Matrix and backstage: Cellular substrates for viral vaccines

Viruses

Volumn 6, Issue 4, 2014, Pages 1672-1700

  Jordan, Ingo ^a   Sandig, Volker ^a  

^a PROBIOGEN AG   (Germany)

Author keywords

Continuous cell lines; Host cells; Primary cell culture; Vaccine production; Vaccine substrate

Indexed keywords

ADVENTITIOUS AGENT; DIPHTHERIA PERTUSSIS POLIOMYELITIS TETANUS HEPATITIS B VACCINE; DIPLOID CELL VACCINE; HEPATITIS A VACCINE; INFLUENZA VACCINE; JAPANESE ENCEPHALITIS VACCINE; LIVE VACCINE; M M R II; MEASLES MUMPS RUBELLA VACCINE; MISCELLANEOUS DRUGS AND AGENTS; POLIOMYELITIS VACCINE; RABIES VACCINE; ROTAVIRUS VACCINE; RUBELLA VACCINE; SMALLPOX VACCINE; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; VARICELLA ZOSTER VACCINE; VEROAB; VIRUS VACCINE; WART VIRUS VACCINE;

APOPTOSIS; BHK CELL LINE; CAP CELL LINE; CARCINOGENICITY; CELL CULTURE; CELL CYCLE PROGRESSION; CELL LINE; CELLULAR SUBSTRATE; CELLULAR, SUBCELLULAR AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGICAL PHENOMENA AND FUNCTIONS; CHO CELL LINE; CR.PIX CELL LINE; DIPLOIDY; DRUG APPROVAL; EB66 CELL LINE; FIBROBLAST; HEK293 CELL LINE; HUMAN; INSECT CELL LINE; KIDNEY CELL; MDCK CELL LINE; MRC 5 CELL LINE; NONHUMAN; PER.C6 CELL LINE; REGULATORY MECHANISM; REVIEW; SENESCENCE; SF9 CELL LINE; THERAPEUTIC MISCONCEPTION; VERO CELL LINE; WI 38 CELL LINE; ANIMAL; CHICKEN; CULTURE TECHNIQUE; GROWTH, DEVELOPMENT AND AGING; IMMUNOLOGY; ISOLATION AND PURIFICATION; PHARMACEUTICS; PROCEDURES; VIRUS;

ANIMALS; CELL CULTURE TECHNIQUES; CELL LINE; CHICKENS; HUMANS; TECHNOLOGY, PHARMACEUTICAL; VIRAL VACCINES; VIRUSES;

EID: 84899420132     PISSN: 19994915     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3390/v6041672     Document Type: Review

References (208)

1. Rivers, T. M.; Haagen, E.; Muckenfuss, R. S. Observations concerning the persistence of living cells in maitland's medium for the cultivation of vaccine virus. J. Exp. Med. 1929, 50, 181-187.
2. Theiler, M.; Smith, H. H. The use of yellow fever virus modified by in vitro cultivation for human immunization. J. Exp. Med. 1937, 65, 787-800.
3. Li, C. P.; Rivers, T. M. Cultivation of vaccine virus. J. Exp. Med. 1930, 52, 465-470.
4. Parker, F.; Nye, R. N. Studies on filterable viruses: I. Cultivation of vaccine virus. Am. J. Pathol. 1925, 1, 325-335.
5. Webster, L. T.; Clow, A. D. Propagation of rabies virus in tissue culture. J. Exp. Med. 1937, 66, 125-131.
6. Schaeffer, W. I. Terminology associated with cell, tissue, and organ culture, molecular biology, and molecular genetics. Tissue culture association terminology committee. Vitro Cell Dev. Biol. J. Tissue Cult. Assoc. 1990, 26, 97-101.
7. Hayflick, L.; Moorhead, P. S. The serial cultivation of human diploid cell strains. Exp. Cell Res. 1961, 25, 585-621.
8. Hayflick, L. The illusion of cell immortality. Br. J. Cancer 2000, 83, 841-846.
9. Hilleman, M. R. Efficacy of and indications for use of adenovirus vaccine. Am. J. Public Health Nations Health 1958, 48, 153-158.
10. Russell, K. L.; Hawksworth, A. W.; Ryan, M. A. K.; Strickler, J.; Irvine, M.; Hansen, C. J.; Gray, G. C.; Gaydos, J. C. Vaccine-preventable adenoviral respiratory illness in US military recruits, 1999-2004. Vaccine 2006, 24, 2835-2842.
11. Salk, J. E. Studies in human subjects on active immunization against poliomyelitis. I. A preliminary report of experiments in progress. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 1953, 151, 1081-1098.
12. Sabin, A. B.; Ramos-Alvarez, M.; Alvarez-Amezquita, J.; Pelon, W.; Michaels, R. H.; Spigland, I.; KOCH, M. A.; Barnes, J. M.; Rhim, J. S. Live, orally given poliovirus vaccine. Effects of rapid mass immunization on population under conditions of massive enteric infection with other viruses. JAMA J. Am. Med. Assoc. 1960, 173, 1521-1526.
13. Courtois, G.; Flack, A.; Jervis, G. A.; Koprowski, H.; Ninane, G. Preliminary report on mass vaccination of man with live attenuated poliomyelitis virus in the Belgian Congo and Ruanda-Urundi. Br. Med. J. 1958, 2, 187-190.
14. Plotkin, S. A.; Lebrun, A.; Courtois, G.; Koprowski, H. Vaccination with the CHAT strain of type 1 attenuated poliomyelitis virus in Leopoldville, Congo. 3. Safety and efficacy during the first 21 months of study. Bull. World Health Org. 1961, 24, 785-792.
15. Rhodes, A. J. Research on the development of a poliomyelitis vaccine: Toronto, 1950-1953. Can. Med. Assoc. J. 1956, 75, 48-49.
16. Lambert, S. M.; Markel, H. Making history: Thomas Francis, MD, Jr., and the 1954 salk poliomyelitis vaccine field trial. Arch. Pediatr. Adolesc. Med. 2000, 154, 512-517.
17. Smorodintsev, A. A.; Drobyshevskaya, A. I.; Bulychev, N. P.; Chalkina, O. M.; Groisman, G. M.; Ilyenko, V. I.; Kantorovich, R. A.; Kurnosova, L. M.; Vasilyev, K. G.; Votyakov, V. I.; et al. Immunological and epidemiological effectiveness of live poliomyelitis vaccine in the USSR. Bull. World Health Org. 1960, 23, 705-725.
