Technology and international transformation: The railroad, the atom bomb, and the politics of technological change

Technology and International Transformation: The Railroad, the Atom Bomb, and the Politics of Technological Change

Volumn , Issue , 2006, Pages 1-265

  Herrera, Geoffrey L ^a  

^a TEMPLE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

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EID: 84898509010     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: None     Document Type: Book

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218. M. W. Kirby (1988), "Product Proliferation in the British Locomotive Building Industry, 1850-1914:
219. An Engineer's Paradise?," Business History, 30 (3): 287-305.
220. Eric Dorn Brose (1993), The Politics of Technological Change in Prussia: Out of the Shadow of Antiquity, 1809-1848 (Princeton: Princeton University Press), 220, 213.
221. Alexander Gerschenkron (1962), "Economic Backwardness in Historical Perspective," in Alexander Gerschenkron, ed., Economic Backwardness in Historical Perspective (Cambridge: Harvard University Press), 5-30.
222. F. Crouzet (1974), "Western Europe and Great Britain: 'Catching Up' in the First Half of the Nineteenth Century," in A. J. Youngson, ed., Economic Development in the Long Run (London: George Allen and Unwin), 111.
223. William O. Henderson (1977), "Friedrich List: Railway Pioneer," in W. H. Chaloner and Barrie M. Ratcliffe, eds., Trade and Transport: Essays in Economic History in Honour of T. S. Willan (Manchester: Manchester University Press), 136.
224. Clive Trebilcock (1981), The Industrialization of the Continental Powers, 1780-1914 (London: Longman), 22.
225. Sidney Pollard (1973), "Industrialization and the European Economy," Economic History Review, 2nd ser. 26 (4): 640.
226. Frank B. Tipton (1974), "The National Consensus in German Economic History," Central European History, 7 (3): 199.
227. Rondo Cameron (1985), "A New View of European Industrialization, " Economic History Review, 38 2nd ser. (1): 8.
228. Richard H. Tilly (1966), "The Political Economy of Public Finance and the Industrialization of Prussia, 1815-1866," Journal of Economic History, 26 (3): 484;
229. Karl W. Hardach (1972), "Some Remarks on German Economic Historiography and Its Understanding of the Industrial Revolution in Germany," Journal of European Economic History, 1: 70;
230. Rainer Fremdling (1983), "Germany," in Patrick O'Brien, ed., Railways and the Economic Development of Western Europe, 1830-1914 (New York: St. Martin's), 121.
231. Fritz Redlich (1944), "The Leaders of the German Steam-Engine Industry during the First One-Hundred Years," Journal of Economic History, 4 (2): 122, 130, 134-35;
232. William O. Henderson (1965), Britain and Industrial Europe, 1750-1870 (Leicester: Leicester University Press), 147.
233. Alan S. Milward and S. B. Saul (1973), The Economic Development of Continental Europe, 1780-1870 (Totowa, NJ: Rowman and Littlefield), 405, 407.
234. Roy E. H. Mellor (1979), German Railways: A Study in the Historical Geography of Transport (Aberdeen: Department of Geography, University of Aberdeen), 3
235. William O. Henderson (1958), The State and the Industrial Revolution in Prussia, 1740-1870 (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press), 154
236. Dennis E. Showalter (1975), Railroads and Rifles: Soldiers, Technology, and the Unification of Germany (Hamden, CT: Archon Books), 20-21.
237. Michael J. T. Lewis (1970), Early Wooden Railways (London: Routledge), 332.
238. Witt Bowden (1965), Industrial Society in England towards the End of the Eighteenth Century (London: Frank Cass), 129-30
239. A. E. Musson (1972), "The 'Manchester School' and the Export of British Machinery," Business History, 14 (1): 17-50.
240. Carl von Oeynhausen and Heinrich von Dechen (1953), "Report on the Railways in England in 1826-27," Transactions of the Newcomen Society, 29: 1-12.
241. Robert Lee (1991), "The Paradigm of German Industrialization: Some Recent Issues and Debates in the Modern Historiography of German Industrial Development," in W. R. Lee, ed., German Industry and German Industrialization: Essays in German Economic and Business History in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries (London: Routledge), 15;
242. Knut Borchardt (1976), "The Industrial Revolution in Germany, 1700-1914,"
243. in Carlo M. Cipolla, ed., The Fontana Economic History of Europe: The Emergence of Industrial Societies Part One, vol. 4, pt. 1 (New York: Collins/Fontana Books), 107
244. Hajo Holborn (1986), "The Prusso-German School: Moltke and the Rise of the General Staff," in Peter Paret, ed., Makers of Modern Strategy: From Machiavelli to the Nuclear Age (Princeton: Princeton University Press), 281-95;
245. Arden Bucholz (2001), Moltke and the German Wars, 1864-1871 (Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave).
