Assessment, diagnosisand treatment of Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)-associated neurocognitive disorders (HAND): A consensus report of the mind exchange program

Clinical Infectious Diseases

Volumn 56, Issue 7, 2013, Pages 1004-1017

  Antinori, Andrea ^a   Arendt, Gabriele ^b   Grant, Igor ^c   Letendre, Scott ^d   Muñoz Moreno, Jose A ^e   Eggers, Christian ^f   Brew, Bruce ^f   Brouillette, Marie Josée ^f   Bernal Cano, Francisco ^f   Carvalhal, Adriana ^f   Christo, Paulo Pereira ^f   Cinque, Paola ^f   Cysique, Lucette ^f   Ellis, Ronald ^f   Everall, Ian ^f   Gasnault, Jacques ^f   Husstedt, Ingo ^f   Korten, Volkan ^f   Machala, Ladislav ^f   Obermann, Mark ^f   Ouakinin, Silvia ^f   Podzamczer, Daniel ^f   Portegies, Peter ^f   Rackstraw, Simon ^f   Rourke, Sean ^f   Sherr, Lorraine ^f   Streinu Cercel, Adrian ^f   Winston, Alan ^f   Wojna, Valerie ^f   Yazdanpannah, Yazdan ^f   Arbess, Gordon ^f   Baril, Jean Guy ^f   Begovac, Josip ^f   Bergin, Colm ^f   Bonfanti, Paolo ^f   Bonora, Stefano ^f   Brinkman, Kees ^f   Canestri, Ana ^f   Cholewinska Szymanska, Grazyna ^f   Chowers, Michal ^f   Cooney, John ^f   Corti, Marcelo ^f   Doherty, Colin ^f   Elbirt, Daniel ^f   Esser, Stefan ^f   Florence, Eric ^f   Force, Gilles ^f   Gill, John ^f   Goffard, Jean Christophe ^f   Harrer, Thomas ^f   Li, Patrick ^f   Van De Kerckhove, Linos ^f   Knecht, Gaby ^f   Matsushita, Shuzo ^f   Matulionyte, Raimonda ^f   McConkey, Sam ^f   Mouglignier, Antoine ^f   Oka, Shinichi ^f   Penalva, Augusto ^f   Riesenberg, Klaris ^f   Sambatakou, Helen ^f   Tozzi, Valerio ^f   Vassallo, Matteo ^f   Wetterberg, Peter ^f   Drapato, Alicia Wiercinska ^f   more..

^a NATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR INFECTIOUS DISEASES L SPALLANZANI   (Italy)

^b UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL DÜSSELDORF   (Germany)

^c UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^d UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SAN DIEGO   (United States)

^e HOSPITAL UNIVERSITARI GERMANS TRIAS I PUJOL   (Spain)

^f NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS FUSION INHIBITOR; INTEGRASE INHIBITOR; NONNUCLEOSIDE REVERSE TRANSCRIPTASE INHIBITOR; PROTEINASE INHIBITOR; RNA DIRECTED DNA POLYMERASE INHIBITOR;

ARTICLE; CLINICAL ASSESSMENT; COMORBIDITY; CONSENSUS DEVELOPMENT; DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS; FOLLOW UP; HIV ASSOCIATED DEMENTIA; HUMAN; MEDICAL EXPERT; MEDICAL SPECIALIST; PATIENT MONITORING; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RISK FACTOR; SCREENING TEST;

EID: 84875042141     PISSN: 10584838     EISSN: 15376591     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/cid/cis975     Document Type: Article

References (112)