18. Southwick, C. H.; Siddiqi, M. F.; Oppenheimer, J. R. Twenty-year changes in rhesus monkey populations in agricultural areas of Northern India. Ecology 1983, 64, 434.
19. Koprowski, H. Historical aspects of the development of live virus vaccine in poliomyelitis. Br. Med. J. 1960, 2, 85-91.
20. WHO. Inactivated poliovirus vaccine following oral poliovirus vaccine cessation. Relevé Épidémiologique Hebd. Sect. Hygiène Secrétariat Société Nations Wkly. Epidemiol. Rec. Health Sect. Secr. Leag. Nations 2006, 81, 137-144.
21. Pearce, J. M. S. Salk and Sabin: Poliomyelitis immunisation. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 2004, 75, 1552.
22. Langmuir, A. D.; Nathanson, N.; Hall, W. J. Surveillance of poliomyelitis in the United States in 1955. Am. J. Public Health Nations Health 1956, 46, 75-88.
23. Salk, J. E.; Krech, U.; Youngner, J. S.; Bennett, B. L.; Lewis, L. J.; Bazeley, P. L. Formaldehyde treatment and safety testing of experimental poliomyelitis vaccines. Am. J. Public Health Nations Health 1954, 44, 563-570.
24. Melnick, J. L. Problems associated with the use of live poliovirus vaccine. Am. J. Public Health Nations Health 1960, 50, 1013-1031.
25. Blume, S.; Geesink, I. A brief history of polio vaccines. Science 2000, 288, 1593-1594.
26. Cox, H. R. Active immunization against poliomyelitis. Bull. N. Y. Acad. Med. 1953, 29, 943-960.
27. Koprowski, H. Biological modification of rabies virus as a result of its adaptation to chicks and developing chick embryos. Bull. World Health Org. 1954, 10, 709-724.
28. Enders, J. F.; Robbins, F. C.; Weller, T. H. Classics in infectious diseases. The cultivation of the poliomyelitis viruses in tissue culture by John F. Enders, Frederick C. Robbins, and Thomas H. Weller. Rev. Infect. Dis. 1980, 2, 493-504.
29. Theiler, M.; Smith, H. H. The effect of prolonged cultivation in vitro upon the pathogenicity of yellow fever virus. J. Exp. Med. 1937, 65, 767-786.
30. Mayr, A.; Munz, E. Changes in the vaccinia virus through continuing passages in chick embryo fibroblast cultures. Zentralblatt Für Bakteriol. Parasitenkd. Infekt. Hyg. 1 Abt Med.-Hyg. Bakteriol. Virusforsch. Parasitol. Orig. 1964, 195, 24-35.
31. Mayr, A.; Hochstein-Mintzel, V.; Stickl, H. Abstammung, eigenschaften und verwendung des attenuierten vaccinia-stammes MVA. Infect. 1975, 3, 6-14.
32. Meyer, H.; Sutter, G.; Mayr, A. Mapping of deletions in the genome of the highly attenuated vaccinia virus MVA and their influence on virulence. J. Gen. Virol. 1991, 72, 1031-1038.
33. Meisinger-Henschel, C.; Schmidt, M.; Lukassen, S.; Linke, B.; Krause, L.; Konietzny, S.; Goesmann, A.; Howley, P.; Chaplin, P.; Suter, M.; et al. Genomic sequence of chorioallantois vaccinia virus Ankara, the ancestor of modified vaccinia virus Ankara. J. Gen. Virol. 2007, 88, 3249-3259.
34. Carroll, M. W.; Moss, B. Host range and cytopathogenicity of the highly attenuated MVA strain of vaccinia virus: Propagation and generation of recombinant viruses in a nonhuman mammalian cell line. Virology 1997, 238, 198-211.
35. Blanchard, T. J.; Alcami, A.; Andrea, P.; Smith, G. L. Modified vaccinia virus Ankara undergoes limited replication in human cells and lacks several immunomodulatory proteins: Implications for use as a human vaccine. J. Gen. Virol. 1998, 79, 1159-1167.
36. Drexler, I.; Heller, K.; Wahren, B.; Erfle, V.; Sutter, G. Highly attenuated modified vaccinia virus Ankara replicates in baby hamster kidney cells, a potential host for virus propagation, but not in various human transformed and primary cells. J. Gen. Virol. 1998, 79, 347-352.
37. Sutter, G.; Moss, B. Nonreplicating vaccinia vector efficiently expresses recombinant genes. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1992, 89, 10847-10851.
38. Sutter, G.; Wyatt, L. S.; Foley, P. L.; Bennink, J. R.; Moss, B. A recombinant vector derived from the host range-restricted and highly attenuated MVA strain of vaccinia virus stimulates protective immunity in mice to influenza virus. Vaccine 1994, 12, 1032-1040.
39. Drillien, R.; Spehner, D.; Hanau, D. Modified vaccinia virus Ankara induces moderate activation of human dendritic cells. J. Gen. Virol. 2004, 85, 2167-2175.
40. Liu, L.; Chavan, R.; Feinberg, M. B. Dendritic cells are preferentially targeted among hematolymphocytes by modified vaccinia virus Ankara and play a key role in the induction of virus-specific T cell responses in vivo. BMC Immunol. 2008, 9, 15.
41. Cottingham, M. G.; Carroll, M. W. Recombinant MVA vaccines: Dispelling the myths. Vaccine 2013, 31, 4247-4251.
42. Kremer, M.; Volz, A.; Kreijtz, J. H. C. M.; Fux, R.; Lehmann, M. H.; Sutter, G. Easy and efficient protocols for working with recombinant vaccinia virus MVA. Methods Mol. Biol. Clifton NJ 2012, 890, 59-92.
43. Smith, G. L.; Moss, B. Infectious poxvirus vectors have capacity for at least 25, 000 base pairs of foreign DNA. Gene 1983, 25, 21-28.
44. Stickl, H.; Hochstein-Mintzel, V.; Mayr, A.; Huber, H. C.; Schäfer, H.; Holzner, A. MVA vaccination against smallpox: Clinical tests with an attenuated live vaccinia virus strain (MVA) (author's transl). Dtsch. Med. Wochenschr. 1974, 99, 2386-2392.
45. Mayr, A. Smallpox vaccination and bioterrorism with pox viruses. Comp. Immunol. Microbiol. Infect. Dis. 2003, 26, 423-430.
