Learning Models of PTSD

The Oxford Handbook of Traumatic Stress Disorders

Volumn , Issue , 2012, Pages

  Lissek, Shmuel ^a   Grillon, Christian ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA   (United States)

^b NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF MENTAL HEALTH   (United States)

Author keywords

Contextual anxiety; Extinction; Fear conditioning; Habituation; Overgeneralization; Ptsd; Sensitization

Indexed keywords

EID: 84900834181     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195399066.013.0013     Document Type: Chapter

References (100)

1. Adamec, R. E., & Morgan, H. D. (1994). The effect of kindling of different nuclei in the left and right amygdala on anxiety in the rat. Physiology and Behavior, 55, 1-12.
2. American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., text rev.). Washington, DC: Author.
3. Amstadter, A. B., Nugent, N. R., & Koenen, K. C. (2009). Genetics of PTSD: Fear Conditioning as a Model for Future Research. Psychiatric Annals, 39, 358-367.
4. Armony, J. L., Servan-Schreiber, D., Romanski, L. M., Cohen, J. D., & LeDoux, J. E. (1997). Stimulus generalization of fear responses: Effects of auditory cortex lesions in a computational model and in rats. Cerebral Cortex, 7, 157-165.
5. Blechert, J., Michael, T., Vriends, N., Margraf, J., & Wilhelm, F. H. (2007). Fear conditioning in posttraumatic stress disorder: Evidence for delayed extinction of autonomic, experiential, and behavioural responses. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45, 2019-2033.
6. Bolstad, B., & Zinbarg, R. (1997). Sexual victimization, generalized perception of control, and posttraumatic stress disorder symptom severity. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 11, 523-540.
7. Bouton, M. E. (2004). Context and behavioral processes in extinction. Learning and Memory, 11, 485-494.
8. Bouton, M. E., & Swartzentruber, D. (1991). Sources of relapse after extinction in Pavlovian and instrumental learning. Clinical Psychology Review, 11(2), 123-140.
9. Bremner, J. D., Southwick, S. M., Johnson, D. R., Yehuda, R., & Charney, D. S. (1993). Childhood physical abuse and combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder in Vietnam veterans. American Journal of Psychiatry, 150, 235-239.
10. Bremner, J. D., Staib, L. H., Kaloupek, D., Southwick, S. M., Soufer, R., & Charney, D. S. (1999). Neural correlates of exposure to traumatic pictures and sound in Vietnam combat veterans with and without posttraumatic stress disorder: A positron emission tomography study. Biological Psychiatry, 45, 806-816.
11. Bremner, J. D., Vermetten, E., Schmahl, C., Vaccarino, V., Vythilingam, M., Afzal, N., et al. (2005). Positron emission tomographic imaging of neural correlates of a fear acquisition and extinction paradigm in women with childhood sexual-abuse-related post-traumatic stress disorder. Psychological Medicine, 35, 791-806.
12. Breslau, N., Chilcoat, H. D., Kessler, R. C., & Davis, G. C. (1999). Previous exposure to trauma and PTSD effects of subsequent trauma: Results from the Detroit area survey of trauma. American Journal of Psychiatry, 156, 902-907.
13. Brewin, C. R., Andrews, B., & Valentine, J. D. (2000). Meta-analysis of risk factors for posttraumatic stress disorder in trauma-exposed adults. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68, 748-766.
14. Burriss, L., Ayers, E., Ginsberg, J., & Powell, D. A. (2008). Learning and memory impairment in PTSD: Relationship to depression. Depression and Anxiety, 25, 149-157.
15. Burriss, L., Ayers, E., & Powell, D. A. (2007). Combat veterans show normal discrimination during differential trace eyeblink conditioning, but increased responsivity to the conditioned and unconditioned stimulus. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 41, 785-794.
16. Carson, M. A., Metzger, L. J., Lasko, N. B., Paulus, L. A., Morse, A. E., Pitman, R. K., & Orr, S. P. (2007). Physiologic reactivity to startling tones in female Vietnam nurse veterans with PTSD. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 20, 657-666.
17. Davidson, J. R. T., Hughes, D., & Blazer, D. G. (1991). Post-traumatic stress disorder in the community: An epidemiological study. Psychological Medicine, 21, 713-721.
