Bashful Boys and Coy Girls: A Review of Gender Differences in Childhood Shyness

Sex Roles

Volumn 70, Issue 7-8, 2014, Pages 255-266

  Doey, Laura ^a   Coplan, Robert J ^b   Kingsbury, Mila ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF OTTAWA   (Canada)

^b CARLETON UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

Author keywords

Children; Gender differences; Shyness; Social withdrawal; Unsociability

Indexed keywords

EID: 84901062416     PISSN: 03600025     EISSN: 15732762     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s11199-013-0317-9     Document Type: Article

References (147)

1. AAUW Educational Foundation. (1995). The AAUW Report: How schools shortchange girls. New York: Marlowe and Company.
2. Arbeau, K. A., & Coplan, R. J. (2007). Kindergarten teachers' beliefs and responses to hypothetical prosocial, asocial, and antisocial children. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 53, 291-318. doi: 10. 1353/mpq. 2007. 0007.
3. Arbeau, K. A., Coplan, R. J., & Weeks, M. (2010). Shyness, teacher-child relationships, and socio-emotional adjustment in grade 1. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 34, 259-269. doi: 10. 1177/0165025409350959.
4. Arbelle, S., Benjamin, J., Golin, M., Kremer, I., Belmaker, R. H., & Ebstein, R. P. (2003). Relation of shyness in grade school children to the genotype for the long form of the serotonin transporter promoter region polymorphism. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 160, 671-676. doi: 10. 1176/appi. ajp. 160. 4. 671.
5. Asendorpf, J. B., Denissen, J. J. A., & van Aken, M. A. G. (2008). Inhibited and aggressive preschool children at 23 years of age: Personality and social transitions into adulthood. Developmental Psychology, 44, 997-1011. doi: 10. 1037/0012-1649. 44. 4. 997.
6. Benedict, R. (1934). Patterns of culture. Oxford, England: Houghton Mifflin.
7. Birnbaum, D. W., & Croll, W. L. (1984). The etiology of children's stereotypes about sex differences in emotionality. Sex Roles, 10, 677-691. doi: 10. 1007/BF00287379.
8. Bishop, G., Spence, S. H., & McDonald, C. (2003). Can parents and teachers provide a reliable and valid report of behavioral inhibition? Child Development, 74, 1899-1917. doi: 10. 1046/j. 1467-8624. 2003. 00645. x.
9. Blote, A. W., Bokhorst, C. L., Miers, A. C., & Westenberg, P. M. (2012). Why are socially anxious adolescents rejected by peers? The role of subject-group similarity characteristics. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 22, 123-134. doi: 10. 1111/j. 1532-7795. 2011. 00768. x.
10. Bohlin, G., Hagekull, B., & Andersson, K. (2005). Behavioral inhibition as a precursor of peer social competence in early school age: The interplay with attachment and nonparental care. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 51, 1-19. doi: 10. 1353/mpq. 2005. 0001.
11. Book, S. W., Thomas, S. E., Smith, J. P., & Miller, P. M. (2012). Severity of anxiety in mental health versus addiction treatment settings when social anxiety and substance abuse are comorbid. Addictive Behaviors, 37, 1158-1161. doi: 10. 1016/j. addbeh. 2012. 04. 016.
12. Bornstein, M. H. (1995). Form and function: Implications for studies of culture and human development. Culture and Psychology, 1, 123-138. doi: 10. 1177/1354067X9511009.
13. Bosacki, S. L. (2008). Children's emotional lives: Sensitive shadows in the classroom. New York, NY: Peter Lang Publishing.
14. Bowker, J. C., & Raja, R. (2011). Social withdrawal subtypes during early adolescence in India. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 39, 201-212. doi: 10. 1007/s10802-010-9461-7.
15. Browne, B. A. (1998). Gender stereotypes in advertising on children's television in the 1990s: A cross-national analysis. Journal of Advertising, 27, 65-82.
16. Bukowski, W. M. (1990). Age differences in children's memory of information about aggressive, socially withdrawn, and prosociable boys and girls. Child Development, 61, 1326-1334. doi: 10. 2307/1130745.
17. Burgess, K. B., Rubin, K. H., Cheah, C. S., & Nelson, L. J. (2005). Behavioral inhibition, social withdrawal, and parenting. In W. R. Crozier & L. E. Alden (Eds.), The essential handbook of social anxiety for clinicians (pp. 99-120). New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
18. Cahill, B., & Adams, E. (1997). An exploratory study of early childhood teachers' attitudes toward gender roles. Sex Roles, 36, 517-529. doi: 10. 1007/BF02766688.