46. Webster, D. P.; Dunachie, S.; Vuola, J. M.; Berthoud, T.; Keating, S.; Laidlaw, S. M.; McConkey, S. J.; Poulton, I.; Andrews, L.; Andersen, R. F.; et al. Enhanced T cell-mediated protection against malaria in human challenges by using the recombinant poxviruses FP9 and modified vaccinia virus Ankara. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2005, 102, 4836-4841.
47. Cebere, I.; Dorrell, L.; McShane, H.; Simmons, A.; McCormack, S.; Schmidt, C.; Smith, C.; Brooks, M.; Roberts, J. E.; Darwin, S. C.; et al. Phase I clinical trial safety of DNA-and modified virus Ankara-vectored human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) vaccines administered alone and in a prime-boost regime to healthy HIV-1-uninfected volunteers. Vaccine 2006, 24, 417-425.
48. Gilbert, S. C.; Moorthy, V. S.; Andrews, L.; Pathan, A. A.; McConkey, S. J.; Vuola, J. M.; Keating, S. M.; Berthoud, T.; Webster, D.; McShane, H.; et al. Synergistic DNA-MVA prime-boost vaccination regimes for malaria and tuberculosis. Vaccine 2006, 24, 4554-4561.
49. Hayflick, L. The limited in vitro lifetime of human diploid cell strains. Exp. Cell Res. 1965, 37, 614-636.
50. Jacobs, J. P.; Jones, C. M.; Baille, J. P. Characteristics of a human diploid cell designated MRC-5. Nature 1970, 227, 168-170.
51. Top, F. H., Jr.; Dudding, B. A.; Russell, P. K.; Buescher, E. L. Control of respiratory disease in recruits with types 4 and 7 adenovirus vaccines. Am. J. Epidemiol. 1971, 94, 142-146.
52. Gray, G. C.; Goswami, P. R.; Malasig, M. D.; Hawksworth, A. W.; Trump, D. H.; Ryan, M. A.; Schnurr, D. P. Adult adenovirus infections: Loss of orphaned vaccines precipitates military respiratory disease epidemics. For the Adenovirus Surveillance Group. Clin. Infect. Dis. Off. Publ. Infect. Dis. Soc. Am. 2000, 31, 663-670.
53. Barraza, E. M.; Ludwig, S. L.; Gaydos, J. C.; Brundage, J. F. Reemergence of adenovirus type 4 acute respiratory disease in military trainees: Report of an outbreak during a lapse in vaccination. J. Infect. Dis. 1999, 179, 1531-1533.
54. Wadman, M. Medical research: Cell division. Nature 2013, 498, 422-426.
55. Kleiman, M. B.; Carver, D. H. Failure of the RA 27/3 strain of rubella virus to induce intrinsic interference. J. Gen. Virol. 1977, 36, 335-340.
56. Plotkin, S. A.; Farquhar, J.; Katz, M.; Ingalls, T. H. A new attenuated rubella virus grown in human fibroblasts: Evidence for reduced nasopharyngeal excretion. Am. J. Epidemiol. 1967, 86, 468-477.
57. Wallace, R. E.; Vasington, P. J.; Petricciani, J. C.; Hopps, H. E.; Lorenz, D. E.; Kadanka, Z. Development of a diploid cell line from fetal rhesus monkey lung for virus vaccine production. In Vitro 1973, 8, 323-332.
58. Petricciani, J. C.; Hopps, H. E.; Lorenz, D. E.; Vasington, P. J.; Wallace, R. E. Sub-human primate diploid cell lines as substrates for virus vaccine production. US4040905 A, August 9, 1977.
59. Simonsen, L.; Morens, D.; Elixhauser, A.; Gerber, M.; van Raden, M.; Blackwelder, W. Effect of rotavirus vaccination programme on trends in admission of infants to hospital for intussusception. Lancet 2001, 358, 1224-1229.
60. Trent, D.; Shin, J.; Hombach, J.; Knezevic, I.; Minor, P. WHO Working Group on technical specifications for manufacture and evaluation of dengue vaccines, Geneva, Switzerland, 11-12 May 2009. Vaccine 2010, 28, 8246-8255.
61. Enserink, M. Influenza. Crisis underscores fragility of vaccine production system. Science 2004, 306, 385.
62. Uscher-Pines, L.; Barnett, D. J.; Sapsin, J. W.; Bishai, D. M.; Balicer, R. D. A systematic analysis of influenza vaccine shortage policies. Public Health 2008, 122, 183-191.
63. Nichols, W. W.; Murphy, D. G.; Cristofalo, V. J.; Toji, L. H.; Greene, A. E.; Dwight, S. A. Characterization of a new human diploid cell strain, IMR-90. Science 1977, 196, 60-63.
64. Takahashi, M. Development of a live varicella vaccine-Past and future. Jpn. J. Infect. Dis. 2000, 53, 47-55.
65. WHO Technical Report Series. WHO Expert Committee on Biological Standardization, Fifty-seventh report; TRS 962; World Health Organization: Geneva, Switzerland, 2011.
66. Rheingans, R. D.; Antil, L.; Dreibelbis, R.; Podewils, L. J.; Bresee, J. S.; Parashar, U. D. Economic costs of rotavirus gastroenteritis and cost-effectiveness of vaccination in developing countries. J. Infect. Dis. 2009, 200, S16-S27.
67. Scherer, S. F. The utilization of a pure strain of mammalian cells (Earle) for the cultivation of viruses in vitro. I. Multiplication of pseudorabies and herpes simplex viruses. Am. J. Pathol. 1953, 29, 113-137.
68. Scherer, W. F.; Syverton, J. T.; Gey, G. O. Studies on the propagation in vitro of poliomyelitis viruses. IV. Viral multiplication in a stable strain of human malignant epithelial cells (strain HeLa) derived from an epidermoid carcinoma of the cervix. J. Exp. Med. 1953, 97, 695-710.
69. Montagnon, B. J. Polio and rabies vaccines produced in continuous cell lines: A reality for Vero cell line. Dev. Biol. Stand. 1989, 70, 27-47.
70. Vincent-Falquet, J. C.; Peyron, L.; Souvras, M.; Moulin, J. C.; Tektoff, J.; Patet, J. Qualification of working cell banks for the Vero cell line to produce licensed human vaccines. Dev. Biol. Stand. 1989, 70, 153-156.
