mechanism. J Neurochem. 2013;127(5):644-51.
52. Nixon RA, Yang DS. Autophagy failure in Alzheimer 's disease-locating the primary defect. Neurobiol Dis. 2011;43(1):38-45.
53. Nixon RA. Autophagy, amyloidogenesis and Alzheimer disease. J Cell Sci. 2007;120(23):4081-91.
54. Hetz C, Thielen P, Matus S, Nassif M, Court F, Kiffin R, et al. Xbp-1 deficiency in the nervous system protects against amyotrophic lateral sclerosis by increasing autophagy. Genes Dev. 2009;23:2294-306.
55. Zhou D, Masliah E, Spector SA. Autophagy is increased in post-mortem brains of persons with HIV-1-associated encephalitis. J Infect Dis. 2011;203(11):1647-57.
56. Alirezaei M, Kiosses WB, Flynn CT, Brady NR, Fox HS. Disruption of neuronal autophagy by infected microglia results in neurodegeneration. PLoS One. 2008;3(8):e2906.
57. Nixon RA, Wegiel J, Kumar A, Yu WH, Peterhoff C, Cataldo A, et al. Extensive involvement of autophagy in Alzheimer disease: an immuno-electron microscopy study. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol. 2005;64(2):113-22. (Pubitemid 40349309)
58. Crews L, Spencer B, Desplats P, Patrick C, Paulino A, Rockenstein E, et al. Selective molecular alterations in the autophagy pathway in patients with Lewy body disease and in models of alphasynucleinopathy. PLoS One. 2010;5(2):e9313.
59. Keller JN, Hanni KB, Markesbery WR. Impaired proteasome function in Alzheimer 's disease. J Neurochem. 2000;75:436-9. (Pubitemid 30418211)
60. Keck S, Nitsch R, Grune T, Ullrich O. Proteasome inhibition by paired helical filament-tau in brains of patients with Alzheimer's disease. J Neurochem. 2003;85:115-22. (Pubitemid 36389701)
61. Ardley HC, Scott GB, Rose SA, Tan NG, Robinson PA. UCH-L1 aggresome formation in response to proteasome impairment indicates a role in inclusion formation in Parkinson's disease. J Neurochem. 2004;90:379-91. (Pubitemid 38938224)
62. McNaught KS, Belizaire R, Isacson O, Jenner P, Olanow CW. Altered proteasomal function in sporadic Parkinson's disease. Exp Neurol. 2003;179:38-46. (Pubitemid 36062617)
63. Mendonca DM, Chimelli L, Martinez AM. Expression of ubiquitin and proteasome in motorneurons and astrocytes of spinal cords from patients with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Neurosci Lett. 2006;404:315.
64. Gelman BB, Lisinicchia JG, Chen T, Johnson KM, Jennings K, Freeman Jr DH, et al. Prefrontal dopaminergic and enkephalinergic synaptic accommodation in HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders and encephalitis. J NeuroImmune Pharmacol. 2012;11:686-700.
65. Nguyen TP, SoukupVM, Gelman BB. Persistent hijacking of brain proteasomes in HIV-associated dementia. Am J Pathol. 2010;6(2):893-902.
66. .•• Desplats P, Dumaop W, Smith D, Adame A, Everall I, Letendre S, et al.Molecular and pathologic insights from latent HIV-1 infection in the human brain. Neurology. 2013;80:1415-23. Desplats et al. offered a new concept of latent HIV infection in the CNS that could contribute to ongoing neuroinflammation without active HIV viral replication.
67. Letendre S, Marquie-Beck J, Capparelli E, Best B, Clifford D, Collier AC, et al. Validation of the CNS penetration-effectiveness rank for quantifying antiretroviral penetration into the central nervous system. Arch Neurol. 2008;65:65-70.
68. Letendre S, FitzSimons C, Ellis R, Clifford D, Collier A, Gelman B, et al. Correlates of CSF viral load sin 1221 volunteers in the CHAR TER cohort. In: 17th conference on retroviruses and opportunistic infections, San Francisco, CA, USA; 2010. Abstract 430.
69. Koopmans PP, Ellis R, Best BM, Letendre S. Should antiretroviral therapy for HIV infection be tailored for intracerebral penetration? Neth J Med. 2009;67(6):206-11.
70. Marra CM, Zhao Y, Clifford DB, Letendre S, Evans S, Henry K, et al. Impact of combination antiretroviral therapy on cerebrospinal fluid HIV RNA and neurocognitive performance. AIDS. 2009;23:1359-66.