18. Davis, M. (1989). Sensitization of the acoustic startle reflex by footshock. Behavorial. Neuroscience, 103, 495-503.
19. Davis, M., & Astrachan, D. I. (1978). Conditioned fear and startle magnitude: Effects of different footshock or backshock intensities used in training. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, 4, 95-103
20. Davis, M., Falls, W. A., & Gewirtz, J. (2000). Neural systems involved in fear inhibition: Extinction and conditioned inhibition. In M. Myslobodsky & I. Weiner (Eds.), Contemporary issues in modeling psychopathology (pp. 113-142). Boston: Kluwer Academic.
21. Desiderato, O., & Newman, A. (1971). Conditioned suppression produced in rats by tones paired with escapable or inescapable shock. Journal of Comparative Physiology and Psychology, 77, 427-443.
22. Eysenck, H. J. (1976). The learning theory model of neurosis: A new approach. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 14, 251-267.
23. Eysenck, H. J. (1979). The conditioning model of neurosis. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 2, 155-199.
24. Eysenck, H. J., & Rachman, S. J. (1965). Causes and cures of neurosis. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
25. Felmingham, K., Williams, L. M., Kemp, A. H., Liddell, B., Falconer, E., Peduto, A., et al. (2010). Neural responses to masked fear faces: Sex differences and trauma exposure in posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 119, 241-247.
26. Foa, E. B., Zinbarg, R., and Rothbaum, B. O. (1992). Uncontrollability and unpredictability in post-traumatic stress disorder: An animal model, Psychological Bulletin, 112, 218-238.
27. Geuze, E., Vermetten, E., Ruf, M., de Kloet, C. S., & Westenberg, H. G. (2008). Neural correlates of associative learning and memory in veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Psychiatriac Research, 42, 659-669.
28. Gloor, P. (1978). Inputs and outputs of the amygdala: What the amygdala is trying to tell the rest of the brain. New York: Plenum Press.
29. Grillon, C. (2002). Associative learning deficits increase symptoms of anxiety in humans. Biological Psychiatry, 51, 851-858.
30. Grillon, C., Ameli, R., Woods, S. W., Merikangas, K., & Davis, M. (1991). Fear-potentiated startle in humans: Effects of anticipatory anxiety on the acoustic blink reflex. Psychophysiology, 28, 588-595.
31. Grillon, C., & Baas, J. (2003). A review of the modulation of the startle reflex by affective states and its application in psychiatry. Clinical Neurophysiology, 114, 1557-1579.
32. Grillon, C., Baas, J. P., Lissek, S., Smith, K., & Milstein, J. (2004). Anxious responses to predictable and unpredictable aversive events. Behavioral Neuroscience, 118, 916-924.
33. Grillon, C., Lissek, S., Rabin, S., McDowell, D., Dvir, S., & Pine, D. S. (2008). Increased anxiety during anticipation of unpredictable but not predictable aversive stimuli as a psychophysiologic marker of panic disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 165, 898-904.
34. Grillon, C., & Morgan, C. A., III (1999). Fear-potentiated startle conditioning to explicit and contextual cues in Gulf War veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 108, 134-142.
35. Grillon, C., Morgan, C. A., Davis, M., and Southwick, S. M. (1998). Effects of experimental context and explicit threat cues on acoustic startle in Vietnam veterans with post-traumatic stress disorder, Biological Psychiatry, 44, 1027-1036.
36. Grillon, C., Pine, D. S., Lissek, S., Rabin, S., Bonne, O., & Vythilingam, M. (2009). Increased anxiety during anticipation of unpredictable aversive stimuli in posttraumatic stress disorder but not in generalized anxiety disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 66, 47-53.
37. Groves, P. M., & Thompson, R. F. (1970). Habituation: A dual process theory, Psychological Review, 77, 419-450.
38. Hariri, A. R., Mattay, V. S., Tessitore, A., Fera, F., & Weinberger, D. R. (2003). Neocortical modulation of the amygdala response to fearful stimuli, Biological. Psychiatry, 53, 494-501.
39. Job, R. F., & Barnes, B. W. (1995). Stress and consumption: Inescapable shock, neophobia, and quinine finickiness in rats. Behavioral Neuroscience, 109, 106-116.