71. Montagnon, B. J.; Vincent-Falquet, J. C. Experience with the Vero cell line. Dev. Biol. Stand. 1998, 93, 119-123.
72. Knezevic, I.; Stacey, G.; Petricciani, J.; Sheets, R. Evaluation of cell substrates for the production of biologicals: Revision of WHO recommendations. Report of the WHO Study Group on Cell Substrates for the Production of Biologicals, 22-23 April 2009, Bethesda, USA. Biol. J. Int. Assoc. Biol. Stand. 2010, 38, 162-169.
73. Desmyter, J.; Melnick, J. L.; Rawls, W. E. Defectiveness of interferon production and of rubella virus interference in a line of African green monkey kidney cells (Vero). J. Virol. 1968, 2, 955-961.
74. Dukes, J. D.; Whitley, P.; Chalmers, A. D. The MDCK variety pack: Choosing the right strain. BMC Cell Biol. 2011, 12, 43.
75. Omeir, R. L.; Teferedegne, B.; Foseh, G. S.; Beren, J. J.; Snoy, P. J.; Brinster, L. R.; Cook, J. L.; Peden, K.; Lewis, A. M., Jr. Heterogeneity of the tumorigenic phenotype expressed by Madin-Darby canine kidney cells. Comp. Med. 2011, 61, 243-250.
76. Gaush, C. R.; Smith, T. F. Replication and plaque assay of influenza virus in an established line of canine kidney cells. Appl. Microbiol. 1968, 16, 588-594.
77. Doroshenko, A.; Halperin, S. A. Trivalent MDCK cell culture-derived influenza vaccine Optaflu (Novartis Vaccines). Exp. Rev. Vaccines 2009, 8, 679-688.
78. Gregersen, J.-P.; Schmitt, H.-J.; Trusheim, H.; Bröker, M. Safety of MDCK cell culture-based influenza vaccines. Fut. Microbiol. 2011, 6, 143-152.
79. Macpherson, I.; Stoker, M. Polyoma transformation of hamster cell clones-An investigation of genetic factors affecting cell competence. Virology 1962, 16, 147-151.
80. Stoker, M.; Macpherson, I. Syrian hamster fibroblast cell line bhk21 and its derivatives. Nature 1964, 203, 1355-1357.
81. Albariño, C. G.; Ghiringhelli, P. D.; Posik, D. M.; Lozano, M. E.; Ambrosio, A. M.; Sanchez, A.; Romanowski, V. Molecular characterization of attenuated Junin virus strains. J. Gen. Virol. 1997, 78, 1605-1610.
82. Polo, J. M.; Belli, B. A.; Driver, D. A.; Frolov, I.; Sherrill, S.; Hariharan, M. J.; Townsend, K.; Perri, S.; Mento, S. J.; Jolly, D. J.; et al. Stable alphavirus packaging cell lines for Sindbis virus and Semliki Forest virus-derived vectors. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1999, 96, 4598-4603.
83. Oehmig, A.; Büttner, M.; Weiland, F.; Werz, W.; Bergemann, K.; Pfaff, E. Identification of a calicivirus isolate of unknown origin. J. Gen. Virol. 2003, 84, 2837-2845.
84. Tjio, J. H.; Puck, T. T. Genetics of somatic mammalian cells. II. Chromosomal constitution of cells in tissue culture. J. Exp. Med. 1958, 108, 259-268.
85. Marsh, M.; Bron, R. SFV infection in CHO cells: Cell-type specific restrictions to productive virus entry at the cell surface. J. Cell Sci. 1997, 110, 95-103.
86. Berting, A.; Farcet, M. R.; Kreil, T. R. Virus susceptibility of Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells and detection of viral contaminations by adventitious agent testing. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 2010, 106, 598-607.
87. Xu, X.; Nagarajan, H.; Lewis, N. E.; Pan, S.; Cai, Z.; Liu, X.; Chen, W.; Xie, M.; Wang, W.; Hammond, S.; et al. The genomic sequence of the Chinese hamster ovary (CHO)-K1 cell line. Nat. Biotechnol. 2011, 29, 735-741.
88. Anderson, K. P.; Low, M. A.; Lie, Y. S.; Keller, G. A.; Dinowitz, M. Endogenous origin of defective retroviruslike particles from a recombinant Chinese hamster ovary cell line. Virology 1991, 181, 305-311.
89. Lubiniecki, A. S. Historical reflections on cell culture engineering. Cytotechnology 1998, 28, 139-145.
90. Derouazi, M.; Martinet, D.; Besuchet Schmutz, N.; Flaction, R.; Wicht, M.; Bertschinger, M.; Hacker, D. L.; Beckmann, J. S.; Wurm, F. M. Genetic characterization of CHO production host DG44 and derivative recombinant cell lines. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2006, 340, 1069-1077.
91. Adams, H. P., Jr.; del Zoppo, G.; Alberts, M. J.; Bhatt, D. L.; Brass, L.; Furlan, A.; Grubb, R. L.; Higashida, R. T.; Jauch, E. C.; Kidwell, C.; et al. Atherosclerotic peripheral vascular disease and quality of care outcomes in research interdisciplinary working groups guidelines for the early management of adults with ischemic stroke: A guideline from the American heart association/American stroke association stroke council, clinical cardiology council, cardiovascular radiology and intervention council, and the atherosclerotic peripheral vascular disease and quality of care outcomes in research interdisciplinary working groups: The American academy of neurology affirms the value of this guideline as an educational tool for neurologists. Stroke J. Cereb. Circ. 2007, 38, 1655-1711.
92. Collen, D.; Lijnen, H. R. New approaches to thrombolytic therapy. Arterioscler. Dallas Tex 1984, 4, 579-585.
93. Barnes, D.; Hughes, R. A. Guillain-Barré syndrome after treatment with streptokinase. BMJ 1992, 304, 1225.
94. Curran, J. W.; Morgan, W. M.; Hardy, A. M.; Jaffe, H. W.; Darrow, W. W.; Dowdle, W. R. The epidemiology of AIDS: Current status and future prospects. Science 1985, 229, 1352-1357.
95. Walsh, G. Biopharmaceutical benchmarks 2010. Nat. Biotechnol. 2010, 28, 917-924.
96. Olivier, S.; Jacoby, M.; Brillon, C.; Bouletreau, S.; Mollet, T.; Nerriere, O.; Angel, A.; Danet, S.; Souttou, B.; Guehenneux, F.; et al. EB66 cell line, a duck embryonic stem cell-derived substrate for the industrial production of therapeutic monoclonal antibodies with enhanced ADCC activity. mAbs 2010, 2, 405-415.