71. Cusini A, Vernazza PL, Yerly S, Decosterd LA, Ledergerber B, Fux CA, et al. Higher CNS penetration-effectiveness of long-term combination antiretroviral therapy is associated with better HIV-1 viral suppression in cerebrospinal fluid. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2013;62:28-35.
72. Rawson T, Muir D, Mackie NE, Garvey LJ, Everitt A, Winston A. Factors associated with cerebrospinal fluid HIV RNA in HIV infected subjects undergoing lumbar puncture examination in a clinical setting. J Infect. 2012;65:239-45.
73. Smurzynski M, Wu K, Letendre S, Robertson K, Bosch RJ, Clifford DB, et al. Effects of central nervous system antiretroviral penetration on cognitive functioning in the ALLRT cohort. AIDS. 2011;25:357-65.
74. Cysique LA, Vaida F, Letendre S, Gibson S, Cherner M, Woods SP, et al. Dynamics of cognitive change in impaired HIV-positive patients initiating antiretroviral therapy. Neurology. 2009;73:342-8.
75. Tozzi V, Balestra P, SalvatoriMF, Vlassi C, Liuzzi G, Giancola ML, et al. Changes in cognition during antiretroviral therapy: comparison of 2 different ranking systems to measure antiretroviral drug efficacy on HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2009;52:56-63.
76. Ciccarelli N, Fabbiani M, Colafigli M, Trecarichi EM, Silveri MC, Cauda R, et al. Revised central nervous system neuropenetration-effectiveness score is associated with cognitive disorders in HIV-infected patients with controlled plasma viraemia. Antivir Ther. 2013;18:153-60.
77. Casado JL, Marín A, Moreno A, Iglesias V, Perez-Elías MJ, Moreno S, et al. Central nervous system antiretroviral penetration and cognitive functioning in largely pretreated HIV-infected patients. J Neurovirol. 2014;20(1):54-61.
78. Vassallo M, Durant J, Biscay V, Lebrun-Frenay C, Dunais B, Laffon M, et al. Can high central nervous system penetrating antiretroviral regimens protect against the onset of HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders? AIDS. 2014;28(4):493-501.
79. Cross HM, Combrinck MI, Joska JA. HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders: antiretroviral regimen, central nervous system penetration effectiveness, and cognitive outcomes. S Afr Med J. 2013;103(10):758-62.
80. Ellis RJ, Letendre S, Vaida F, Haubrich R, Heaton RK, Sacktor N, et al. Randomized trial of CNS-targeted antiretrovirals for HIV-associated neurocognitive disorder. Clin Infect Dis. 2014;58(7):1015-22.
81. Cysique LA, Waters EK, Brew BJ. Central nervous system antiretroviral efficacy in HIV infection: a qualitative and quantitative review and implications for future research. BMC Neurol. 2011;11(1):148.
82. Brew BJ, Halman M, Catalan J, Sacktor N, Price RW, Brown S, et al. Factors in AIDS dementia complex trial design: results and lessons from the abacavir trial. PLoS Clin Trials. 2007;2(3):e13.
83. .• Gray LR, Tachedjian G, Ellett AM, Roche MJ, Cheng WJ, Guillemin GJ, et al. The NRTIs lamivudine, stavudine and zidovudine have reduced HIV-1 inhibitory activity in astrocytes. PLoS One. 2013;8(4):e62196. This study demonstrated a different inhibitory efficacy profile in targeting astrocyte HIVinfection by various ARVs. It provides new considerations regarding CNS-penetrating effectiveness of individual ARVs.
84. Mind Exchange Group. Assessment, diagnosis, and treatment of HIV-associated neurocognitive disorder: a consensus report of the mind exchange program. Clin Infect Dis. 2013;56(7):1004-17.
85. Mothobi NZ, Brew BJ. Neurocognitive dysfunction in the highly active antiretroviral therapy era. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2012;25(1):4-9.
86. Cysique LA, Maruff P, Brew BJ. Variable benefit in neuropsychological function in HIV-infected HAART-treated patients. Neurology. 2006;66:1447-50. (Pubitemid 43739663)
87. Sevigny JJ, Albert SM, McDermott MP, McArthur JC, Sacktor N, Conant K, et al. Evaluation of HIV RNA and markers of immune activation as predictors of HIV-associated dementia. Neurology. 2004;63:2084-90. (Pubitemid 39636256)