Users as agents of technological change: The social construction of the automobile in the rural United States

Technology and Culture

Volumn 37, Issue 4, 1996, Pages 763-795

  Kline, Ronald ^a   Pinch, Trevor ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0030343224     PISSN: 0040165X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/3107097     Document Type: Article

References (273)

1. See, e.g., John Rae, The American Automobile: A Brief History (Chicago, 1965); James J. Flink, America Adopts the Automobile, 1895-1910 (Cambridge, Mass., 1970), The Car Culture (Cambridge, Mass., 1975), and The Automobile Age (Cambridge, Mass., 1990); David L. Lewis, The Public Image of Henry Ford: An American Folk Hero and His Company (Detroit, 1976); Lewis and Laurence Goldstein, eds., The Automobile and American Culture (Ann Arbor, 1983), which has one chapter by Reynold Wik on rural life; Virginia Scharff, Taking the Wheel: Women and the Coming of the Motor Age (New York, 1991); and Clay McShane, Down the Asphalt Path: The Automobile and the American City (New York, 1994), pp. 176-80.
2. See, e.g., John Rae, The American Automobile: A Brief History (Chicago, 1965); James J. Flink, America Adopts the Automobile, 1895-1910 (Cambridge, Mass., 1970), The Car Culture (Cambridge, Mass., 1975), and The Automobile Age (Cambridge, Mass., 1990); David L. Lewis, The Public Image of Henry Ford: An American Folk Hero and His Company (Detroit, 1976); Lewis and Laurence Goldstein, eds., The Automobile and American Culture (Ann Arbor, 1983), which has one chapter by Reynold Wik on rural life; Virginia Scharff, Taking the Wheel: Women and the Coming of the Motor Age (New York, 1991); and Clay McShane, Down the Asphalt Path: The Automobile and the American City (New York, 1994), pp. 176-80.
3. See, e.g., John Rae, The American Automobile: A Brief History (Chicago, 1965); James J. Flink, America Adopts the Automobile, 1895-1910 (Cambridge, Mass., 1970), The Car Culture (Cambridge, Mass., 1975), and The Automobile Age (Cambridge, Mass., 1990); David L. Lewis, The Public Image of Henry Ford: An American Folk Hero and His Company (Detroit, 1976); Lewis and Laurence Goldstein, eds., The Automobile and American Culture (Ann Arbor, 1983), which has one chapter by Reynold Wik on rural life; Virginia Scharff, Taking the Wheel: Women and the Coming of the Motor Age (New York, 1991); and Clay McShane, Down the Asphalt Path: The Automobile and the American City (New York, 1994), pp. 176-80.
4. See, e.g., John Rae, The American Automobile: A Brief History (Chicago, 1965); James J. Flink, America Adopts the Automobile, 1895-1910 (Cambridge, Mass., 1970), The Car Culture (Cambridge, Mass., 1975), and The Automobile Age (Cambridge, Mass., 1990); David L. Lewis, The Public Image of Henry Ford: An American Folk Hero and His Company (Detroit, 1976); Lewis and Laurence Goldstein, eds., The Automobile and American Culture (Ann Arbor, 1983), which has one chapter by Reynold Wik on rural life; Virginia Scharff, Taking the Wheel: Women and the Coming of the Motor Age (New York, 1991); and Clay McShane, Down the Asphalt Path: The Automobile and the American City (New York, 1994), pp. 176-80.
5. See, e.g., John Rae, The American Automobile: A Brief History (Chicago, 1965); James J. Flink, America Adopts the Automobile, 1895-1910 (Cambridge, Mass., 1970), The Car Culture (Cambridge, Mass., 1975), and The Automobile Age (Cambridge, Mass., 1990); David L. Lewis, The Public Image of Henry Ford: An American Folk Hero and His Company (Detroit, 1976); Lewis and Laurence Goldstein, eds., The Automobile and American Culture (Ann Arbor, 1983), which has one chapter by Reynold Wik on rural life; Virginia Scharff, Taking the Wheel: Women and the Coming of the Motor Age (New York, 1991); and Clay McShane, Down the Asphalt Path: The Automobile and the American City (New York, 1994), pp. 176-80.