246. R. A. Buchanan (1986), "The Diaspora of British Engineering," Technology and Culture, 27 (3): 508-9.
247. Andrew C. O'Dell and Peter S. Richards (1956), Railways and Geography (London: Hutchinson University Library), 34.
248. Henderson "List: Railway Pioneer;" Edward Mead Earle (1986)
249. "Adam Smith, Alexander Hamilton, Friedrich List: The Economic Foundations of Military Power," in Peter Paret, ed., Makers of Modern Strategy: From Machiavelli to the Nuclear Age (Princeton: Princeton University Press), 254-55;
250. Edwin A. Pratt (1916), The Rise of Rail Power in War and Conquest, 1833-1914 (London: J. B. Lippincott), 3
251. G. Wolfgang Heinze and Heinrich H. Kill (1988), "The Development of the German Railroad System," in Renate Mayntz and Thomas Hughes, eds., The Development of Large Technical Systems (Boulder: Westview Press), 116;
252. Rainer Fremdling (1975), Eisenbahnen und deutsches Wirtschaftswachstum 1840-1879 (Dortmund: Gesellschaft für Westfälische Wirtschaftsgeschichte E. V. ), 195.
253. Marshall, Biographical Dictionary, 74, 232
254. Olinthus J. Vignoles (1889), Life of Charles Blacker Vignoles: A Reminiscence of Early Railway History (London: Longman), 293.
255. Biographical information from: Marshall, Biographical Dictionary. Vignoles, 225;
256. A. G. Kenwood and A. L. Lougheed (1982), Technological Diffusion and Industrialization before 1914 (New York: St. Martin's), 196;
257. Jan C. Bongaerts (1985), "Financing Railways in the German States 1840-1860: A Preliminary View," Journal of European Economic History, 14 (2): 332.
258. Detlev F. Vagts (1979), "Railroads, Private Enterprise and Public Policy: Germany and the United States 1870-1920,"
259. Norbert Horn and Jürgen Kocka, eds., Recht und Entwicklung der Grossunternehmen im 19. and freuhen 20. Jahrhundert (Göttingen: Vendenhoeck & Ruprecht), 612
260. Colleen A. Dunlavy (1990), "Organizing Railroad Interests: The Creation of National Railroad Associations in the United States and Prussia," Business and Economic History, 19 2nd ser. : 135-36
261. Henderson, State, 166. The southern states refused to join. Milward and Saul, 382.
262. Martin Van Creveld (1977), Supplying War: Logistics from Wallenstein to Patton (New York: Cambridge University Press), 82.
263. Helmuth von Moltke (1843), "Considerations in the Choice of Railway Routes," in W. Streckery, ed., Essays, Speeches, & Memoirs of Field-Marshal Count Helmuth von Moltke (New York: Harper & Brothers), 225, 262.
264. Dennis E. Showalter (1990), "Weapons and Ideas in the Prussian Army from Frederick the Great to Moltke the Elder," in John A. Lynn, ed., Tools of War: Instruments, Ideas, and Institutions of Warfare, 1445-1871 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press), 200;
265. Showalter, Railroads and Rifles, 37.
266. Alfred Vagts (1959), A History of Militarism: Civilian and Military (New York: Free Press), 202;
267. Geoffrey Wawro (1996), The Austro-Prussian War: Austria's War with Prussia and Italy in 1866 (New York: Cambridge University Press), 54-55, 60;
268. Michael Howard (1961), The Franco-Prussian War: The German Invasion of France, 1870-1871 (New York: Macmillan), 62, 78.
269. Gordon A. Craig (1964), The Battle of Königgrätz: Prussia's Victory over Austria, 1866 (New York: Lippincott), 6.
270. George Quester (1977), Offense and Defense in the International System (New York: Wiley), 78
271. Gordon A. Craig (1964), The Politics of the Prussian Army, 1640-1945 (New York: Oxford University Press)
272. Victors and Vanquished: The German Influence on Army and Church in France after 1870 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press)
273. Bruce Menning (1992), Bayonets Before Bullets: The Imperial Russian Army, 1861-1914 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press).
274. William Carr (1991), A History of Germany, 1815-1990 (New York: Edward Arnold), 61-64.
275. Agatha Ramm (1967), Germany 1789-1919: A Political History (London: Methuen), 290-91.
276. William Carr (1991), The Origins of the Wars of German Unification (London: Longman), 138.
277. J. F. C. Fuller (1981), The Conduct of War (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press), 118.
278. German General Staff (1918), "The Railroad Concentration for the Franco-Prussian War," The Military Historian and Economist, 3 (Spec. Suppl. ): 33.
279. Allan Mitchell (2000), The Great Train Race: Railways and the Franco-German Rivalry, 1815-1914 (New York: Berghahn Books), 81.
280. Geoffrey Wawro (2003), The Franco-Prussian War: The German Conquest of France in 1870-1871 (New York: Cambridge University Press), 48-49
281. Thomas J. Adriance (1987), The Last Gaiter Button: A Study of the Mobilization and Concentration of the French Army in the War of 1870 (New York: Greenwood Press).
282. Wawro writes, "If Spicheren and Wissembourg cracked the door into France, Froeschwiller knocked it off its hinges. " Wawro, Franco-Prussian War, 137.