19. Caspi, A., Bem, D. J., & Elder, G. H. (1988). Moving away from the world: Life-course patterns of shy children. Developmental Psychology, 24, 824-831. doi: 10. 1037/0012-1649. 24. 6. 824.
20. Chang, L. (2004). The role of classroom norms in contextualizing the relations of children's social behaviors to peer acceptance. Developmental Psychology, 40, 691-702. doi: 10. 1037/0012-1649. 40. 5. 691.
21. Chavira, D. A., Stein, M. B., & Malcarne, V. L. (2002). Scrutinizing the relationship between shyness and social phobia. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 16, 585-598. doi: 10. 1016/S0887-6185%2802%2900124-X.
22. Chen, X. (2010). Shyness-inhibition in childhood and adolescence: A cross-cultural perspective. In K. H. Rubin & R. J. Coplan (Eds.), The development of shyness and social withdrawal (pp. 213-235). New York: Guilford.
23. Chen, X., & French, D. C. (2008). Children's social competence in cultural context. Annual Review of Psychology, 59, 591-616. doi: 10. 1146/annurev. psych. 59. 103006. 093606.
24. Chen, X., Rubin, K. H., & Sun, Y. (1992). Social reputation and peer relationships in Chinese and Canadian children: A cross-cultural study. Child Development, 63, 1336-1343. doi: 10. 2307/1131559.
25. Chen, X., Chen, H., & Kaspar, V. (2001). Group social functioning and individual socioemotional and school adjustment in Chinese children. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 47, 264-299. doi: 10. 1353/mpq. 2001. 0008.
26. Chen, X., Cen, G., Li, D., & He, Y. (2005). Social functioning and adjustment in Chinese children: The imprint of historical time. Child Development, 76, 182-195. doi: 10. 1111/j. 1467-8624. 2005. 00838. x.
27. Chen, X., DeSouza, A., Chen, H., & Wang, L. (2006). Reticent behavior and experiences in peer interactions in Chinese and Canadian children. Developmental Psychology, 42, 656-665. doi: 10. 1037/0012-1649. 42. 4. 656.
28. Chen, X., Wang, L., & Wang, Z. (2009). Shyness-sensitivity and social, school, and psychological adjustment in rural migrant and urban children in China. Child Development, 80, 1499-1513. doi: 10. 1111/j. 1467-8624. 2009. 01347. x.
29. Chronis-Tuscano, A., Degnan, K. A., Pine, D. S., Perez-Edgar, K., Henderson, H. A., Diaz, Y., Fox, N. A. (2009). Stable early maternal report of behavioral inhibition predicts lifetime social anxiety disorder in adolescence. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 48, 928-935. doi: 10. 1097/CHI. 0b013e3181ae09df.
30. Colder, C. R., Mott, J. A., & Berman, A. S. (2002). The interactive effects of infant activity level and fear on growth trajectories of early childhood behavior problems. Development and Psychopathology, 14, 1-23. doi: 10. 1017/S0954579402001013.
31. Coplan, R. J., & Prakash, K. (2003). Spending time with teacher: Characteristics of preschoolers who frequently elicit versus initiate interactions with teachers. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 18, 143-158. doi: 10. 1016/S0885-2006%2803%2900009-7.
32. Coplan, R. J., & Rubin, K. H. (1998). Exploring and assessing nonsocial play in the preschool: The development and validation of The Preschool Play Behavior Scale. Social Development, 7, 72-91. doi: 10. 1111/1467-9507. 00052.
33. Coplan, R. J., & Weeks, M. (2009). Shy and soft-spoken: Shyness, pragmatic language, and socio-emotional adjustment in early childhood. Infant and Child Development, 18, 238-254. doi: 10. 1002/icd. 622.
34. Coplan, R. J., & Weeks, M. (2010). Unsociability in middle childhood: Conceptualization, assessment, and associations with socio-emotional functioning. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 56, 105-130. doi: 10. 1353/mpq. 2010. 0005.
35. Coplan, R. J., Rubin, K. H., Fox, N. A., Calkins, S. D., & Stewart, S. L. (1994). Being alone, playing alone, and acting alone: Distinguishing among reticence and passive and active solitude in young children. Child Development, 65, 129-137. doi: 10. 2307/1131370.
36. Coplan, R. J., Prakash, K., O'Neil, K., & Armer, M. (2004). Do you 'want' to play? Distinguishing between conflicted shyness and social disinterest in early childhood. Developmental Psychology, 40, 244-258. doi: 10. 1037/0012-1649. 40. 2. 244.