40. Jovanovic, T., & Ressler, K. J. (2010). How the neurocircuitry and genetics of fear inhibition may inform our understanding of PTSD. American Journal of Psychiatry, 167, 648-662.
41. Jovanovic. T., Norrholm, S.D., Blanding, N.Q., Davis, M., Duncan, E., Bradley, B., et al. (2010). Impaired fear inhibition is a biomarker of PTSD but not depression. Depression and Anxiety, 27, 244-251.
42. Jovanovic, T., Norrholm, S. D., Sakoman, A. J., Esterajher, S., & Kozarić-Kovacić, D. (2009). Altered resting psychophysiology and startle response in Croatian combat veterans with PTSD. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 71, 264-268.
43. Kushner, M. G., Riggs, D. S., Foa, E. B., & Miller, S. M. (1993). Perceived controllability and the development of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) in crime victims. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 31, 1105-110.
44. Lissek, S., Biggs, A. L., Rabin, S., Cornwell, B. R., Alvarez, R. P., Pine, D. S., & Grillon, C. (2008). Generalization of conditioned fear-potentiated startle in humans: Experimental validation and clinical relevance. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 46, 678-687.
45. Lissek, S., Pine, D. S., & Grillon, C. (2006). The strong situation: A potential impediment to studying the psychobiology and pharmacology of anxiety disorders. Biological Psychology, 72, 265-270.
46. Lissek, S., Powers, A. S., McClure, E. B., Phelps, E. A., Woldehawariat, G., Grillon, C., & Pine, D. S. (2005). Classical fear-conditioning in the anxiety disorders: A meta-analysis. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 43, 1391-1424.
47. Lissek, S., Rabin, S. J., Heller, R. E., Luckenbaugh, D., Geraci, M., Pine, D. S., & Grillon, C. (2010). Overgeneralization of conditioned fear as a pathogenic marker of panic disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry, 167, 47-55.
48. Lykken, D. T., Iacono, W. G., Haroian, K., McGue, M., & Bouchard, T. J. (1988). Habituation of the skin conductance responses to strong stimuli: A twin study. Psychophysiology, 25, 4-15.
49. Maier, S. F., & Watkins, L. R. (1998). Stressor controllability, anxiety, and serotonin. Cognitive Therapy an Research, 22, 595-613.
50. Maier, S. F., & Watkins, L. R. (2005). Stressor controllability and learned helplessness: The roles of the dorsal raphe nucleus, serotonin, and corticotropin-releasing factor. Neuroscience and Biobehavoral Reviews, 29, 829-841.
51. Marks, I., & Tobena, A. (1990). Learning and unlearning fear: A clinical and evolutionary perspective. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 14, 365-384.
52. Marx, B. P., and Sloan, D. M. (2005). Peritraumatic dissociation and experiential avoidance as predictors of posttraumatic stress symptomatology. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 43, 569-583.
53. Metzger, L. J., Orr, S. P., Berry, N. J., Ahern, C. E., Lasko, N. B., & Pitman, R. K. (1999). Physiologic reactivity to startling tones in women with PTSD. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 108, 347-352.
54. Milad, M. R., Orr, S. P., Lasko, N. B., Chang, Y., Rauch, S. L., & Pitman, R. K. (2008). Presence and acquired origin of reduced recall for fear extinction in PTSD: Results of a twin study. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 42, 515-520.
55. Milad, M. R., Pitman, R. K., Ellis, C. B., Gold, A. L., Shin, L. M., Lasko, N. B., et al. (2009). Neurobiological basis of failure to recall extinction memory in posttraumatic stress disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 66, 1075-1082.
56. Milad, M. R., & Quirk, G. J. (2002). Neurons in medial prefrontal cortex signal memory for fear extinction. Nature, 420, 70-74.
57. Miller, N. E. (1948). Studies of fear as a learnable drive: I. Fear as motivation and fear reduction as reinforcement in the learning of new responses. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 38, 89-101.
58. Mineka, S., & Zinbarg, R. (2006). A contemporary learning theory perspective on the etiology of anxiety disorders:It's not what you thought it was. American Psychologist, 61, 10-26.