97. Brown, S. W.; Mehtali, M. The avian EB66(R) cell line, application to vaccines, and therapeutic protein production. PDA J. Pharm. Sci. Technol. PDA 2010, 64, 419-425.
98. Guehenneux, F.; Moreau, K.; Esnault, M.; Mehtali, M. Duck Embryonic Derived Stem Cell Lines for the Production of Viral Vaccines. WO/2008/129058, April 24, 2007.
99. Wickham, T. J.; Davis, T.; Granados, R. R.; Shuler, M. L.; Wood, H. A. Screening of insect cell lines for the production of recombinant proteins and infectious virus in the baculovirus expression system. Biotechnol. Progr. 1992, 8, 391-396.
100. Vaughn, J. L.; Goodwin, R. H.; Tompkins, G. J.; McCawley, P. The establishment of two cell lines from the insect Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera; Noctuidae). In Vitro 1977, 13, 213-217.
101. McPherson, C. E. Development of a novel recombinant influenza vaccine in insect cells. Biol. J. Int. Assoc. Biol. Stand. 2008, 36, 350-353.
102. Sáenz-Robles, M. T.; Sullivan, C. S.; Pipas, J. M. Transforming functions of simian virus 40. Oncogene 2001, 20, 7899-7907.
103. Frisch, S. M.; Mymryk, J. S. Adenovirus-5 E1A: Paradox and paradigm. Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol. 2002, 3, 441-452.
104. Korzeniewski, N.; Spardy, N.; Duensing, A.; Duensing, S. Genomic instability and cancer: Lessons learned from human papillomaviruses. Cancer Lett. 2011, 305, 113-122.
105. Friend, S. H.; Bernards, R.; Rogelj, S.; Weinberg, R. A.; Rapaport, J. M.; Albert, D. M.; Dryja, T. P. A human DNA segment with properties of the gene that predisposes to retinoblastoma and osteosarcoma. Nature 1986, 323, 643-646.
106. Kovesdi, I.; Reichel, R.; Nevins, J. R. Identification of a cellular transcription factor involved in E1A trans-activation. Cell 1986, 45, 219-228.
107. Rich, T.; Allen, R. L.; Wyllie, A. H. Defying death after DNA damage. Nature 2000, 407, 777-783.
108. Crawford, L. V.; Pim, D. C.; Gurney, E. G.; Goodfellow, P.; Taylor-Papadimitriou, J. Detection of a common feature in several human tumor cell lines-A 53, 000-dalton protein. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1981, 78, 41-45.
109. Berk, A. J. Recent lessons in gene expression, cell cycle control, and cell biology from adenovirus. Oncogene 2005, 24, 7673-7685.
110. Linzer, D. I.; Levine, A. J. Characterization of a 54 K dalton cellular SV40 tumor antigen present in SV40-transformed cells and uninfected embryonal carcinoma cells. Cell 1979, 17, 43-52.
111. Lane, D. P.; Crawford, L. V. T antigen is bound to a host protein in SV40-transformed cells. Nature 1979, 278, 261-263.
112. Bocchetta, M.; Eliasz, S.; de Marco, M. A.; Rudzinski, J.; Zhang, L.; Carbone, M. The SV40 large T antigen-p53 complexes bind and activate the insulin-like growth factor-I promoter stimulating cell growth. Cancer Res. 2008, 68, 1022-1029.
113. Cheng, J.; DeCaprio, J. A.; Fluck, M. M.; Schaffhausen, B. S. Cellular transformation by Simian Virus 40 and Murine Polyoma Virus T antigens. Semin. Cancer Biol. 2009, 19, 218-228.
114. Topalis, D.; Andrei, G.; Snoeck, R. The large tumor antigen: A "Swiss Army knife" protein possessing the functions required for the polyomavirus life cycle. Antiv. Res. 2013, 97, 122-136.
115. McLaughlin-Drubin, M. E.; Münger, K. Oncogenic activities of human papillomaviruses. Virus Res. 2009, 143, 195-208.
116. Rodier, F.; Campisi, J. Four faces of cellular senescence. J. Cell Biol. 2011, 192, 547-556.
117. Zur Hausen, H. Papillomaviruses and cancer: From basic studies to clinical application. Nat. Rev. Cancer 2002, 2, 342-350.
118. Green, D. R.; Kroemer, G. Cytoplasmic functions of the tumour suppressor p53. Nature 2009, 458, 1127-1130.
119. Cuconati, A.; Mukherjee, C.; Perez, D.; White, E. DNA damage response and MCL-1 destruction initiate apoptosis in adenovirus-infected cells. Genes Dev. 2003, 17, 2922-2932.
120. Hall, A. H. S.; Alexander, K. A. RNA interference of human papillomavirus type 18 E6 and E7 induces senescence in HeLa cells. J. Virol. 2003, 77, 6066-6069.
121. Jensen, F.; Koprowski, H.; Ponten, J. A. Rapid transformation of human fibroblast cultures by simian virus. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1963, 50, 343-348.
122. Jensen, F. C.; Girardi, A. J.; Gilden, R. V.; Koprowski, H. Infection of human and simian tissue cultures with rous sarcoma virus. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1964, 52, 53-59.
123. Aaronson, S. A.; Todaro, G. J. SV40 T antigen induction and transformation in human fibroblast cell strains. Virology 1968, 36, 254-261.
124. Todaro, G. J.; Aaronson, S. A. Human cell strains susceptible to focus formation by human adenovirus type 12. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1968, 61, 1272-1278.
125. Schwarz, E.; Freese, U. K.; Gissmann, L.; Mayer, W.; Roggenbuck, B.; Stremlau, A.; zur Hausen, H. Structure and transcription of human papillomavirus sequences in cervical carcinoma cells. Nature 1985, 314, 111-114.
126. Adey, A.; Burton, J. N.; Kitzman, J. O.; Hiatt, J. B.; Lewis, A. P.; Martin, B. K.; Qiu, R.; Lee, C.; Shendure, J. The haplotype-resolved genome and epigenome of the aneuploid HeLa cancer cell line. Nature 2013, 500, 207-211.