283. Geoffrey L. Herrera and Thomas G. Mahnken (2003), "Military Diffusion in Nineteenth Century Europe: The Napoleonic and Prussian Military Systems," in Emily O. Goldman and Leslie C. Eliason, eds., The Diffusion of Military Technology and Ideas (Stanford: Stanford University Press), 205-42.
284. Larry H. Addington (1971), The Blitzkrieg Era and the German General Staff, 1865-1941 (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press), 9.
285. Dennis E. Showalter (1991), "Total War for Limited Objectives: An Interpretation of German Grand Strategy," in Paul Kennedy, ed., Grand Strategies in War and Peace (New Haven: Yale University Press), 108
286. Daniel R. Headrick (1988), The Tentacles of Progress: Technology Transfer in the Age of Imperialism (New York: Oxford University Press), 3.
287. Daniel R. Headrick (1981), Tools of Empire: Technology and European Imperialism in the Nineteenth Century (New York: Oxford University Press);
288. Headrick, Tentacles of Progress; William Roger Louis, ed. (1976), Imperialism: The Robinson and Gallagher Controversy (New York: New Viewpoints).
289. Ronald E. Robinson (1991), "Introduction: Railway Imperialism," in Clarence B. Davis, Kenneth E. Wilburn, and Ronald E. Robinson, eds., Railway Imperialism (Westport, CT: Greenwood), 2
290. Headrick, Tentacles of Progress, 50.
291. Headrick, Tentacles of Progress, 53, 62
292. Daniel Thorner (1950), Investment in Empire: British Railway and Steam Shipping Enterprise in India 1825-1849 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press), 4.
293. Clarence B. Davis (1991), "Railway Imperialism in China, 1895-1939," in Clarence B. Davis, Kenneth E. Wilburn, and Ronald E. Robinson, eds., Railway Imperialism (Westport, CT: Greenwood), 155.
294. E-tu Zen Sun (1955), "The Pattern of Railway Development in China," Journal of Asian Studies, 14 (2): 180, 188-87, 182, 186; Davis, 158
295. Martin Van Creveld (1999), The Rise and Decline of the State (New York: Cambridge University Press).
296. Alfred D. Chandler (1977), The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press);
297. Colleen A. Dunlavy (1993), Politics and Industrialization: Early Railroads in the United States and Prussia (Princeton: Princeton University Press).
298. John S. Brubacher and Willis Rudy (1976), Higher Education in Transition: A History of American Colleges & Universities, 1636-1976 (New York: Harper & Row), 175
299. Charles F. Thwing (1928), The American and the German University: One Hundred Years of History (New York: Macmillan), 10
300. Charles Weiner (1969), "A New Site for the Seminar: The Refugees and American Physics in the 1930s," in Donald H. Fleming and Bernard Bailyn, eds., The Intellectual Migration: Europe and American, 1930-1960 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press), 196.
301. Laura Fermi (1971), Illustrious Immigrants (Chicago: University of Chicago Press), 175.
302. Stanley Goldberg (1992), "Inventing a Climate of Opinion: Vannevar Bush and the Decision to Build the Bomb," Isis, 83: 429-52.
303. Gregory McLauchlan (1989), "World War, the Advent of Nuclear Weapons, and Global Expansion of the National Security State," in Robert K. Schaeffer, ed., War in the World-System (New York: Greenwood Press), 91.
304. James Phinney Baxter (1946), Scientists Against Time (Cambridge: MIT Press), 423.
305. Robert Jervis (1989), The Meaning of the Nuclear Revolution: Statecraft and the Prospect of Armageddon (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press);
306. John H. Herz (1956), "Rise and Demise of the Territorial State," World Politics, 9 (4): 473-93;
307. Daniel Deudney (1995), "Nuclear Weapons and the Waning of the Real-State," Daedalus, 124 (2): 209-31.
308. Peter M. Haas (1992), "Introduction: Epistemic Communities and International Policy Coordination," International Organization, 46 (1): 1-35;
309. Clair Gough and Simon Shackley (2001), "The Respectable Politics of Climate Change: The Epistemic Communities and NGOs," International Affairs, 77 (2): 329-46.
310. David Cahan (1988), "Pride and Prejudice in the History of Physics: The German Speaking World, 1740-1945," Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences, 19: 180.
311. Alexander Gerschenkron (1962), "Economic Backwardness in Historical Perspective," in Alexander Gerschenkron, ed., Economic Backwardness in Historical Perspective (Cambridge: Harvard University Press), 5-30;
312. David Landes (1969), The Unbound Prometheus: Technological Change and Industrial Development in Western Europe from 1750 to the Present (New York: Cambridge University Press), 4;
313. David Cahan (1989), An Institute for an Empire: The Physikalisch- Technische Reichsanstalt, 1871-1918 (New York: Cambridge University Press), 15.
314. Richard Rhodes (1986), The Making of the Atomic Bomb (New York: Touchstone), 20-21.
315. Alan Beyerchen (1987), "On the Stimulation of Excellence in Wilhelmian Science," in Joachim Remak and Jack Dukes, eds., Another Germany: A Reconsideration of the Imperial Era (Boulder: Westview Press), 139;
316. Pamela Spence Richards (1990), "The Movement of Scientific Knowledge from and to Germany Under National Socialism," Minerva, 28 (4): 401
317. A. Baracca, S. Ciliberto, R. Livi, A. Lorini, M. Pettini, S. Ruffo, and A. Russo (1980), "Research Programme on Science and Society: Germany and the United-States, 1870-1940," Radical Science Journal, 10: 121.