59. Minor, T. R. (1990). Conditioned fear and neophobia following inescapable shock. Animal Learning and Behavior, 18, 222-226.
60. Morris, J. S., Frith, C. D., Perrett, D. I., Rowland, D., Young, A. W., Calder, A. J., et al. (1996). A differential neural response in the human amygdala to fearful and happy facial expressions. Nature, 383, 812-815.
61. Mowrer, O. H. (1947). On the dual nature of learning: A reinterpretation of "conditioning" and "problem solving." Harvard Educational Review, 17, 102-148.
62. Mowrer, O. H. (1960). Learning theory and behavior. New York: John Wiley.
63. Orr, S. P., Lasko, N. B., Shalev, A. Y., Pitman, R. K. (1995). Physiologic responses to loud tones in Vietnam veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 104, 75-82.
64. Orr, S. P., Metzger, L. J., Lasko, N. B., Macklin, M. L., Hu, F. B., Shalev, A.Y., et al. (2003). Physiologic responses to sudden loud tones in monozygotic twins discordant for combat exposure: Association with posttraumatic stress disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60, 283-288.
65. Orr, S. P., Metzger, L. J., Lasko, N. B., Macklin, M. L., Peri, T., & Pitman, R. K. (2000). De novo conditioning in traumaexposed individuals with and without posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109, 290-298.
66. Orr, S. P., Milad, M. R., Metzger, L. J., Lasko, N. B., Gilbertson, M. W., Pitman, R. K. (2006). Effects of beta blockade, PTSD diagnosis, and explicit threat on the extinction and retention of an aversively conditioned response. Biological Psychology, 73, 262-271.
67. Orr, S. P., Solomon, Z., Peri, T., Pitman, R. K., Shalev, A. Y. (1997). Physiologic responses to loud tones in Israeli veterans of the 1973 Yom Kippur War. Biological Psychiatry, 41, 319-326.
68. Ozer, E., Best, S., Lipsey, T., & Weiss, D. (2003). Predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder and symptoms in adults: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 129, 52-73.
69. Pavlov, I. (1927). Conditioned reflexes. London: Oxford University Press.
70. Peri, T., Ben Shakhar, G., Orr, S. P., & Shalev, A. Y. (2000) Psychophysiologic assessment of aversive conditioning in postraumatic stress disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 47, 512-519.
71. Phillips, M. L., Young, A. W., Senior, C., Brammer, M., Andrew, C., Calder, A. J., et al. (1997). A specific neural substrate for perceiving facial expressions of disgust. Nature, 389, 495-498.
72. Pissiota, A., Frans, O., Michelgard, A., Appel, L., Langstrom, B., Flaten, M. A., et al. (2003). Amygdala and anterior cingulate cortex activation during affective startle modulation: A PET study of fear. European Journal of Neuroscience, 18, 1325-1331.
73. Pittman, R. K., Orr, S. P., & Shalev, A. Y. (1993). Once bitten, twice shy: Beyond the conditioning model of PTSD. Biological Psychiatry, 44, 193-206.
74. Pole, N. (2007). The psychophysiology of posttraumatic stress disorder: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 133, 725-746.
75. Pole, N., Neylan, T. C., Otte, C., Henn-Hasse, C., Metzler, T. J., & Marmar, C. R. (2009). Prospective prediction of posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms using fear potentiated auditory startle responses. Biological Psychiatry, 65, 235-240.
76. Post, R. M., & Weiss, S. R. B. (1998). Sensitization and kindling phenomena in mood, anxiety, and obsessive-compulsive disorders: The role of serotonergic mechanisms in illness progression. Biological Psychiatry, 44, 193-206.
77. Quirk, G. J., Likhtik, E., Pelletier, J. G., & Pare, D. (2003). Stimulation of medial prefrontal cortex decreases the responsiveness of central amygdala output neurons. Journal of Neuroscience, 23, 8800-8807.
78. Quirk, G. J., Russo, G. K., Barron, J. L., & Lebron, K. (2000). The role of ventromedial prefrontal cortex in the recovery of extinguished fear. Journal of Neuroscience, 20, 6225-6231.
79. Rauch, S. L., Whalen, P. J., Shin, L. M., McInerney, S. C., Macklin, M. L., Lasko, N. B., et al. (2000). Exaggerated amygdala response to masked facial stimuli in posttraumatic stress disorder: A functional MRI study, Biological Psychiatry, 47, 769-776.