37. Coplan, R. J., Closson, L. M., & Arbeau, K. A. (2007a). Gender differences in the behavioral associates of loneliness and social dissatisfaction in kindergarten. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 48, 988-995. doi: 10. 1111/j. 1469-7610. 2007. 01804. x.
38. Coplan, R. J., Girardi, A., Findlay, L. C., & Frohlick, S. L. (2007b). Understanding solitude: Young children's attitudes and responses towards hypothetical socially-withdrawn peers. Social Development, 16, 390-409. doi: 10. 1111/j. 1467-9507. 2007. 00390. x.
39. Coplan, R. J., Arbeau, K. A., & Armer, M. (2008). Don't fret, be supportive! Maternal characteristics linking child shyness to psychosocial and school adjustment in kindergarten. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36, 359-371. doi: 10. 1007/s10802-007-9183-7.
40. Coplan, R. J., DeBow, A., Schneider, B. H., & Graham, A. A. (2009). The social behaviours of inhibited children in and out of preschool. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 27, 891-905. doi: 10. 1348/026151008X396153.
41. Coplan, R. J., Hughes, K., & Roswell, H. C. (2010). "Once upon a time there were a blushful hippo and a meek mouse": A content analysis of shy characters in young children's storybooks. In K. H. Rubin & R. J. Coplan (Eds.), The development of shyness and social withdrawal (pp. 262-274). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
42. Coplan, R. J., Hughes, K., Bosacki, S., & Rose-Krasnor, L. (2011). Is silence golden? Elementary school teachers' strategies and beliefs regarding hypothetical shy/quiet and exuberant/talkative children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 103, 939-951. doi: 10. 1037/a0024551.
43. Coplan, R. J., Zheng, S., Weeks, M., & Chen, X. (2012). Young children's perceptions of social withdrawal in China and Canada. Early Child Development and Care, 182, 591-607. doi: 10. 1080/03004430. 2011. 566328.
44. Crick, N. R., & Ladd, G. W. (1993). Children's perceptions of their peer experiences: Attributions, loneliness, social anxiety, and social avoidance. Developmental Psychology, 29, 244-254. doi: 10. 1037/0012-1649. 29. 2. 244.
45. Crozier, W. R. (1995). Shyness and self-esteem in middle childhood. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 65, 85-95. doi: 10. 1111/j. 2044-8279. 1995. tb01133. x.
46. Crozier, W. R., & Hostettler, K. (2003). The influence of shyness on children's test performance. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 73, 317-328. doi: 10. 1348/000709903322275858.
47. Davidson, E. S., Yasuna, A., & Tower, A. (1979). The effects of television cartoons on sex-role stereotyping in young girls. Child Development, 50, 597-600.
48. Degnan, K. A., & Fox, N. A. (2007). Behavioral inhibition and anxiety disorders: Multiple levels of a resilience process. Development and Psychopathology, 19, 729-746. doi: 10. 1017/S0954579407000363.
49. Dettling, A. C., Gunnar, M. R., & Donzella, B. (1999). Cortisol levels of young children in full-day childcare centers: Relations with age and temperament. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 24, 519-536. doi: 10. 1016/S0306-4530%2899%2900009-8.
50. DuPaul, G. J., Jitendra, A. K., Tresco, K. E., Junod, R. E. V., Volpe, R. J., & Lutz, J. G. (2006). Children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: Are there gender differences in school functioning? School Psychology Review, 35, 292-308.
51. Eggum, N. D., Eisenberg, N., Spinrad, T. L., Reiser, M., Gaertner, B. M., Sallquist, J., & Smith, C. L. (2009). Development of shyness: Relations with children's fearfulness, sex, and maternal behavior. Infancy, 14, 325-345. doi: 10. 1080/15250000902839971.
52. Eisenberg, N., Shepard, S. A., Fabes, R. A., Murphy, B. C., & Guthrie, I. K. (1998). Shyness and children's emotionality, regulation, and coping: Contemporaneous, longitudinal, and across-context relations. Child Development, 69, 767-790. doi: 10. 1111/j. 1467-8624. 1998. tb06242. x.
53. Else-Quest, N. M., Hyde, J. S., Goldsmith, H. H., & van Hulle, C. A. (2006). Gender differences in temperament: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 132, 33-72. doi: 10. 1037/0033-2909. 132. 1. 33.
54. Engfer, A. (1993). Antecedents and consequences of shyness in boys and girls: A 6-year longitudinal study. In K. H. Rubin & J. B. Asendorpf (Eds.), Social withdrawal, inhibition, and shyness in childhood (pp. 49-79). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
55. Essau, C. A., Conradt, J., & Petermann, F. (1999). Frequency and comorbidity of social phobia and social fears in adolescents. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 37, 831-843. doi: 10. 1016/S0005-7967%2898%2900179-X.