1. Powderly WG. Sorting through Manuscript confusing messages: the art of HAART. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2002;31 (Suppl 1):S24-25.
2. Antinori A, Arendt G, Becker JT, et al. Updated research nosology for HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders. Neurology 2007; 69:1789-99.
3. Albert SM, Weber C, Todak G. An observed performance test of medication management ability in HIV: relation to neuropsychological status and adherence outcomes. AIDS Behav 1999; 3:121-8.
4. Berger JR, Brew B. An international screening tool for HIV dementia. AIDS 2005; 19:2165-6.
5. Farinpour R, Miller EN, Satz P, et al. Psychosocial risk factors of HIV morbidity and mortality: findings from the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study (MACS). J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 2003; 25:654-70.
6. Garvey LJ, Yerrakalva D, Winston A. Do cerebral function test results correlate when measured by a computerized battery test and a memory questionnaire in HIV-1 infected subjects? Journal of the International AIDS Society 2008; 11 (Suppl 1):P301.
7. Garvey LJ, Yerrakalva D, Winston A. Correlations between computerized battery testing and a memory questionnaire for identification of neurocognitive impairment in HIV type 1-infected subjects on stable antiretroviral therapy. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 2009; 25:765-9.
8. Tozzi V, Balestra P, Bellagamba R, et al. Persistence of neuropsychologic deficits despite long-term highly active antiretroviral therapy in patients with HIV-related neurocognitive impairment: prevalence and risk factors. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2007; 45:174-82.
9. Sacktor N, Lyles RH, Skolasky R, et al. HIV-associated neurologic disease incidence changes: multicenter AIDS cohort study, 1990-1998. Neurology 2001; 56:257-60.
10. McArthur JC. HIV dementia: an evolving disease. J Neuroimmunol 2004; 157:3-10.
11. Cysique LA, Bain MP, Brew BJ, Marray JM. The burden of HIV-associated neurocognitive impairment in Australia and its estimates for the future. Sex Health 2011; 8:541-50.
12. EACS Guidelines Version 6, October 2011 Neurocognitive impairment: diagnosis and management, pp. 48-9. Available at: http://www. europeanaidsclinicalsociety.org/images/stories/EACS-Pdf/EACSguidelines-v6. 0-English.pdf. Accessed 25 June 2012.
13. NICE. Donor breast milk banks: the operation of donor breast milk bank services. National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence. Available at: http://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/CG93. Accessed 6 August 2011.
14. NICE. Feverish illness in children: assessment and initial management in children younger than 5 years. National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence. Available at: http://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/CG47. Accessed 6 August 2011.
15. Centre for Evidence Based Medicine. Available at: http://www.cebm.net. Accessed 2 April 2012.
16. Rourke SB, Halman MH, Bassel C. Neurocognitive complaints in HIV-infection and their relationship to depressive symptoms and neuropsychological functioning. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 1999; 21:737-56.
17. Gandhi NS, Skolasky RL, Peters KB, et al. A comparison of performance-based measures of function in HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders. J Neurovirol 2011; 17:159-65.
18. Tozzi V, Balestra P, Galgani S, et al. Neurocognitive performance and quality of life in patients with HIV infection. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 2003; 19:643-52.
19. Woods SP, Moore DJ, Weber E, Grant I. Cognitive neuropsychology of HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders. Neuropsychol Rev 2009; 19:152-68.
20. Cysique LA, Maruff P, Brew BJ. Prevalence and pattern of neuropsychological impairment in human immunodeficiency virus-infected/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS) patients across pre-and post-highly active antiretroviral therapy eras: A combined study of two cohorts. J Neurovirol 2004; 10:350-7.
21. Valcour VG, Paul R, Chiao S, Wendelken LA, Miller B. Screening for cognitive impairment in human immunodeficiency virus. Clin Infect Dis 2011; 53:836-42.