80. Regehr, C., Cadell, S., & Jansen, K. (1999). Perceptions of control and long-term recovery from rape. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 69, 110-115.
81. Richardson, R., & Elsayed, H. (1998). Shock sensitization of startle in rats: The role of contextual conditioning. Behavioral Neuroscience, 112, 1136-1141.
82. Rosen, J. B., Hamerman, E., Sitcoske, M., Glowa, J. R., & Schulkin, J. (1996). Hyperexcitability: Exaggerated fearpotentiated startle produced by partial amygdala kindling. Behavioral Neuroscience, 110, 43-50.
83. Rosen, J. B., & Schulkin, J. (1998). From normal fear to pathological anxiety. Psychological Review, 105, 325-350.
84. Rosenkranz, J. A., Moore, H., & Grace, A. A. (2003). The prefrontal cortex regulates lateral amygdala neuronal plasticity and responses to previously conditioned stimuli. Journal of Neuroscience, 23, 11054-11064.
85. Rothbaum, B. A., & Foa, E. B. (1993). Subtypes of posttraumatic stress disorder and duration of symptoms. In J. R. Davidson & E. B. Foa (Eds.), Posttraumatic stress disorder: DSM-IV and beyond. (pp. 23-35). Washington, DC:American Psychiatric Press.
86. Seligman M. E. P., & Binik Y. M. (1977). The safety signal hypothesis. In H. Davis & H. M. B. Hurwitz (Eds.) Operant-Pavlovian interactions (pp. 165-187). New York: Hillsdale.
87. Shalev, A. Y., Orr, S. P., Peri, T., Schreiber, S., & Pitman, R. K. (1992). Physiologic responses to loud tones in Israeli patients with posttraumatic stress disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 49, 870-875.
88. Shalev, A. Y., Peri, T., Brandes, D., Freedman, S., Orr, S. P., Pitman, R. K. (2000). Auditory startle response in trauma survivors with posttraumatic stress disorder: A prospective study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157, 255-261.
89. Shalev, A. Y., Peri, T., Orr, S. P., Bonne, O., Pitman, R. K. (1997). Auditory startle responses in help-seeking trauma survivors. Psychiatry Research, 69, 1-7.
90. Shin, L. M., Wright, C. I., Cannistraro, P. A., Wedig, M. M., McMullin, K., Martis, B., et al. (2005). A functional magnetic resonance imaging study of amygdala and medial prefrontal cortex responses to overtly presented fearful faces in posttraumatic stress disorder, Archives of General Psychiatry, 62, 273-281.
91. Shin, L. M., McNally, R. J., Kosslyn, S. M., Thompson, W. L., Rauch, S. L., Alpert, N. M., et al. (1999). Regional cerebral blood flow during script-driven imagery in childhood sexual abuse-related PTSD: A PET investigation. American Journal of Psychiatry, 156, 575-584.
92. Short, K. R., & Maier, S. F. (1993). Stressor controllability, social interaction, and benzodiazepine systems. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior, 45, 1-9.
93. Simpson, T., Jakupcak, M., & Luterek, J. A (2006). Fear and avoidance of internal experiences among patients with substance use disorders and PTSD: The centrality of anxiety sensitivity. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 19, 481-491.
94. Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and human behavior. New York: Macmillan.
95. Volpicelli, J., Balaraman, G., Hahn, J., Wallace, H., & Bux, D. (1999). The role of uncontrollable trauma in the development of PTSD and alcohol addiction. Alcohol Research & Health, 23, 256-262.
96. Watson, J. B., & Rayner, R. (1920). Conditioned emotional reactions. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 3, 1-14.
97. Werner, N. S., Meindl, T., Engel, R. R., Rosner, R., Riedel, M., Reiser, M., et al. (2009). Hippocampal function during associative learning in patients with posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 43, 309-318.
98. Wessa, M., & Flor, H. (2007). Failure of extinction of fear responses in posttraumatic stress disorder: Evidence from second-order conditioning. American Journal of Psychiatry, 164, 1684-1692.
99. Williams, J. L., & Groux, M. L. (1993). Exposure to various stressors alters preferences for natural odors in rats (Rattus norvegicus). Journal of Comparative Psychology, 107, 39-47.
100. Williams, L. M., Kemp, A. H., Felmingham, K., Barton, M., Olivieri, G., Peduto, A., et al. (2006). Trauma modulates amygdala and medial prefrontal responses to consciously attended fear. NeuroImage, 29, 347-357.