318. Joseph Ben-David (1984), The Scientist's Role in Society: A Comparative Study (Chicago: University of Chicago Press), 108
319. R. Steven Turner (1980), "The Prussian Universities and the Concept of Research," Internationales Archiv fur Sozialgeschichte der Deutschen Literatur, 5: 68
320. Lenore O'Boyle (1983), "Learning for Its Own Sake-The German University as 19th-Century Model," Comparative Studies in Society and History, 25 (1): 12.
321. Konrad Jarausch (1987), "The Universities: An American View," in Joachim Remak and Jack Dukes, eds., Another Germany: A Reconsideration of the Imperial Era (Boulder: Westview Press), 184-90
322. Paul Forman (1973), "Scientific Internationalism and the Weimar Physicsts: The Ideology and Its Manipulation in Germany after World War I," Isis, 64: 165.
323. Charles E. McClelland (1980), State, Society, and University in Germany, 1700-1914 (New York: Cambridge University Press), 308, 240, 258
324. Cahan, An Institute for an Empire, 20
325. Fritz K. Ringer (1967), "Higher Education in Germany in the Nineteenth Century," Journal of Contemporary History, 2 (3): 125.
326. Lewis Pyenson and Douglas Skopp (1977), "Educating Physicists in Germany 'circa' 1900," Social Studies of Science, 7 (3):360.
327. David Cahan (1985), "The Institutional Revolution in German Physics, 1865-1914," Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences, 16 (1): 3, 17
328. Cahan, An Institute for an Empire, 29-34.
329. Frank R. Pfetsch (1970), "Scientific Organization and Science Policy in Imperial Germany, 1871-1914
330. The Foundation of the Imperial Institute for Physics and Technology," Minerva, 8 (4): 567-72
331. Cahan, An Institute for an Empire, 49-51, 1.
332. Cahan, "Institutional Revolution," 16
333. Cahan, "Institutional Revolution. "
334. Jeffrey Allan Johnson (1990), The Kaiser's Chemists: Science and Modernization in Imperial Germany (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press), 11.
335. Kristie Macrakis (1989), "The Rockefeller Foundation and German Physics under National Socialism," Minerva, 27 (1): 36, 37.
336. Hans Bethe (later an MIT Radlab physicist and director of theoretical physics for the Manhattan Project)
337. Klaus Fischer (1993), Changing Landscapes of Nuclear Physics: A Scientometric Study on the Social and Cognitive Position of German-Speaking Emigrants Within the Nuclear Physics Community 1921-1947 (Berlin: Springer-Verlag), 235.
338. Paul Forman (1974), "The Financial Support and Political Alignment of Physicists in Weimar Germany," Minerva, 12 (1): 53.
339. Otto R. Frisch (1939), "Physical Evidence for the Division of Heavy Nuclei under Neutron Bombardment," Nature, 143: 276;
340. Lise Meitner and Otto R. Frisch (1939), "Disintegration of Uranium by Neutrons: A New Type of Nuclear Reaction," Nature, 143: 239
341. Paul Forman, John L. Heilbron, and Spencer Weart (1975), "Physics circa 1900: Personnel, Funding, and Productivity of the Academic Establishments," Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences, 5: 1-185.
342. Henry A. Boorse, Lloyd Motz, and Jefferson Hane Weaver (1989), The Atomic Scientists: A Biographical History (New York: Wiley). The X ray is a convenient place to start as it signals both the "beginnings of modern physics" according to Boorse and the maturation of German physics during the Empire.
343. Forman, Heilbron, and Weart, "Physics circa 1900," 31, 177.
344. Alan D. Beyerchen (1977), Scientists under Hitler: Politics and the Physics Community in the Third Reich (New Haven: Yale University Press), 6-8.
345. Cavendish. Alan Wilson (1984), "Theoretical Physics at Cambridge in the Late 1920s and Early 1930s," in John Hendry, ed., Cambridge Physics in the Thirties (Bristol: Adam Hilger Ltd. ), 174-75.
346. Stanley Cobden (1971), "The Scientific Establishment and the Transmission of Quantum Mechanics to the United States, 1919-1932," American Historical Review, 76 (2): 452.
347. Samuel A. Goudsmit (1947), Alsos (New York: Schuman).
348. Thomas Powers (1993), Heisenberg's War: The Secret History of the German Bomb (New York: Knopf).
349. Paul Lawrence Rose (1998), Heisenberg and the Nazi Atomic Bomb Project: A Study in German Culture (Berkeley: University of California Press).
350. Mark Walker (1989), "National Socialism and German Physics," Journal of Contemporary History, 24 (1): 65, 68, 80, 69-70
351. Beyerchen, Scientists under Hitler, 47;
352. Stanley Goldberg and Thomas Powers (1992), "Declassified Files Reopen the 'Nazi Bomb' Debate," Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, 48 (7): 36.