22. Heaton RK, Marcotte TD, Mindt MR, et al. The impact of HIV-associated neuropsychological impairment on everyday functioning. J Int Neuropsychol Soc. 2004; 10:317-31.
23. Mathew MM, Bhat JS. Profile of communication disorders in HIV-infected individuals: a preliminary study. J Int Assoc Physicians AIDS Care (Chic) 2008; 7:223-7.
24. Power C, Selnes OA, Grim JA, McArthur JC. HIV Dementia Scale: a rapid screening test. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol 1995; 8:273-8.
25. Bottiggi KA, Chang JJ, Schmitt FA, et al. The HIV Dementia Scale: Predictive power in mild dementia and HAART. J Neurolog Sci 2007; 260:11-15.
26. Skinner S, Adewale AJ, Deblock L, Gill MJ, Power C. Neurocognitive screening tools in HIV/AIDS: Comparative performance among patients exposed to antiretroviral therapy. HIV Med 2009; 10:246-52.
27. Simioni S, Cavassini M, Annoni JM, et al. Cognitive dysfunction in HIV patients despite long-standing suppression of viremia. AIDS 2010; 24:1243-50.
28. Morgan EE, Woods SP, Scott JC, et al.; the HIV Neurobehavioral Research Center (HNRC) Group. Predictive validity of demographically adjusted normative standards for the HIV Dementia Scale. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 2008; 30:83-90.
29. Sacktor NC, Wong M, Nakasujja N, et al. The International HIV Dementia Scale: A new rapid screening test for HIV dementia. AIDS 2005; 19:1367-74.
30. Njamnshi AK, Djientcheu VDP, Fonsah JY, et al. The International HIV Dementia Scale is a useful screening tool for HIV-associated dementia/cognitive impairment in HIV-infected adults in Yaounde, Cameroon. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr 2008; 49:393-7.
31. Carey CL, Woods SP, Rippeth JD, et al. Initial validation of a screening battery for the detection of HIV-associated cognitive impairment. Clin Neuropsychol 2004; 18:234-48.
32. Berghuis JP, Uldall KK, Lalonde B. Validity of two scales in identifying HIV-associated dementia. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol 1999; 21:134-40.
33. Knippels HM, Goodkin K, Weiss JJ, Wilkie FL, Antoni MH. The importance of cognitive self-report in early HIV-1 infection: validation of a cognitive functional status subscale. AIDS 2002; 16:259-67.
34. Cysique LA, Maruff P, Darby D, Brew BJ. The assessment of cognitive function in advanced HIV-1 infection and AIDS dementia complex using a new computerised cognitive test battery. Arch Clin Neuropsychol 2006; 21:185-94.
35. Gibbie T, Mijch A, Ellen S, et al. Depression and neurocognitive performance in individuals with HIV/AIDS: 2-year follow-up. HIV Med 2006; 7:112-21.
36. Cysique LA, Murray JM, Dunbar M, et al. A screening algorithm for HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders. HIV Med 2010; 11:642-9.
37. Lezak MD, Howieson DB, Loring DW. Neuropsychological Assessment, 4th ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2004.
38. Heaton RK, Miller SW, Taylor MJ, Grant I. Revised Comprehensive Norms for an Expanded Halstead-Reitan Battery: Demographically Adjusted Neuropsychological Norms for African American and Caucasian Adults Scoring Program. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources. 2004.
39. Strauss E, Sherman EMS, Spreen O. A Compendium of Neuropsychological Tests: Administration, Norms, and Commentary. 3rd ed. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press, 2006.
40. Heaton R, Temkin N, Dikmen S, et al. Detecting change: a comparison of three neuropsychological methods, using normal and clinical samples. Arch Clin Neuropsychol 2001; 16:75-91.
41. Salthouse TA, Tucker-Drob EM. Implications of short-term retest effects for the interpretation of longitudinal change. Neuropsychology 2008; 22:800-11.
42. Heaton RK, Clifford DB, Franklin DR Jr, et al. HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders persist in the era of potent antiretroviral therapy: CHARTER study. Neurology 2010; 75:2087-96.
43. Durvasula RS, Myers HF, Mason K, Hinkin C. Relationship between alcohol use/abuse, HIV infection and neuropsychological performance in African American men. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 2006; 28:383-404.