6. See, e.g., John Rae, The American Automobile: A Brief History (Chicago, 1965); James J. Flink, America Adopts the Automobile, 1895-1910 (Cambridge, Mass., 1970), The Car Culture (Cambridge, Mass., 1975), and The Automobile Age (Cambridge, Mass., 1990); David L. Lewis, The Public Image of Henry Ford: An American Folk Hero and His Company (Detroit, 1976); Lewis and Laurence Goldstein, eds., The Automobile and American Culture (Ann Arbor, 1983), which has one chapter by Reynold Wik on rural life; Virginia Scharff, Taking the Wheel: Women and the Coming of the Motor Age (New York, 1991); and Clay McShane, Down the Asphalt Path: The Automobile and the American City (New York, 1994), pp. 176-80.
7. See, e.g., John Rae, The American Automobile: A Brief History (Chicago, 1965); James J. Flink, America Adopts the Automobile, 1895-1910 (Cambridge, Mass., 1970), The Car Culture (Cambridge, Mass., 1975), and The Automobile Age (Cambridge, Mass., 1990); David L. Lewis, The Public Image of Henry Ford: An American Folk Hero and His Company (Detroit, 1976); Lewis and Laurence Goldstein, eds., The Automobile and American Culture (Ann Arbor, 1983), which has one chapter by Reynold Wik on rural life; Virginia Scharff, Taking the Wheel: Women and the Coming of the Motor Age (New York, 1991); and Clay McShane, Down the Asphalt Path: The Automobile and the American City (New York, 1994), pp. 176-80.
8. See, e.g., John Rae, The American Automobile: A Brief History (Chicago, 1965); James J. Flink, America Adopts the Automobile, 1895-1910 (Cambridge, Mass., 1970), The Car Culture (Cambridge, Mass., 1975), and The Automobile Age (Cambridge, Mass., 1990); David L. Lewis, The Public Image of Henry Ford: An American Folk Hero and His Company (Detroit, 1976); Lewis and Laurence Goldstein, eds., The Automobile and American Culture (Ann Arbor, 1983), which has one chapter by Reynold Wik on rural life; Virginia Scharff, Taking the Wheel: Women and the Coming of the Motor Age (New York, 1991); and Clay McShane, Down the Asphalt Path: The Automobile and the American City (New York, 1994), pp. 176-80.
9. The major works are Reynold M. Wik, Henry Ford and Grass-Roots America (Ann Arbor, 1972); Michael L. Berger, The Devil Wagon in God's Country: The Automobile and Social Change in Rural America, 1893-1929 (Hamden, Conn., 1979); Joseph Interrante, "You Can't Go to Town in a Bathtub: Automobile Movement and the Reorganization of Rural American Space, 1900-1930," Radical History Review 21 (1979): 151-68; and Peter J. Ling, America and the Automobile: Technology, Reform, and Social Change (Manchester, 1990), ch. 2.
10. The major works are Reynold M. Wik, Henry Ford and Grass-Roots America (Ann Arbor, 1972); Michael L. Berger, The Devil Wagon in God's Country: The Automobile and Social Change in Rural America, 1893-1929 (Hamden, Conn., 1979); Joseph Interrante, "You Can't Go to Town in a Bathtub: Automobile Movement and the Reorganization of Rural American Space, 1900-1930," Radical History Review 21 (1979): 151-68; and Peter J. Ling, America and the Automobile: Technology, Reform, and Social Change (Manchester, 1990), ch. 2.
11. The major works are Reynold M. Wik, Henry Ford and Grass-Roots America (Ann Arbor, 1972); Michael L. Berger, The Devil Wagon in God's Country: The Automobile and Social Change in Rural America, 1893-1929 (Hamden, Conn., 1979); Joseph Interrante, "You Can't Go to Town in a Bathtub: Automobile Movement and the Reorganization of Rural American Space, 1900-1930," Radical History Review 21 (1979): 151-68; and Peter J. Ling, America and the Automobile: Technology, Reform, and Social Change (Manchester, 1990), ch. 2.