353. David Irving (1967), The German Atomic Bomb (New York: Simon and Schuster).
354. Mark Walker (1991), "Legends Surrounding the German Atomic Bomb," in Mark Walker and Teresa Meade, eds., Science, Medicine, and Cultural Imperialism (New York: St. Martin's), 181-82.
355. Paul Hanle (1982), Bringing Aerodynamics to America (Cambridge: MIT Press), 110-11.
356. William E. Leuchtenburg (1964), "The New Deal and the Analogue of War," in John Braeman, Robert H. Bremner, and Everett Walters, eds., Change and Continuity in Twentieth Century America (Columbus: Ohio State University Press), 81-143.
357. Howard S. Miller (1970), Dollars for Research: Science and Its Patrons in Nineteenth-Century America (Seattle: University of Washington Press), viii-ix.
358. Bruce L. R. Smith (1990), American Science Policy Since World War II (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution), 21.
359. Clark Kerr (1963), The Uses of the University (Cambridge: Harvard University Press), 15
360. Jürgen Herbst (1965), The German Historical School in American Scholarship: A Study in the Transfer of Culture (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press), 3-5
361. Laurence R. Veysey (1965), The Emergence of the American University (Chicago: University of Chicago Press).
362. Dorothy Ross (1991), The Origins of American Social Science (New York: Cambridge University Press)
363. Edward Shils (1978), "The Order of Learning in the United States from 1865 to 1920: The Ascendancy of the Universities," Minerva, 16 (2): 166, 159-65.
364. Roger L. Geiger (1986), To Advance Knowledge: The Growth of American Research Universities, 1900-1940 (New York: Oxford University Press), v.
365. Spencer R. Weart (1979), "The Physics Business in America, 1919-1940
366. A Statistical Reconnaissance," in Nathan Reingold, ed., The Sciences in the American Context: New Perspectives (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution), 333
367. John Heilbron (1982), "Fin-de-Siècle Physics," in Carl Gustaf Bernhard, Elisabeth Crawford, and Per Sorbom, eds., Science, Technology and Society in the Time of Alfred Nobel (Oxford: Pergamon), 63.
368. Silvan S. Schweber (1986), "The Empiricist Temper Regnant: Theoretical Physics in the United States 1920-1950," Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences, 17 (1): 70;
369. Daniel J. Kevles (1978), The Physicists: The History of a Scientific Community in Modern America (New York: Knopf), 169
370. Kevles, 168; Paul Forman (1971), "Weimar Culture, Causality, and Quantum Theory, 1918-1927: Adaptation by German Physicists and Mathematicians to a Hostile Intellectual Environment," Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences, 3: 1-116;
371. Gerald Holton (1981), "The Formation of the American Physics Community in the 1920s and the Coming of Albert Einstein," Minerva, 19 (4): 576.
372. Katherine Sopka (1981), Quantum Physics in America, 1920-1935 (New York: Arno Press), A. 1-A. 10.
373. Paul K. Hoch (1983), "The Reception of Central European Refugee Physicists of the 1930s-USSR, UK, USA," Annals of Science, 40 (3): 232
374. Caltech students with such fellowships include: Carl Eckart, William Houston, Roy J. Kennedy, Boris Podolsky, and Howard Robertson.
375. Robert E. Kohler (1991), Partners in Science: Foundations and Natural Scientists, 1900-1945 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press), 402-3
376. quote from Stanley Cobden (1976), "Foundation Officials and Fellowships: Innovation in the Patronage of Science," Minerva, 14 (2): 225.
377. Howard Plotkin (1978), "Edward C. Pickering and the Endowment of Scientific Research in America, 1877-1918," Isis, 69 (246): 54-57
378. Robert E. Kohler (1978), "A Policy for the Advancement of Science: The Rockefeller Foundation, 1924-29," Minerva, 16 (4): 481;
379. Nathan Reingold (1977), "The Case of the Disappearing Laboratory," American Quarterly, 29 (1): 79-101.
380. Kohler, Partners in Science, 84-87.
381. Paul K. Hoch (1988), "The Crystallization of a Strategic Alliance: The American Physics Elite and the Military in the 1940s," in Everett Mendelsohn, Merritt Roe Smith, and Peter Weingart, eds., Science, Technology, and the Military (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers), 91;
382. Gerald Holton (1983), "The Migration of Physicists to the United States," in Jarrel C. Jackman and Carla M. Borden, eds., The Muses Flee Hitler: Cultural Transfer and Adaptation, 1930-1945 (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution), 176.
383. Cobden, "Foundation Officials," 231
384. Hoch, "Crystallization," 91
385. Raymond B. Fosdick (1952), The Story of the Rockefeller Foundation (New York: Harper), 153-54
386. Kohler, Partners in Science, 207-13.
387. Kohler, Partners in Science, 204-5
388. Cobden, "Foundation Officials," 238.
389. Kohler, Partners in Science, 102-3
390. Cobden, "Scientific Establishment," 459
391. Hans Bethe (1968), "J. Robert Oppenheimer," Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society, 14: 396.
392. Christophe Lecuyer (1992), "The Making of a Science Based Technological University: Karl Compton, James Killian, and the Reform of MIT, 1930-1957," Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences, 23 (1): 153, 160.