44. Norman LR, Basso M, Kumar A, Malow R. Neuropsychological consequences of HIV and substance abuse: a literature review and implications for treatment and future research. Curr Drug Abuse Rev, 2009; 2:143-56
45. Goodwin GM, Pretsell DO, Chiswick A, Egan V, Brettle RP. The Edinburgh cohort of HIV-positive injecting drug users at 10 years after infection: a case-control study of the evolution of dementia. AIDS 1996; 10:431-40.
46. Ances BM, Clifford DB. HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders and the impact of combination antiretroviral therapies. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep 2008; 8:455-61.
47. Schouten J, Cinque P, Gisslen M, Reiss P, Portegies P. HIV-1 infection and cognitive impairment in the cART era: a review. AIDS 2011; 13:561-75.
48. Portegies P, Solod L, Cinque P, et al. Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of neurological complications of HIV infection. Eur J Neurol 2004; 11:297-304.
49. CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention). Guidelines for prevention and treatment of opportunistic infections in HIV-infected adults and adolescents. Atlanta, GA: Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 2009 Apr; 58: RR-4.
50. Robinson-Papp J, Elliott KJ, Simpson DM. HIV-related neurocognitive impairment in the HAART era. Curr HIV/AIDS Rep 2009; 6:146-52.
51. Paul RH, Ernst T, Brickman AM, et al. Relative sensitivity of magnetic resonance spectroscopy and quantitative magnetic resonance imaging to cognitive function among nondemented individuals infected with HIV. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 2008; 14:725-33.
52. Becker JT, Maruca V, Kingsley LA, et al.; for the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study. Factors affecting brain structure in men with HIV disease in the post-HAART era. Neuroradiology 2012; 54:113-21.
53. Chang L, Lee PL, Yiannoutsos CT, et al. A multicenter in vivo proton-MRS study of HIV-associated dementia and its relationship to age. Neuroimage 2004; 23:1336-47.
54. Chelune G, Heaton R, Lehman R. Neuropsychological and personality correlates of patient's complaints of disability. In: Tarter R, Goldstein G, editors. Advances in Clinical Neuropsychology. New York: Plenum Press, 1986. 95-126
55. Lawton MP, Brody EM. Assessment of older people: self-maintaining and instrumental activities of daily living. Gerontologist 1969; 9:179-86.
56. Valcour V, Watters MR, Williams AE, et al. Aging exacerbates extrapyramidal motor signs in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy. J Neurovirol 2008; 14:362-7.
57. Woods SP, Dawson MS, Weber E, et al. Timing is everything: antiretroviral nonadherence is associated with impairment in time-based prospective memory. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 2009; 15:42-52.
58. Tucker KA, Robertson KR, Lin W, et al. Neuroimaging in human immunodeficiency. J Neuroimmunol 2004; 157:153-62.
59. Chen Y, An H, Zhu H, et al. White matter abnormalities revealed by diffusion tensor imaging in non-demented and demented HIV+ patients. Neuroimage 2009; 47:1154-62.
60. Mellgren A, Antinori A, Cinque P, et al. Cerebrospinal fluid HIV-1 infection usually responds well to antiretroviral treatment. Antivir Ther 2005; 10:701-7.
61. Levine AJ, Hinkin CH, Miller EN, et al. The generalizability of neurocognitive test/retest data derived from a nonclinical sample for detecting change among two HIV+ cohorts. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 2007; 29:669-78.
62. Thames AD, Kim MS, Becker BW, et al. Medication and finance management among HIV infected adults: The impact of age and cognition. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 2011; 33:200-9.
63. th Annual Conference, Melbourne, October 2000. Abstract no. 61.
64. Bouwman FH, Skolasky RL, Hes D, et al. Variable progression of HIV-associated dementia. Neurology 1998; 50:1814-20.
65. Navia B, Harezlak J, Schifitto G, et al. A longitudinal study of neurological injury in HIV-infected subjects on stable ART: The HIV Neuroimaging Consortium Cohort Study. Abstract 56 Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections 27 Feb-2 March 2011.
66. Cysique LA, Vaida F, Letendre S, et al. Dynamics of cognitive change in impaired HIV-positive patients initiating antiretroviral therapy. Neurology 2009; 73:342-8.]