56. Evans, M. (2010). Language performance, academic performance, and signs of shyness: A comprehensive review. In K. H. Rubin & R. J. Coplan (Eds.), The development of shyness and social withdrawal (pp. 179-212). New York, NY: Guilford.
57. Fagot, B. I. (1977). Consequences of moderate cross-gender behavior in preschool children. Child Development, 48, 902-907. doi: 10. 2307/1128339.
58. Fagot, B. I. (1984). Teacher and peer reactions to boys' and girls' play styles. Sex Roles, 11, 691-702. doi: 10. 1007/BF00288120.
59. Feng, X., Shaw, D. S., & Silk, J. S. (2008). Developmental trajectories of anxiety symptoms among boys across early and middle childhood. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 117, 32-47. doi: 10. 1037/0021-843X. 117. 1. 32.
60. Findlay, L. C., Coplan, R. J., & Bowker, A. (2009). Keeping it all inside: Shyness, internalizing coping strategies and socio-emotional adjustment in middle childhood. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 33, 47-54. doi: 10. 1177/0165025408098017.
61. Fitzpatrick, M. J., & McPherson, B. J. (2010). Coloring within the lines: Gender stereotypes in contemporary coloring books. Sex Roles, 62, 127-137. doi: 10. 1007/s11199-009-9703-8.
62. Fox, N. A., Henderson, H. A., Rubin, K. H., Calkins, S. D., & Schmidt, L. A. (2001). Continuity and discontinuity of behavioral inhibition and exuberance: Psychophysiological and behavioral influences across the first four years of life. Child Development, 72, 1-21. doi: 10. 1111/1467-8624. 00262.
63. Garside, R. B., & Klimes-Dougan, B. (2002). Socialization of discrete negative emotions: Gender differences and links with psychological distress. Sex Roles, 47, 115-128. doi: 10. 1023/A: 1021090904785.
64. Gazelle, H., & Ladd, G. W. (2003). Anxious solitude and peer exclusion: A diathesis-stress model of internalizing trajectories in childhood. Child Development, 74, 257-278. doi: 10. 1111/1467-8624. 00534.
65. Gazelle, H., & Rudolph, K. D. (2004). Moving toward and away from the world: Social approach and avoidance trajectories in anxious solitary youth. Child Development, 25, 829-849. doi: 10. 1111/j. 1467-8624. 2004. 00709. x.
66. Gazelle, H., Workman, J. O., & Allan, W. (2010). Anxious solitude and clinical disorder in middle childhood: Bridging developmental and clinical approaches to childhood social anxiety. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 38, 1-17. doi: 10. 1007/s10802-009-9343-z.
67. Gest, S. D. (1997). Behavioral inhibition: Stability and associations with adaptation from childhood to early adulthood. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 467-475. doi: 10. 1037/0022-3514. 72. 2. 467.
68. Gooden, A. M., & Gooden, M. A. (2001). Gender representation in notable children's picture books: 1995-1999. Sex Roles, 45, 89-101. doi: 10. 1023/A: 1013064418674.
69. Graham, A. A., & Coplan, R. J. (2012). Shyness, sibling relationships, and young children's socio-emotional adjustment at preschool. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 26, 435-449. doi: 10. 1080/02568543. 2012. 711802.
70. Grant, B. F., Hasin, D. S., Blanco, C., Stinson, F. S., Chou, S. P., Goldstein, R. B., Huang, B. (2005). The epidemiology of social anxiety disorder in the United States: Results from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 66, 1351-1361. doi: 10. 4088/JCP. v66n1102.
71. Gunnar, M. R., Talge, N. M., & Herrera, A. (2009). Stressor paradigms in developmental studies: What does and does not work to produce mean increases in salivary cortisol. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 34, 953-967. doi: 10. 1016/j. psyneuen. 2009. 02. 010.
72. Hamidovic, A., Dlugos, A., Skol, A., Palmer, A. A., & de Wit, H. (2009). Evaluation of genetic variability in the dopamine receptor D2 in relation to behavioral inhibition and impulsivity/sensation seeking: An exploratory study with d-amphetamine in healthy participants. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 17, 374-383. doi: 10. 1037/a0017840.
73. Hamilton, M. C., Anderson, D., Broaddus, M., & Young, K. (2006). Gender stereotyping and under-representation of female characters in 200 popular children's picture books: A twenty-first century update. Sex Roles, 55, 757-765. doi: 10. 1007/s11199-006-9128-6.