393. John C. Slater (1967), "Quantum Physics in America between the Wars," Physics Today, 21 (1): 43.
394. John H. Van Vleck (1964), "American Physics Comes of Age," Physics Today, 17 (June): 21-26.
395. Hugh G. J. Aitken (1976), Syntony and Spark: The Origins of Radio (New York: Wiley), 19.
396. Roger H. Stuewer (1984), "Nuclear Physicists in a New World: The ?migrés of the 1930s in America," Berichte zur Wissenschaftsgeschichte, 7 (1): 32-33
397. Smith, J; Joel Genuth (1987), "Groping Towards Science Policy In The United States in the 1930s," Minerva, 25 (3): 238-68.
398. Robert Cuff (1981), "American Mobilization for War 1917-45: Political Culture vs. Bureaucratic Administration," in N. F. Dreisziger, ed., Mobilization for Total War: The Canadian, American and British Experience 1914-1918, 1939-1945 (Waterloo, Ontario: Wilfrid Laurier University Press), 75-76;
399. James E. Hewes (1975), From Root to McNamara: Army Departmental Organization and Administration, 1900-1963 (Washington, DC: Center of Military History, U. S. Army), 29-31
400. David M. Kennedy (1980), Over Here: The First World War and American Society (New York: Oxford University Press), 123.
401. Daniel J. Kevles (1968), "George Ellery Hale, the First World War, and the Advancement of Science in America," Isis, 59: 427, 431.
402. Genuth; Larry Owens (1990), "MIT and the Federal 'Angel': Academic R&D and Federal-Private Cooperation before World War II," Isis, 81: 190
403. Carroll W. Pursell (1965), "The Anatomy of a Failure: The Science Advisory Board, 1933-35," Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 109 (6): 342-51.
404. Robert H. Millikan (1919), "The New Opportunity in Science," Science, 50 (Setember 26): 297.
405. see Roger E. Bilstein (1989), Orders of Magnitude: A History of the NACA and NASA, 1915-1990 (Washington, DC: National Aeronautics and Space Administration Office of Management Scientific and Technical Information Division), 1-30.
406. Alex Roland (1985), Model Research: the NACA, 1915-1958 (Washington, DC: Scientific and Technical Information Branch, NASA), 33
407. Norriss S. Hetherington (1990), "The National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics: A Forerunner of Federal Governmental Support for Scientific Research," Minerva, 28 (1): 77.
408. Thomas K. McKraw (1971), TVA and the Power Fight, 1933-1939 (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott), 24-30.
409. A. Morgan: Thomas P. Hughes (1989), American Genesis: A Century of Invention and Technological Enthusiasm (New York: Penguin), 364-76
410. C. Herman Pritchett (1943), The Tennessee Valley Authority: A Study in Public Administration (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press), 321-22.
411. Carroll Pursell (1979), "Science Agencies in World War II: The OSRD and Its Challenges," in Nathan Reingold, ed., The Sciences in the American Context: New Perspectives (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution), 359-378.
412. Arthur H. Compton (1956), Atomic Quest: A Personal Narrative (New York: Oxford University Press), 6-7.
413. Matthew Evangelista (1988), Innovation and the Arms Race: How the United States and the Soviet Union Develop New Military Technologies (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press);
414. Aaron L. Friedberg (2000), In the Shadow of the Garrison State: America's Anti-Statism and Its Cold War Grand Strategy (Princeton: Princeton University Press), especially pp. 296-339.
415. Kevles, Physicists, 326; Richard G. Hewlett (1976), "Beginnings of Development in Nuclear Technology," Technology and Culture, 17 (3): 471.
416. David A. Hounshell and John Kenly Smith (1988), Science and Corporate Strategy: Du Pont R & D, 1902-1980 (New York: Cambridge University Press), 187.
417. Alfred D. Chandler (1962), Strategy and Structure: Chapters in the History of the Industrial Enterprise (Cambridge: MIT Press);
418. Alfred D. Chandler (1977), The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press);
419. Louis Galambos (1983), "Technology, Political Economy, and Professionalization: Central Theme of the Organizational Synthesis," Business History Review, 57: 472-77.
420. Ernest Dale (1957), "Du Pont: Pioneer in Systematic Management," Administrative Science Quarterly, 2 (1): 26-29
421. Chandler, Strategy and Structure, 54, 79-84.
422. Chandler, Strategy and Structure, 85-113.
423. David A. Hounshell (1992), "Du Pont and the Management of Large-Scale Research and Development," in Peter Galison and Bruce Hevley, eds., Big Science: The Growth of Large Scale Research (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 238-39, 243-44.
424. Norman Bentwich (1953), The Rescue and Achievement of Refugee Scholars: The Story of Displaced Scholars and Scientists, 1933-1952 (The Hague: M. Nijhoff), 2
425. Klaus Fischer (1988), "The Operationalism of Scientific Emigration Loss 1933-1945: A Methodological Study on the Measurement of a Qualitative Phenomenon," Historical Social Research, 48: 99-121.