12. The major works are Reynold M. Wik, Henry Ford and Grass-Roots America (Ann Arbor, 1972); Michael L. Berger, The Devil Wagon in God's Country: The Automobile and Social Change in Rural America, 1893-1929 (Hamden, Conn., 1979); Joseph Interrante, "You Can't Go to Town in a Bathtub: Automobile Movement and the Reorganization of Rural American Space, 1900-1930," Radical History Review 21 (1979): 151-68; and Peter J. Ling, America and the Automobile: Technology, Reform, and Social Change (Manchester, 1990), ch. 2.
13. For a criticism of Flink's technological determinism, see Eric H. Monkkonen, America Becomes Urban: The Development of U.S. Cities & Towns, 1780-1980 (Berkeley, 1988), n. 10, p. 285. Ling's America and the Automobile is much less deterministic. On forms of technological determinism, see Bruce Bimber, "Three Faces of Technological Determinism," in Does Technology Drive History? The Dilemma of Technological Determinism, ed. Merrit Roe Smith and Leo Marx (Cambridge, Mass., 1994), pp. 79-100.
14. For a criticism of Flink's technological determinism, see Eric H. Monkkonen, America Becomes Urban: The Development of U.S. Cities & Towns, 1780-1980 (Berkeley, 1988), n. 10, p. 285. Ling's America and the Automobile is much less deterministic. On forms of technological determinism, see Bruce Bimber, "Three Faces of Technological Determinism," in Does Technology Drive History? The Dilemma of Technological Determinism, ed. Merrit Roe Smith and Leo Marx (Cambridge, Mass., 1994), pp. 79-100.
15. For a criticism of Flink's technological determinism, see Eric H. Monkkonen, America Becomes Urban: The Development of U.S. Cities & Towns, 1780-1980 (Berkeley, 1988), n. 10, p. 285. Ling's America and the Automobile is much less deterministic. On forms of technological determinism, see Bruce Bimber, "Three Faces of Technological Determinism," in Does Technology Drive History? The Dilemma of Technological Determinism, ed. Merrit Roe Smith and Leo Marx (Cambridge, Mass., 1994), pp. 79-100.
16. See, e.g., Susan Strasser, Never Done: A History of American Housework (New York, 1982); Ruth Schwartz Cowan, More Work for Mother: The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave (New York, 1983); Carolyn Marvin, When Old Technologies Were New: Thinking About Electric Communication in the Late Nineteenth Century (New York, 1988); Philip Scranton, "None-Too-Porous Boundaries: Labor History and the History of Technology," Technology and Culture 29 (1988): 722-43; Judith McGaw, Most Wonderful Machine: Mechanization and Social Change in Berkshire Paper Making, 1801-1885 (Princeton, N. J., 1987); Donald Reid, Paris Sewers and Sewermen: Representations and Realities (Cambridge, Mass., 1991). Recent scholarship on how people experienced technology includes Wolfgang Schivelbusch, Disenchanted Night: The Industrialization of Light in the Nineteenth Century, trans. Angela Davis (Berkeley, 1988); Rosalind Williams, Notes on the Underground: An Essay on Technology, Society, and the Imagination (Cambridge, Mass., 1990); and David E. Nye, American Technological Sublime (Cambridge, Mass., 1994). For a plea for more scholarship on consumers, see Cowan, "The Consumption Junction: A Proposal for Research Strategies in the Sociology of Technology," in The Social Construction of Technological Systems: New Directions in the Sociology and History of Technology, ed. Wiebe Bijker, Thomas Hughes, and Trevor Pinch (Cambridge, Mass., 1987), pp. 261-80.