74. Harrist, A. W., Zaia, A. F., Bates, J. E., Dodge, K. A., & Pettit, G. S. (1997). Subtypes of social withdrawal in early childhood: Sociometric status and social-cognitive differences across four years. Child Development, 68, 278-294. doi: 10. 2307/1131850.
75. Heinrichs, N., Rapee, R. M., Alden, L. A., Bogels, S., Hofmann, S. G., Oh, K. J., & Sakano, Y. (2006). Cultural differences in perceived social norms and social anxiety. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 44, 1187-1197. doi: 10. 1016/j. brat. 2005. 09. 006.
76. Henderson, H. A., Fox, N. A., & Rubin, K. H. (2001). Temperamental contributions to social behavior: The moderating roles of frontal EEG asymmetry and gender. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 68-74. doi: 10. 1097/00004583-200101000-00018.
77. Henderson, H. A., Marshall, P. J., Fox, N. A., & Rubin, K. H. (2004). Psychophysiological and behavioral evidence for varying forms and functions of nonsocial behavior in preschoolers. Child Development, 75, 251-263. doi: 10. 1111/j. 1467-8624. 2004. 00667. x.
78. Hofmann, S. G., Asnaani, A., & Hinton, D. E. (2010). Cultural aspects in social anxiety and social anxiety disorder. Depression and Anxiety, 27, 1117-1127. doi: 10. 1002/da. 20759.
79. Hong, J. J., & Woody, S. R. (2007). Cultural mediators of self-reported social anxiety. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45, 1779-1789. doi: 10. 1016/j. brat. 2007. 01. 011.
80. Hughes, K., & Coplan, R. J. (2010). Exploring processes linking shyness and academic achievement in childhood. School Psychology Quarterly, 25, 213-222. doi: 10. 1037/a0022070.
81. Janson, H., & Mathiesen, K. S. (2008). Temperament profiles from infancy to middle childhood: Development and associations with behavior problems. Developmental Psychology, 44, 1314-1328. doi: 10. 1037/a0012713.
82. Justice, L. M., Cottone, E. A., Mashburn, A., & Rimm-Kaufman, S. E. (2008). Relationships between teachers and preschoolers who are at risk: Contributions of children's language skills, temperamentally based attributes, and gender. Early Education and Development, 19, 600-621. doi: 10. 1080/10409280802231021.
83. Kagan, J. (1997). Temperament and the reactions to unfamiliarity. Child Development, 68, 139-143. doi: 10. 2307/1131931.
84. Kagan, J., Reznick, J. S., & Snidman, N. (1988). The physiology and psychology of behavioral inhibition in children. Annual Progress in Child Psychiatry & Child Development, 102-127.
85. Kagan, J., Snidman, N., & Arcus, D. (1993). On the temperamental categories of inhibited and uninhibited children. In K. H. Rubin & J. B. Asendorpf (Eds.), Social withdrawal, inhibition, and shyness in childhood (pp. 19-28). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
86. Kendall, P. C., Hedtke, K. A., & Aschenbrand, S. G. (2006). Anxiety disorders. In D. A. Wolfe & E. J. Mash (Eds.), Behavioral and emotional disorders in adolescents: Nature, assessment, and treatment (pp. 259-299). New York, NY: Guilford Publications.
87. Kerr, M., Lambert, W. W., & Bem, D. J. (1996). Life course sequelae of childhood shyness in Sweden: Comparison with the United States. Developmental Psychology, 32, 1100-1105. doi: 10. 1037/0012-1649. 32. 6. 1100.
88. Kessler, R. C., Berglund, P., Demler, O., Jin, R., Merikangas, K. R., & Walters, E. E. (2005). Lifetime prevalence and age-of-onset distributions of DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62, 593-602. doi: 10. 1001/archpsyc. 62. 6. 593.
89. Kienbaum, J., Volland, C., & Ulich, D. (2001). Sympathy in the context of mother-child and teacher-child relationships. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 25, 302-309. doi: 10. 1080/01650250143000076.
90. Kim, J., Rapee, R. M., Oh, K. J., & Moon, H.-S. (2008). Retrospective report of social withdrawal during adolescence and current maladjustment in young adulthood: Cross-cultural comparisons between Australian and South Korean students. Journal of Adolescence, 31, 543-563. doi: 10. 1016/j. adolescence. 2007. 10. 011.
91. Kimmel, M. S. (2004). The Gendered Society (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
92. Kingsbury, M. K., & Coplan, R. J. (2012). Mothers' gender-role attitudes and their responses to young children's hypothetical display of shy and aggressive behaviors. Sex Roles, 66, 506-517. doi: 10. 1007/s11199-012-0120-z.