127. Arias-Pulido, H.; Peyton, C. L.; Joste, N. E.; Vargas, H.; Wheeler, C. M. Human papillomavirus type 16 integration in cervical carcinoma in situ and in invasive cervical cancer. J. Clin. Microbiol. 2006, 44, 1755-1762.
128. Ziegert, C.; Wentzensen, N.; Vinokurova, S.; Kisseljov, F.; Einenkel, J.; Hoeckel, M.; von Knebel Doeberitz, M. A comprehensive analysis of HPV integration loci in anogenital lesions combining transcript and genome-based amplification techniques. Oncogene 2003, 22, 3977-3984.
129. Graham, F. L.; Smiley, J.; Russell, W. C.; Nairn, R. Characteristics of a human cell line transformed by DNA from human adenovirus type 5. J. Gen. Virol. 1977, 36, 59-74.
130. Graham, F. L. Covalently closed circles of human adenovirus DNA are infectious. EMBO J. 1984, 3, 2917-2922.
131. Louis, N.; Evelegh, C.; Graham, F. L. Cloning and sequencing of the cellular-viral junctions from the human adenovirus type 5 transformed 293 cell line. Virology 1997, 233, 423-429.
132. Lochmüller, H.; Jani, A.; Huard, J.; Prescott, S.; Simoneau, M.; Massie, B.; Karpati, G.; Acsadi, G. Emergence of early region 1-containing replication-competent adenovirus in stocks of replication-defective adenovirus recombinants (delta E1 + delta E3) during multiple passages in 293 cells. Hum. Gene Ther. 1994, 5, 1485-1491.
133. Fallaux, F. J.; Bout, A.; van der Velde, I.; van den Wollenberg, D. J.; Hehir, K. M.; Keegan, J.; Auger, C.; Cramer, S. J.; van Ormondt, H.; van der Eb, A. J.; et al. New helper cells and matched early region 1-deleted adenovirus vectors prevent generation of replication-competent adenoviruses. Hum. Gene Ther. 1998, 9, 1909-1917.
134. Fallaux, F. J.; Hoeben, R. C.; Bout, A.; Valerio, D.; van Der Eb, A. J. Packaging Systems for Human Recombinant Adenovirus to be Used in Gene Therapy. EP0833934, June 14, 1996.
135. Samina, I.; Havenga, M.; Koudstaal, W.; Khinich, Y.; Koldijk, M.; Malkinson, M.; Simanov, M.; Perl, S.; Gijsbers, L.; Weverling, G. J.; et al. Safety and efficacy in geese of a PER. C6-based inactivated West Nile virus vaccine. Vaccine 2007, 25, 8338-8345.
136. Le Ru, A.; Jacob, D.; Transfiguracion, J.; Ansorge, S.; Henry, O.; Kamen, A. A. Scalable production of influenza virus in HEK-293 cells for efficient vaccine manufacturing. Vaccine 2010, 28, 3661-3671.
137. Sanders, B. P.; Edo-Matas, D.; Custers, J. H. H. V.; Koldijk, M. H.; Klaren, V.; Turk, M.; Luitjens, A.; Bakker, W. A. M.; Uytdehaag, F.; Goudsmit, J.; et al. PER. C6(®) cells as a serum-free suspension cell platform for the production of high titer poliovirus: A potential low cost of goods option for world supply of inactivated poliovirus vaccine. Vaccine 2013, 31, 850-856.
138. "Designer" cells as Substrate for Manufacture of Viral Vaccines. Available online: http://www. fda. gov/ohrms/dockets/ac/01/briefing/3750b1_01. pdf (accessed on 17 January 2014).
139. Schiedner, G.; Gaitatzis, N.; Hertel, S.; Bialek, C.; Kewes, H.; Volpers, C.; Waschütza, G. Human Cell Lines for Production of Biopharmaceuticals. In Cells and Culture, Proceedings of the 20th ESACT Meeting, Dresden, Germany, June 17-20, 2007; Noll, T., Ed.; Springer: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2010; pp. 503-511.
140. Schiedner, G.; Hertel, S.; Kochanek, S. Efficient transformation of primary human amniocytes by E1 functions of Ad5: Generation of new cell lines for adenoviral vector production. Hum. Gene Ther. 2000, 11, 2105-2116.
141. Kochanek, S.; Schiedner, G. Permanent Amniocyte Cell Line, the Production Thereof and Its Use for Producing Gene Transfer Vectors. WO/2001/036615, November 18, 1999.
142. Sandig, V.; Jordan, I. Immortalized Avian Cell Lines for Virus Production. WO/2005/042728, November 3, 2003.
143. Jordan, I.; Vos, A.; Beilfuss, S.; Neubert, A.; Breul, S.; Sandig, V. An avian cell line designed for production of highly attenuated viruses. Vaccine 2009, 27, 748-756.
144. Jordan, I.; Northoff, S.; Thiele, M.; Hartmann, S.; Horn, D.; Höwing, K.; Bernhardt, H.; Oehmke, S.; von Horsten, H.; Rebeski, D.; et al. A chemically defined production process for highly attenuated poxviruses. Biol. J. Int. Assoc. Biol. Stand. 2011, 39, 50-58.
145. Sandig, V.; Jordan, I. Productivity augmenting protein factor, novel cell lines and uses thereof. WO/2007/054516, November 8, 2005.
146. Lohr, V.; Rath, A.; Genzel, Y.; Jordan, I.; Sandig, V.; Reichl, U. New avian suspension cell lines provide production of influenza virus and MVA in serum-free media: Studies on growth, metabolism and virus propagation. Vaccine 2009, 27, 4975-4982.
147. Lohr, V.; Genzel, Y.; Jordan, I.; Katinger, D.; Mahr, S.; Sandig, V.; Reichl, U. Live attenuated influenza viruses produced in a suspension process with avian AGE1. CR. pIX cells. BMC Biotechnol. 2012, 12, 79.
148. Ehreth, J. The global value of vaccination. Vaccine 2003, 21, 596-600.
149. Rosolowsky, M.; McKee, R.; Nichols, W.; Garfinkle, B. Chromosomal characterization of MRC-5 cell banks utilizing G-banding technique. Dev. Biol. Stand. 1998, 93, 109-117.
150. WHO Technical Report Series. Recommendations for the Evaluation of Animal Cell Cultures as Substrates for the Manufacture of Biological Medicinal Products and for the Characterization of Cell Banks; TRS 978, Annex 3; World Health Organization: Geneva, Switzerland, 2013.