67. Cysique LA, Maruff P, Brew BJ. Variable benefit in neuropsychological function in HIV-infected HAART-treated patients. Neurology 2006; 66:1447-50.
68. Brew BJ, Halman M, Catalan J, et al. Factors in AIDS dementia complex trial design: results and lessons from the abacavir trial. PLoS Clin Trials 2007; 2:e13.
69. Tozzi V, Narciso P, Galgani S, et al. Effects of zidovudine in 30 patients with mild to end-stage AIDS dementia complex. AIDS 1993; 7:683-92.
70. Tozzi V, Balestra P, Galgani S, et al. Positive and sustained effects of highly active antiretroviral therapy on HIV-1-associated neurocognitive impairment. AIDS 1999; 13:1889-97.
71. Sidtis JJ, Gatsonis C, Price RW, et al. Zidovudine treatment of the AIDS dementia complex: results of a placebo-controlled trial. AIDS Clinical Trials Group. Ann Neurol 1993; 33:343-9.
72. Brew BJ, Dunbar N, Druett JA, et al. Pilot study of the efficacy of atevirdine in the treatment of AIDS dementia complex. AIDS 1996; 10:1357-60.
73. Canestri A, Lescure FX, Jaureguiberry S, et al. Discordance between cerebral spinal fluid and plasma HIV replication in patients with neurological symptoms who are receiving suppressive antiretroviral therapy. Clin Infect Dis 2010; 50:773-8.
74. Al-Khindi T, Zakzanis KK, van Gorp WG. Does antiretroviral therapy improve HIV-associated cognitive impairment? A quantitative review of the literature. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 2011; 17:1-14.
75. Muñoz-Moreno JA, Fumaz CR, Ferrer MJ, et al. Nadir CD4 cell count predicts neurocognitive impairment in HIV-infected patients. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 2008; 24:1301-7.
76. Ellis RJ, Moore DJ, Childers ME, et al. Progression to neuropsychological impairment in human immunodeficiency virus infection predicted by elevated cerebrospinal fluid levels of human immunodeficiency virus RNA. Arch Neurol 2002; 59:923-8.
77. Heaton RK, Franklin DR, Ellis RJ, et al. HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders before and during the era of combination antiretroviral therapy: differences in rates, nature, and predictors. J Neurovirol 2011; 17:3-16.
78. Robertson KR, Smurzynski M, Parsons TD, et al. The prevalence and incidence of neurocognitive impairment in the HAART era. AIDS 2007; 21:1915-21.
79. Robertson KR, Su Z, Margolis DM, et al. Neurocognitive effects of treatment interruption in stable HIV-positive patients in an observational cohort. Neurology 2010; 74:1260-6.
80. Vivithanaporn P, Heo G, Gamble J, et al. Neurologic disease burden in treated HIV/AIDS predicts survival: A population-based study. Neurology 2010; 75:1150-8.
81. Cysique LA, Brew BJ. Neuropsychological functioning and antiretroviral treatment in HIV/AIDS: a review. Neuropsychol Rev 2009; 19:169-85.
82. Joska JA, Gouse H, Paul RH, et al. Does highly active antiretroviral therapy improve neurocognitive function? A systematic review. J Neurovirol 2010; 16:101-14.
83. Liner KJ, Hall CD, Robertson KR. Effects of antiretroviral therapy on cognitive impairment. Curr HIV/AIDS Rep 2008; 5:64-71.
84. Tozzi V, Balestra P, Liberstone R, et al. Cognitive function in treated HIV patients. Neurobehav HIV Med 2010; 2:95-113.
85. Cysique LA, Letendre SL, Ake C, et al. Incidence and nature of cognitive decline over 1 year among HIV-infected former plasma donors in China. AIDS 2010; 24:983-90.
86. Marcotte TD, Deutsch R, McCutchan JA, et al. Prediction of incident neurocognitive impairment by plasma HIV RNA and CD4 levels early after HIV seroconversion. Arch Neurol 2003; 60:1406-12.
87. McArthur JC, Steiner J, Sacktor N, Nath A. HIV-associated neurocognitive disorders. Mind the gap. Ann Neurol 2010; 67:699-14.
88. Letendre SL, McCutchan JA, Childers ME, et al. Enhancing antiretroviral therapy for human immunodeficiency virus cognitive disorders. Ann Neurol 2004; 56:416-23.
89. Letendre SL, Ellis R, Ances B, McCutchan J. Neurologic complications of HIV disease and their treatment. Top HIV Med 2010; 18:45-55.
90. Letendre S, FitzSimons C, Ellis R, et al. Correlates of CSF viral loads in 1,221 volunteers of the CHARTER cohort. 17th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections. San Francisco, CA, 2010. Abstract 172.