93. Kingsbury, M., Coplan, R. J., & Rose-Krasnor, L. (2012). Shy, but getting by? An examination of the complex links between shyness, coping, and socio-emotional functioning in childhood. Paper presented at the biennial meetings of the International Society for the Study of Behavioral Development in Edmonton, AB.
94. Ladd, G. W., Kochenderfer-Ladd, B., Eggum, N. D., Kochel, K. P., & McConnell, E. M. (2011). Characterizing and comparing the friendships of anxious-solitary and unsociable preadolescents. Child Development, 82, 1434-1453. doi: 10. 1111/j. 1467-8624. 2011. 01632. x.
95. Lazarus, P. J. (1982). Incidence of shyness in elementary-school age children. Psychological Reports, 51, 904-906. doi: 10. 2466/pr0. 1982. 51. 3. 904.
96. Lease, A. M., Kennedy, C. A., & Axelrod, J. L. (2002). Children's social constructions of popularity. Social Development, 11, 87-109. doi: 10. 1111/1467-9507. 00188.
97. Lemerise, E. A. (1997). Patterns of peer acceptance, social status, and social reputation in mixed-age preschool and primary classrooms. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 43, 199-218. doi: 10. 1037/0022-0663. 90. 3. 506.
98. Liu, R. X., Tein, J. Y., & Zhao, Z. (2004). Coping strategies and behavioral-emotional problems among Chinese adolescents. Psychiatry Research, 126, 275-285. doi: 10. 1016/j. psychres. 2004. 02. 006.
99. Matthews, J. S., Ponitz, C. C., & Morrison, F. J. (2009). Early gender differences in self-regulation and academic achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 101, 689-704. doi: 10. 1037/a0014240.
100. McCabe, L. A., Cunnington, M., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2004). The development of self-regulation in young children: Individual characteristics and environmental contexts. In R. F. Baumeister & K. D. Vohs (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation: Research, theory, and applications (pp. 340-356). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
101. McDermott, J. M., Perez-Edgar, K., Henderson, H. A., Pine, D. S., & Fox, N. A. (2009). A history of childhood behavioral inhibition and enhanced response monitoring in adolescence are linked to clinical anxiety. Biological Psychiatry, 65, 445-448. doi: 10. 1016/j. biopsych. 2008. 10. 043.
102. Mian, N. D., Wainwright, L., Briggs-Gowan, M. J., & Carter, A. S. (2011). An ecological risk model for early childhood anxiety: The importance of early child symptoms and temperament. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 39, 501-512. doi: 10. 1007/s10802-010-9476-0.
103. Miers, A. C., Blote, A. W., & Westenberg, P. M. (2010). Peer perceptions of social skills in socially anxious and nonanxious adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 38, 33-41. doi: 10. 1007/s10802-009-9345-x.
104. Morison, P., & Masten, A. S. (1991). Peer reputation in middle childhood as a predictor of adaptation in adolescence: A seven-year follow-up. Child Development, 62, 991-1007. doi: 10. 2307/1131148.
105. Mullen, M., Snidman, N., & Kagan, J. (1993). Free-play behavior in inhibited and uninhibited children. Infant Behavior & Development, 16, 383-389. doi: 10. 1016/0163-6383%2893%2980043-8.
106. Muris, P., van Brakel, A. M. L., Arntz, A., & Schouten, E. (2011). Behavioral inhibition as a risk factor for the development of childhood anxiety disorders. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 20, 157-170. doi: 10. 1007/s10826-010-9365-8.
107. Nelson, L. J., Rubin, K. H., & Fox, N. A. (2005). Social withdrawal, observed peer acceptance, and the development of self-perceptions in children ages 4 to 7 years. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 20, 185-200. doi: 10. 1016/j. ecresq. 2005. 04. 007.
108. Perren, S., & Alsaker, F. D. (2006). Social behavior and peer relationships of victims, bully-victims, and bullies in kindergarten. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47, 45-57. doi: 10. 1111/j. 1469-7610. 2005. 01445. x.
109. Prinstein, M. J., Borelli, J. L., Cheah, C. S., Simon, V. A., & Aikins, J. W. (2005). Adolescent girls' interpersonal vulnerability to depressive symptoms: A longitudinal examination of reassurance-seeking and peer relationships. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 114, 676-688. doi: 10. 1037/0021-843X. 114. 4. 676.
110. Pronk, R. E., & Zimmer-Gembeck, M. J. (2010). It's "mean", but what does it mean to adolescents? Relational aggression described by victims, aggressors, and their peers. Journal of Adolescent Research, 25, 175-204. doi: 10. 1177/0743558409350504.