151. Manohar, M.; Orrison, B.; Peden, K.; Lewis, A. M., Jr. Assessing the tumorigenic phenotype of VERO cells in adult and newborn nude mice. Biol. J. Int. Assoc. Biol. Stand. 2008, 36, 65-72.
152. Hilleman, M. R. Cells, vaccines, and the pursuit of precedent. Natl. Cancer Inst. Monogr. 1968, 29, 463-469.
153. Hilleman, M. R. History, precedent, and progress in the development of mammalian cell culture systems for preparing vaccines: Safety considerations revisited. J. Med. Virol. 1990, 31, 5-12.
154. WHO Technical Report Series. Recommendations for the Evaluation of Animal Cell Cultures as Substrates for the Manufacture of Biological Medicinal Products and for the Characterization of Cell Banks; TRS 878, Annex 1; World Health Organization: Geneva, Switzerland, 2010.
155. Hahn, W. C.; Weinberg, R. A. Modelling the molecular circuitry of cancer. Nat. Rev. Cancer 2002, 2, 331-341.
156. Grachev, V.; Magrath, D.; Griffiths, E. WHO requirements for the use of animal cells as in vitro substrates for the production of biologicals (Requirements for biological susbstances No. 50). Biol. J. Int. Assoc. Biol. Stand. 1998, 26, 175-193.
157. Yang, H.; Zhang, L.; Galinski, M. A probabilistic model for risk assessment of residual host cell DNA in biological products. Vaccine 2010, 28, 3308-3311.
158. Gong, M. N.; Sai, Y.; Zhou, W.; Thompson, B. T.; Xu, L.-L.; Christiani, D. C. Genotyping patients with recent blood transfusions. Epidemiol. Camb. Mass 2003, 14, 744-747.
159. Bolhassani, A.; Safaiyan, S.; Rafati, S. Improvement of different vaccine delivery systems for cancer therapy. Mol. Cancer 2011, 10, 3.
160. Wierenga, D. E.; Cogan, J.; Petricciani, J. C. Administration of tumor cell chromatin to immunosuppressed and non-immunosuppressed non-human primates. Biol. J. Int. Assoc. Biol. Stand. 1995, 23, 221-224.
161. Jordan, I.; Lohr, V.; Genzel, Y.; Reichl, U.; Sandig, V. Elements in the development of a production process for modified vaccinia virus Ankara. Microorganisms 2013, 1, 100-121.
162. Li, T.-C.; Scotti, P. D.; Miyamura, T.; Takeda, N. Latent infection of a new alphanodavirus in an insect cell line. J. Virol. 2007, 81, 10890-10896.
163. Frierson, J. G. The yellow fever vaccine: A history. Yale J. Biol. Med. 2010, 83, 77-85.
164. Rollison, D. E. M.; Page, W. F.; Crawford, H.; Gridley, G.; Wacholder, S.; Martin, J.; Miller, R.; Engels, E. A. Case-control study of cancer among US Army veterans exposed to simian virus 40-contaminated adenovirus vaccine. Am. J. Epidemiol. 2004, 160, 317-324.
165. Vilchez, R. A.; Butel, J. S. Emergent human pathogen simian virus 40 and its role in cancer. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 2004, 17, 495-508.
166. Poulin, D. L.; deCaprio, J. A. Is there a role for SV40 in human cancer? J. Clin. Oncol. Off. J. Am. Soc. Clin. Oncol. 2006, 24, 4356-4365.
167. Rizzo, P.; Di Resta, I.; Powers, A.; Ratner, H.; Carbone, M. Unique strains of SV40 in commercial poliovaccines from 1955 not readily identifiable with current testing for SV40 infection. Cancer Res. 1999, 59, 6103-6108.
168. Peden, K.; Sheng, L.; Omeir, R.; Yacobucci, M.; Klutch, M.; Laassri, M.; Chumakov, K.; Pal, A.; Murata, H.; Lewis, A. M., Jr. Recovery of strains of the polyomavirus SV40 from rhesus monkey kidney cells dating from the 1950s to the early 1960s. Virology 2008, 370, 63-76.
169. Lundstig, A.; Dejmek, A.; Eklund, C.; Filinic, I.; Dillner, J. No detection of SV40 DNA in mesothelioma tissues from a high incidence area in Sweden. Anticancer Res. 2007, 27, 4159-4161.
170. Qi, F.; Carbone, M.; Yang, H.; Gaudino, G. Simian virus 40 transformation, malignant mesothelioma and brain tumors. Exp. Rev. Respir. Med. 2011, 5, 683-697.
171. Slenczka, W.; Klenk, H. D. Forty years of marburg virus. J. Infect. Dis. 2007, 196, S131-S135.
172. Centers for Disease Control (CDC). Ebola virus infection in imported primates-Virginia, 1989. MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 1989, 38, 831-832, 837-838.
173. Kuhn, J. H.; Becker, S.; Ebihara, H.; Geisbert, T. W.; Johnson, K. M.; Kawaoka, Y.; Lipkin, W. I.; Negredo, A. I.; Netesov, S. V.; Nichol, S. T.; et al. Proposal for a revised taxonomy of the family Filoviridae: Classification, names of taxa and viruses, and virus abbreviations. Arch. Virol. 2010, 155, 2083-2103.
174. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Ebola-Reston virus infection among quarantined nonhuman primates-Texas, 1996. MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 1996, 45, 314-316.
175. Barrette, R. W.; Metwally, S. A.; Rowland, J. M.; Xu, L.; Zaki, S. R.; Nichol, S. T.; Rollin, P. E.; Towner, J. S.; Shieh, W.-J.; Batten, B.; et al. Discovery of swine as a host for the Reston ebolavirus. Science 2009, 325, 204-206.
176. Centers for Disease Control (CDC). Update: Filovirus infections among persons with occupational exposure to nonhuman primates. MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 1990, 39, 266-267, 273.
177. Southwick, C. H.; Beg, M. A.; Siddiqi, M. R. A population survey of rhesus monkeys in villages, towns and temples of Northern India. Ecology 1961, 42, 538.
178. Merten, O.-W. Virus contaminations of cell cultures-A biotechnological view. Cytotechnology 2002, 39, 91-116.
179. Böni, J.; Stalder, J.; Reigel, F.; Schüpbach, J. Detection of reverse transcriptase activity in live attenuated virus vaccines. Clin. Diagn. Virol. 1996, 5, 43-53.