426. Stephen Duggan and Betty Drury (1948), The Rescue of Science and Learning (New York: Macmillan).
427. see Robin E. Rider (1984), "Alarm and Opportunity: Emigration of Mathematicians and Physicists to Britain and the United States, 1933-1945," Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences, 15 (1): 144.
428. William Henry Beveridge (1959), A Defence of Free Learning (New York: Oxford University Press)
429. Norman Bentwich (1936), The Refugees from Germany, April 1933 to December 1935 (London: George Allen and Unwin), 193-94.
430. Edward Y. Hartshorne (1937), The German Universities and National Socialism (London: Allen & Unwin), 98
431. They include: J. McKeen Cattell (1961), American Men of Science, 10 ed. (New York: Science Press);
432. J. McKeen Cattell (1965), American Men of Science, 11th ed. (New York: Science Press)
433. Thomas S. Kuhn, John L. Heilbron, Paul Forman, and Lini Allen (1967), Sources for History of Quantum Physics (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society)
434. Nuel Pharr Davis (1968), Lawrence and Oppenheimer (New York: Simon and Schuster), 50;
435. Hans A. Bethe and Robert F. Bacher (1936), "Nuclear Physics: A. Stationary States of Nuclei," Reviews of Modern Physics, 8: 82-229
436. Hans A. Bethe (1937), "Nuclear Physics: B. Nuclear Dynamics, Theoretical," Reviews of Modern Physics, 9: 69-244
437. Hans A. Bethe and M. Stanley Livingston (1937), "Nuclear Physics: C. Nuclear Dynamics, Experimental," Reviews of Modern Physics, 9: 245-390
438. Roger L. Geiger (1993), Research and Relevant Knowledge: American Research Universities Since World War II (New York: Oxford University Press), 3
439. Vannevar Bush (1949), Modern Arms and Free Men: A Discussion of the Role of Science in Preserving Democracy (New York: Simon and Schuster);
440. A. Hunter Dupree (1972), "The Great Instauration of 1940: The Organization of Scientific Research for War," in Erik H. Erikson and Gerald J. Holton, eds., The Twentieth-Century Sciences: Studies in the Biography of Ideas (New York: Norton), 447.
441. Daniel S. Greenberg (1971), The Politics of Pure Science (New York: New American Library), 71
442. Richard G. Hewlett and Oscar E. Anderson (1962), The New World, 1939/1946: A History of the United States Atomic Energy Commission, Volume 1 (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press), 162-67.
443. Seymour Melman (1970), Pentagon Capitalism: The Political Economy of War (New York: McGraw-Hill)
444. Robert Gilpin (1968), France in the Age of the Scientific State (Princeton: Princeton University Press)
445. Jügren Schamndt and James Everett Katz (1986), "The Scientific State: A Theory with Hypotheses," Science, Technology and Human Values, 11 (1): 40-52
446. Gregory McLauchlan (1992), "The Advent of Nuclear Weapons and the Formation of the Scientific-Military-Industrial Complex in World War II," in Gregg B. Walker, David A. Bella, and Steven J. Sprecher, eds., The Military-Industrial Complex: Eisenhower's Warning Three Decades Later (New York: Peter Lang), 101-27
447. Bernard Brodie (1946), "War in the Atomic Age," in Bernard Brodie, ed., The Absolute Weapon: Atomic Power and World Order (New York: Harcourt Brace), 26.
448. Robert Jervis (1980), "Why Nuclear Superiority Doesn't Matter," Political Science Quarterly, 94 (4): 617-33.
449. Thomas C. Schelling (1966), Arms and Influence (New Haven: Yale University Press), 20.
450. John Lewis Gaddis (1987), "Learning to Live with Transparency: The Emergence of a Reconnaissance Satellite Regime," in The Long Peace: Inquiries into the History of the Cold War (New York: Oxford University Press), 195-214
451. Robert Jervis (1988), "The Political Effects of Nuclear-Weapons: A Comment," International Security, 13 (2): 83
452. Kenneth N. Waltz (1979), Theory of International Politics (New York: Random House), 188.
453. United States Strategic Bombing Survey (1945), Over-All Report (European War) (Washington, DC: U. S. GPO)
454. Hoch, "Crystallization," 99; Walter A. McDougall (1985), "Space-Age Europe: Gaullism, Euro-Gaullism, and the American-Dilemma," Technology and Culture, 26 (2): 179-203;
455. Edward A. Kolodziej (1987), Making and Marketing Arms: The French Experience and Its Implications (Princeton: Princeton University Press)
456. Andrew Moravcsik (1990), "The European Armaments Industry at the Crossroads," Survival, 32 (1): 81.
457. Kendall E. Bailes (1981), "The American Connection: Ideology and the Transfer of American Technology to the Soviet Union, 1917-1941," Comparative Studies in Society and History, 23 (3): 424-31, 443, 445
458. Hans Rogger (1981), "Amerikanizm and the Economic Development of Russia," Comparative Studies in Society and History, 23 (3): 382-420.