111. Ranta, K., Kaltiala-Heino, R., Koivisto, A.-M., Tuomisto, M. T., Pelkonen, M., & Marttunen, M. (2007). Age and gender differences in social anxiety symptoms during adolescence: The Social Phobia Inventory (SPIN) as a measure. Psychiatry Research, 153, 261-270. doi: 10. 1016/j. psychres. 2006. 12. 006.
112. Rapee, R. M., & Coplan, R. J. (2010). Conceptual relations between anxiety disorder and fearful temperament. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 127, 17-31. doi: 10. 1002/cd. 260.
113. Renn, J. A., & Calvert, S. L. (1993). The relation between gender schemas and adults' recall of stereotyped and counterstereotyped televised information. Sex Roles, 28, 449-459. doi: 10. 1177/1075547009357779.
114. Rimm-Kaufman, S. E., & Kagan, J. (2005). Infant predictors of kindergarten behavior: The contribution of inhibited and uninhibited temperament types. Behavioral Disorders, 30, 331-347.
115. Rowe, D. C., & Plomin, R. (1977). Temperament in early childhood. Journal of Personality Assessment, 41, 150-156. doi: 10. 1207/s15327752jpa4102_5.
116. Rubin, K. H., & Coplan, R. J. (2004). Paying attention to and not neglecting social withdrawal and social isolation. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 50, 506-534. doi: 10. 1353/mpq. 2004. 0036.
117. Rubin, K. H., Chen, X., & Hymel, S. (1993). Socioemotional characteristics of withdrawn and aggressive children. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 39, 518-534.
118. thedition): Social, emotional, and personality development (pp. 571-645). New York: Wiley.
119. Rubin, K. H., Wojslawowicz, J. C., Rose-Krasnor, L., Booth-LaForce, C., & Burgess, K. B. (2006b). The best friendships of shy/withdrawn children: Prevalence, stability, and relationship quality. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 34, 143-157. doi: 10. 1007/s10802-005-9017-4.
120. Rubin, K. H., Coplan, R. J., & Bowker, J. (2009). Social withdrawal in childhood. Annual Review of Psychology, 60, 141-171. doi: 10. 1146/annurev. psych. 60. 110707. 163642.
121. Ruble, D. N., Balaban, T., & Cooper, J. (1981). Gender constancy and the effects of sex-typed televised toy commercials. Child Development, 52, 667-673. doi: 10. 2307/1129188.
122. Saberi, M., & D'Souza, L. (2009). Comparison of shyness between adolescents in India and Iran: A developmental perspective of age and gender. Journal of Psychosocial Research, 4, 121-130.
123. Sadker, M., & Sadker, D. (1994). Failing at fairness: How America's schools cheat girls. New York: Simon & Schuster.
124. Sandberg, A., & Pramling-Samuelsson, I. (2005). An interview study of gender differences in preschool teachers' attitudes toward children's play. Early Childhood Education Journal, 32, 297-305. doi: 10. 1007/s10643-005-4400-x.
125. Scarpa, A., Raine, A., Venables, P. H., & Mednick, S. A. (1995). The stability of inhibited/uninhibited temperament from ages 3 to 11 years in Mauritian children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 23, 607-618. doi: 10. 1007/BF01447665.
126. Schmidt, L. A., Fox, N. A., Rubin, K. H., Sternberg, E. M., Gold, P. W., Smith, C. C., & Schulkin, J. (1997). Behavioral and neuroendocrine responses in shy children. Developmental Psychobiology, 30, 127-140. doi: 10. 1002/%28SICI%291098-2302%28199703%2930: 2%3C127:: AID-DEV4%3E3. 0. CO;2-S.
127. Schmidt, L. A., Polak, C. P., & Spooner, A. L. (2005). Biological and environmental contributions to childhood shyness: A diathesis-stress model. In W. R. Crozier & L. E. Alden (Eds.), The essential handbook of social anxiety for clinicians (pp. 33-55). United Kingdom: John Wiley & Sons.
128. Schmidt, L. A., Fox, N. A., Perez-Edgar, K., & Hamer, D. H. (2009). Linking gene, brain, and behavior: DRD4, frontal asymmetry, and temperament. Psychological Science, 20, 831-837. doi: 10. 1111/j. 1467-9280. 2009. 02374. x.
129. Schwartz, C. E., Snidman, N., & Kagan, J. (1999). Adolescent social anxiety as an outcome of inhibited temperament in childhood. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 38, 1008-1015. doi: 10. 1097/00004583-199908000-00017.