180. Weissmahr, R. N.; Schüpbach, J.; Böni, J. Reverse transcriptase activity in chicken embryo fibroblast culture supernatants is associated with particles containing endogenous avian retrovirus EAV-0 RNA. J. Virol. 1997, 71, 3005-3012.
181. Herniou, E.; Martin, J.; Miller, K.; Cook, J.; Wilkinson, M.; Tristem, M. Retroviral diversity and distribution in vertebrates. J. Virol. 1998, 72, 5955-5966.
182. Lander, E. S.; Linton, L. M.; Birren, B.; Nusbaum, C.; Zody, M. C.; Baldwin, J.; Devon, K.; Dewar, K.; Doyle, M.; FitzHugh, W.; et al. International human genome sequencing consortium initial sequencing and analysis of the human genome. Nature 2001, 409, 860-921.
183. Belshaw, R.; Pereira, V.; Katzourakis, A.; Talbot, G.; Paces, J.; Burt, A.; Tristem, M. Long-term reinfection of the human genome by endogenous retroviruses. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2004, 101, 4894-4899.
184. Huda, A.; Polavarapu, N.; Jordan, I. K.; McDonald, J. F. Endogenous retroviruses of the chicken genome. Biol. Direct 2008, 3, 9.
185. Unknown Author Reverse transcriptase activity in chicken-cell derived vaccine. Relevé Épidémiologique Hebd. Sect. Hygiène Secrétariat Société Nations Wkly. Epidemiol. Rec. Health Sect. Secr. Leag. Nations 1998, 73, 209-212.
186. Pain, B.; Guehenneux, F. Avian cell lines for the production of useful substances. WO/2003/076601, March 8, 2002.
187. Kuehn, B. M. FDA: Benefits of rotavirus vaccination outweigh potential contamination risk. JAMA J. Am. Med. Assoc. 2010, 304, 30-31.
188. Victoria, J. G.; Wang, C.; Jones, M. S.; Jaing, C.; McLoughlin, K.; Gardner, S.; Delwart, E. L. Viral nucleic acids in live-attenuated vaccines: Detection of minority variants and an adventitious virus. J. Virol. 2010, 84, 6033-6040.
189. Hess, R. D.; Weber, F.; Watson, K.; Schmitt, S. Regulatory, biosafety and safety challenges for novel cells as substrates for human vaccines. Vaccine 2012, 30, 2715-2727.
190. Khan, A. S.; Ma, W.; Ma, Y.; Kumar, A.; Williams, D. K.; Muller, J.; Ma, H.; Galvin, T. A. Proposed algorithm to investigate latent and occult viruses in vaccine cell substrates by chemical induction. Biol. J. Int. Assoc. Biol. Stand. 2009, 37, 196-201.
191. Luciani, F.; Bull, R. A.; Lloyd, A. R. Next generation deep sequencing and vaccine design: Today and tomorrow. Trends Biotechnol. 2012, 30, 443-452.
192. Katz, S. L.; Enders, J. F.; Holloway, A. The development and evaluation of an attenuated measles virus vaccine. Am. J. Public Health Nations Health 1962, 52, 5-10.
193. Ni, H.; Chang, G. J.; Xie, H.; Trent, D. W.; Barrett, A. D. Molecular basis of attenuation of neurovirulence of wild-type Japanese encephalitis virus strain SA14. J. Gen. Virol. 1995, 76, 409-413.
194. Ni, H.; Burns, N. J.; Chang, G. J.; Zhang, M. J.; Wills, M. R.; Trent, D. W.; Sanders, P. G.; Barrett, A. D. Comparison of nucleotide and deduced amino acid sequence of the 5' non-coding region and structural protein genes of the wild-type Japanese encephalitis virus strain SA14 and its attenuated vaccine derivatives. J. Gen. Virol. 1994, 75, 1505-1510.
195. Añez, G.; Men, R.; Eckels, K. H.; Lai, C.-J. Passage of dengue virus type 4 vaccine candidates in fetal rhesus lung cells selects heparin-sensitive variants that result in loss of infectivity and immunogenicity in rhesus macaques. J. Virol. 2009, 83, 10384-10394.
196. Jegede, A. S. What led to the Nigerian boycott of the polio vaccination campaign? PLoS Med. 2007, 4, e73.
197. Henderson, L.; Millett, C.; Thorogood, N. Perceptions of childhood immunization in a minority community: Qualitative study. J. R. Soc. Med. 2008, 101, 244-251.
198. Hooper, E. Experimental oral polio vaccines and acquired immune deficiency syndrome. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B. Biol. Sci. 2001, 356, 803-814.
199. Gao, F.; Bailes, E.; Robertson, D. L.; Chen, Y.; Rodenburg, C. M.; Michael, S. F.; Cummins, L. B.; Arthur, L. O.; Peeters, M.; Shaw, G. M.; et al. Origin of HIV-1 in the chimpanzee Pan troglodytes troglodytes. Nature 1999, 397, 436-441.
200. Koprowski, H. Hypotheses and facts. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B. Biol. Sci. 2001, 356, 831-833.
201. Weiss, R. A. Polio vaccines exonerated. Nature 2001, 410, 1035-1036.
202. Vartanian, J.-P.; Wain-Hobson, S. Analysis of a library of macaque nuclear mitochondrial sequences confirms macaque origin of divergent sequences from old oral polio vaccine samples. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2002, 99, 7566-7569.
203. Worobey, M.; Santiago, M. L.; Keele, B. F.; Ndjango, J.-B. N.; Joy, J. B.; Labama, B. L.; Dhed'A, B. D.; Rambaut, A.; Sharp, P. M.; Shaw, G. M.; et al. Origin of AIDS: Contaminated polio vaccine theory refuted. Nature 2004, 428, 820.
204. Grabenstein, J. D. What the World's religions teach, applied to vaccines and immune globulins. Vaccine 2013, 31, 2011-2023.
205. Leiva, R. A brief history of human diploid cell strains. Natl. Cathol. Bioeth. Q. 2006, 6, 443-451.
206. Furton, E. J. Vaccines and the right of conscience. Natl. Cathol. Bioeth. Q. 2004, 4, 53-62.
207. Rappuoli, R. From Pasteur to genomics: Progress and challenges in infectious diseases. Nat. Med. 2004, 10, 1177-1185.
208. Plotkin, S. A. Vaccines: The fourth century. Clin. Vacc. Immunol. CVI 2009, 16, 1709-1719.