459. Alwyn McKay (1984), The Making of the Atomic Age (New York: Oxford University Press), 94, 123
460. Walter A. McDougall (1982), "Technocracy and Statecraft in the Space Age: Toward the History of a Saltation," American Historical Review, 87 (4): 1016-17;
461. Kendall E. Bailes (1978), Technology and Society Under Lenin and Stalin (Princeton: Princeton University Press)
462. McDougall, "Technocracy," 1025.
463. Maurice Pearton (1982), The Knowledgeable State: Diplomacy, War and Technology Since 1830 (London: Burnett Books Limited). 197.
464. William F. Ogburn and Dorothy Thomas (1922), "Are Inventions Inevitable? A Note on Social Evolution," Political Science Quarterly, 37 (1): 83-98.
465. Max Weber (1946), "Bureaucracy," in H. H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills, eds., From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology (New York: Oxford University Press), 196-244
466. Max Weber (1976), The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (New York: Scribner's).
467. Hendrik Spruyt (1994), The Sovereign State and Its Competitors: An Analysis of Systems Change (Princeton: Princeton University Press).
468. C-NET News. com (2005), "Municipal Broadband Nationwide. "
469. Jim Hu (2005), "Philadelphia Reveals Wi-Fi Plan
470. Janis Mara (2003), "Euro Scheme Makes Money Talk," Wired News (July 9).
471. Lawrence Lessig (1999), Code: And Other Laws of Cyberspace (New York: Basic Books).
472. Peter Wayner (2005), "Cybercash on Vacation," Technology Review, 108. 3 (March): 18-19
473. Steve Crocker (1999), "The Siren Song of Internet Micropayments," iMP Magazine (April 22)
474. Tatsuo Tanaka (1996), "Possible Economic Consequences of Digital Cash," First Monday, 1. 2 (August).
475. Mark Glassman (2003), "Fortifying the In Box as Spammers Lay Siege," New York Times (July 31).
476. Kevin Hogan (2001), "Will Spyware Work?," Technology Review (December).
477. Steven Levy (2003), "Pirates of the Internet," Newsweek (August 4).
478. William A. Owens and Edward Offley (2001), Lifting the Fog of War (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press).
479. Walter Laqueur (1996), "Postmodern Terrorism," Foreign Affairs, 75 (5): 24-36
480. Bruce Hoffman (1997), "Responding to Terrorism Across the Technological Spectrum," in John Arquilla and David F. Ronfeldt, eds., In Athena's Camp: Preparing for Conflict in the Information Age (Santa Monica: Rand), 339-67
481. Phil Williams (1997), "Transnational Criminal Organisations and International Security," in John Arquilla and David F. Ronfeldt, eds., In Athena's Camp: Preparing for Conflict in the Information Age (Santa Monica: Rand), 315-37
482. Audrey Kurth Cronin (2002), "Behind the Curve: Globalization and International Terrorism," International Security, 27 (3): 30-58.
483. Philip Agre and Marc Rotenberg, eds. (1997), Technology and Privacy: The New Landscape (Cambridge: MIT Press).
484. John Markoff (2000), "Rebel Outpost on Fringes of Cyberspace," New York Times (June 4). (http://www. sealandgov. com/).
485. Ronen Palan (1998), "Trying to Have Your Cake and Eating It: How and Why the State System Has Created Offshore," International Studies Quarterly, 42 (4): 625-44.
486. Stephen J. Kobrin (1997), "Electronic Cash and the End of National Markets," Foreign Policy, 107: 65-77.
487. Roland Paris (2003), "The Globalization of Taxation? Electronic Commerce and the Transformation of the State," International Security 47 (2): 153-82.
488. Ithiel de Sola Pool (1983), Technologies of Freedom (Cambridge: Belknap Press). Barney argues that network technology is "involved in the collapse of politics" and has little democratic potentiality.
489. Darin Barney (2000), Prometheus Wired: The Hope for Democracy in the Age of Network Technology (Chicago: University of Chicago Press), 237.
490. David Ronfeldt (1992), "Cyberocracy Is Coming," Information Society, 8 (4): 243-96.
491. William Finnegan (2000), "After Seattle," The New Yorker, 76. 8 (April 17): 40-51
492. Howard Rheingold (2002), Smart Mobs: The Next Social Revolution (Cambridge, MA: Perseus Publishing)
493. George Packer (2003), "Smart-Mobbing the War," New York Times Magazine (March 9)
494. David Brin (1998), The Transparent Society: Will Technology Force Us to Choose Between Privacy and Freedom? (Reading: Addison-Wesley);
495. Jim Dwyer (2005), "Videos Challenge Accounts of Convention Unrest," New York Times (April 12).
496. Shanthi Kalathil and Taylor C. Boas (2003), Open Networks, Closed Regimes: The Impact of the Internet on Authoritarian Rule (Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace).
497. Hakim Bey (2001), "The Temporary Autonomous Zone," in Peter Ludlow, ed., Crypto Anarchy, Cyberstates, and Pirate Utopias (Cambridge: MIT Press), 402.
498. Lisa Guernsey (2001), "Welcome to the World Wide Web: Passport, Please?," New York Times (March 15).