130. Simpson, A. E., & Stevenson-Hinde, J. (1985). Temperamental characteristics of three- to four-year-old boys and girls and child-family interactions. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 26, 43-53. doi: 10. 1111/j. 1469-7610. 1985. tb01627. x.
131. Smetana, J. (1986). Preschool children's conceptions of sex-role transgressions. Child Development, 57, 862-871. doi: 10. 2307/1130363.
132. Smith, A. K., Rhee, S. H., Corley, R. P., Friedman, N. P., Hewitt, J. K., & Robinson, J. L. (2012). The magnitude of genetic and environmental influences on parental and observational measures of behavioral inhibition and shyness in toddlerhood. Behavioral Genetics, 42, 764-777. doi: 10. 1007/s10519-012-9551-0.
133. Spangler, T., & Gazelle, H. (2009). Anxious solitude, unsociability, and peer exclusion in middle childhood: A multitrait-multimethod matrix. Social Development, 18, 833-856. doi: 10. 1111/sode. 2009. 18. issue-410. 1111/j. 1467-9507. 2008. 00517. x.
134. Spangler, G., & Schieche, M. (1998). Emotional and adrenocortical responses of infants to the Strange Situation: The differential function of emotional expression. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 22, 681-706. doi: 10. 1080/016502598384126.
135. Stevenson-Hinde, J., & Glover, A. (1996). Shy girls and boys: A new look. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 37, 181-187. doi: 10. 1111/j. 1469-7610. 1996. tb01389. x.
136. Stipek, D., & Miles, S. (2008). Effects of aggression on achievement: Does conflict with the teacher make it worse? Child Development, 79, 1721-1735. doi: 10. 1111/j. 1467-8624. 2008. 01221. x.
137. Theall-Honey, L. A., & Schmidt, L. A. (2006). Do temperamentally shy children process emotion differently than nonshy children? Behavioral, psychophysiological, and gender differences in reticent preschoolers. Developmental Psychobiology, 48, 187-196. doi: 10. 1002/dev. 20133.
138. Thijs, J. T., Koomen, H. M. Y., de Jong, P. F., van der Leij, A., & van Leeuwen, M. G. P. (2004). Internalizing behaviors among kindergarten children: Measuring dimensions of social withdrawal with a checklist. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 33, 802-812. doi: 10. 1207/s15374424jccp3304_15.
139. Thijs, J. T., Koomen, H. M. Y., & van der Leij, A. (2006). Teachers' self-reported pedagogical practices toward socially inhibited, hyperactive, and average children. Psychology in the Schools, 43, 635-651. doi: 10. 1002/pits. 20171.
140. Thompson, T. L., & Zerbinos, E. (1997). Television cartoons: Do children notice it's a boys' world? Sex Roles, 37, 415-432. doi: 10. 1007/s11199-006-9128-6.
141. Tsai, J. L., Louie, J. Y., Chen, E. E., & Uchida, Y. (2007). Learning what feelings to desire: Socialization of ideal affect through children's storybooks. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 33, 17-30. doi: 10. 1177/0146167206292749.
142. Vervoort, L., Wolters, L. H., Hogendoorn, S. M., Prins, P. J. M., de Haan, E., Nauta, M. H., & Boer, F. (2010). Automatic evaluations in clinically anxious and nonanxious children and adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 39, 481-491. doi: 10. 1080/15374416. 2010. 486316.
143. White, L. K., McDermott, J. M., Degnan, K. A., Henderson, H. A., & Fox, N. A. (2011). Behavioral inhibition and anxiety: The moderating roles of inhibitory control and attention shifting. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 39, 735-747. doi: 10. 1007/s10802-011-9490-x.
144. Williams, J. E., & Best, D. L. (1990). Sex and psyche: Gender and self viewed cross-culturally. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
145. Williams, L. R., Fox, N. A., Lejuez, C. W., Reynolds, E. K., Henderson, H. A., Perez-Edgar, K. E., Pine, D. S. (2010). Early temperament, propensity for risk-taking and adolescent substance-related problems: A prospective multi-method investigation. Addictive Behaviors, 35, 1148-1151. doi: 10. 1016/j. addbeh. 2010. 07. 005.
146. Wittchen, H. U., & Fehm, L. (2003). Epidemiology and natural course of social fears and social phobia. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 108, 4-18. doi: 10. 1034/j. 1600-0447. 108. s417. 1. x.
147. Younger, A. J., & Boyko, K. A. (1987). Aggression and withdrawal as social schemas underlying children's peer perceptions. Child Development, 58, 1094-1100. doi: 10. 2307/1130549.