91. Spudich S, Lollo N, Liegler T, Deeks SG, Price RW. Treatment benefit on cerebrospinal fluid HIV-1 levels in the setting of systemic virological suppression and failure. J Infect Dis 2006; 194:1686-96.
92. McClernon D, Letendre S, Benjamin R, et al. Low-Level HIV-1 viral load monitoring in cerebral spinal fluid: possible correlation to antiviral drug penetration. 2007 EACS poster: P6.11/101. Available at: http://www. abstractserver.com/eacs2007/oaa/documents/P6.11-01-1.pdf. Accessed 25 June 2012.
93. Letendre S, McClernon D, Ellis RJ, et al. Persistent HIV in the central nervous system during treatment is associated with worse antiretroviral therapy penetration and cognitive impairment. Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections 2009; Poster 484b.
94. Childers ME, Woods SP, Letendre S, et al. Cognitive functioning during highly active antiretroviral therapy interruption in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection. J Neurovirol 2008; 14:550-7.
95. Muñoz-Moreno JA, Funaz CR, Prats A, et al. Interruptions of antiretroviral therapy in human immunodeficiency virus infection: are they detrimental to neurocognitive functioning? J Neurovirol 2010; 16:208-18.
96. El-Sadr WM, Lundgren JD, Neaton JD, et al. CD4+ count-guided interruption of antiretroviral treatment. N Engl J Med 2006; 355:2283-96.
97. Danel C, Moh R, Minga A, et al. CD4-guided structured antiretroviral treatment interruption strategy in HIV-infected adults in west Africa (Trivacan ANRS 1269 trial): a randomised trial. Lancet 2006; 367:1981-9.
98. Ruiz L, Paredes R, Gómez, et al. Antiretroviral therapy interruption guided by CD4 cell counts and plasma HIV-1 RNA levels in chronically HIV-1-infected patients. AIDS 2007; 21:169-78.
99. Clifford DB, Evans S, Yang Y, Acosta EP, Ribaudo H, Gulick RM, A5097s Study Team. Long-term impact of efavirenz on neuropsychological performance and symptoms in HIV-infected individuals (ACTG 5097s). HIV Clin Trials 2009; 10:343-55.
100. Ciccarelli N, Fabbiani M, Di Giambenedetto S, et al. Efavirenz associated with cognitive disorders in otherwise asymptomatic HIV-infected patients. Neurology 2011; 76:1403-9.
101. Poeta J, Linden R, Antunes MV, et al. Plasma concentrations of efavirenz are associated with body weight in HIV-positive individuals. J Antimicrob Chemother 2011; 66:2601-4.
102. Kappelhoff B, van Leth F, Robinson P, et al. Are adverse events of nevirapine and efavirenz related to plasma concentrations? Antivir Ther 2005; 10:489-98.
103. Hoffman C, Rockstroh J, Kamps BS. HIV Medicine. 15th ed, 2007. Available at: http://hivmedicine.com/textbook/download.htm.Accessed 25 June 2012.
104. Uthman OA, Abdulmalik JO. Adjunctive therapies for AIDS dementia complex. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2008; 16:CD006496.
105. Kodl CT, Seaquist ER. Cognitive dysfunction and diabetes mellitus. Endocr Rev 2008; 29:494-511.
106. Foley J, Ettenhofer M, Wright MJ. Neurocognitive functioning in HIV-1 infection: effects of cerebrovascular risk factors and age. Clin Neuropsychol 2010a; 24:265-85.
107. Dudgeon WD, Phillips KD, Bopp CM, Hand GA. Physiological and psychological effects of exercise interventions in HIV disease. AIDS Patient Care STDS 2004; 18:81-98.
108. Crepaz N, Passin WF, Herbst JH, et al. Meta-analysis of cognitive-behavioral interventions on HIV-positive persons' mental health and immune functioning. Health Psychol 2008; 27:4-14.
109. Ettenhofer ML, Foley J, Castellon SA, Hinkin CH. Reciprocal prediction of medication adherence and neurocognition in HIV/AIDS. Neurology 2010; 74:1217-22.
110. Hinkin CH, Hardy DJ, Mason KI, et al. Verbal and spatial working memory performance among HIV-infected adults. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 2002; 8:532-8.
111. Ellis RJ, Badiee J, Vaida F, et al. Nadir CD4 is a predictor of HIV neurocognitive impairment in the era of combination antiretroviral therapy. AIDS 2011; 25:1747-51.
112. Duara R, Loewenstein DA, Greig MT, et al. Pre-MCI and MCI: neuropsychological, clinical, and imaging features and progression rates. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. 2011; 19:951-60.