17. See, e.g., Susan Strasser, Never Done: A History of American Housework (New York, 1982); Ruth Schwartz Cowan, More Work for Mother: The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave (New York, 1983); Carolyn Marvin, When Old Technologies Were New: Thinking About Electric Communication in the Late Nineteenth Century (New York, 1988); Philip Scranton, "None-Too-Porous Boundaries: Labor History and the History of Technology," Technology and Culture 29 (1988): 722-43; Judith McGaw, Most Wonderful Machine: Mechanization and Social Change in Berkshire Paper Making, 1801-1885 (Princeton, N. J., 1987); Donald Reid, Paris Sewers and Sewermen: Representations and Realities (Cambridge, Mass., 1991). Recent scholarship on how people experienced technology includes Wolfgang Schivelbusch, Disenchanted Night: The Industrialization of Light in the Nineteenth Century, trans. Angela Davis (Berkeley, 1988); Rosalind Williams, Notes on the Underground: An Essay on Technology, Society, and the Imagination (Cambridge, Mass., 1990); and David E. Nye, American Technological Sublime (Cambridge, Mass., 1994). For a plea for more scholarship on consumers, see Cowan, "The Consumption Junction: A Proposal for Research Strategies in the Sociology of Technology," in The Social Construction of Technological Systems: New Directions in the Sociology and History of Technology, ed. Wiebe Bijker, Thomas Hughes, and Trevor Pinch (Cambridge, Mass., 1987), pp. 261-80.
18. See, e.g., Susan Strasser, Never Done: A History of American Housework (New York, 1982); Ruth Schwartz Cowan, More Work for Mother: The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave (New York, 1983); Carolyn Marvin, When Old Technologies Were New: Thinking About Electric Communication in the Late Nineteenth Century (New York, 1988); Philip Scranton, "None-Too-Porous Boundaries: Labor History and the History of Technology," Technology and Culture 29 (1988): 722-43; Judith McGaw, Most Wonderful Machine: Mechanization and Social Change in Berkshire Paper Making, 1801-1885 (Princeton, N. J., 1987); Donald Reid, Paris Sewers and Sewermen: Representations and Realities (Cambridge, Mass., 1991). Recent scholarship on how people experienced technology includes Wolfgang Schivelbusch, Disenchanted Night: The Industrialization of Light in the Nineteenth Century, trans. Angela Davis (Berkeley, 1988); Rosalind Williams, Notes on the Underground: An Essay on Technology, Society, and the Imagination (Cambridge, Mass., 1990); and David E. Nye, American Technological Sublime (Cambridge, Mass., 1994). For a plea for more scholarship on consumers, see Cowan, "The Consumption Junction: A Proposal for Research Strategies in the Sociology of Technology," in The Social Construction of Technological Systems: New Directions in the Sociology and History of Technology, ed. Wiebe Bijker, Thomas Hughes, and Trevor Pinch (Cambridge, Mass., 1987), pp. 261-80.
19. See, e.g., Susan Strasser, Never Done: A History of American Housework (New York, 1982); Ruth Schwartz Cowan, More Work for Mother: The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave (New York, 1983); Carolyn Marvin, When Old Technologies Were New: Thinking About Electric Communication in the Late Nineteenth Century (New York, 1988); Philip Scranton, "None-Too-Porous Boundaries: Labor History and the History of Technology," Technology and Culture 29 (1988): 722-43; Judith McGaw, Most Wonderful Machine: Mechanization and Social Change in Berkshire Paper Making, 1801-1885 (Princeton, N. J., 1987); Donald Reid, Paris Sewers and Sewermen: Representations and Realities (Cambridge, Mass., 1991). Recent scholarship on how people experienced technology includes Wolfgang Schivelbusch, Disenchanted Night: The Industrialization of Light in the Nineteenth Century, trans. Angela Davis (Berkeley, 1988); Rosalind Williams, Notes on the Underground: An Essay on Technology, Society, and the Imagination (Cambridge, Mass., 1990); and David E. Nye, American Technological Sublime (Cambridge, Mass., 1994). For a plea for more scholarship on consumers, see Cowan, "The Consumption Junction: A Proposal for Research Strategies in the Sociology of Technology," in The Social Construction of Technological Systems: New Directions in the Sociology and History of Technology, ed. Wiebe Bijker, Thomas Hughes, and Trevor Pinch (Cambridge, Mass., 1987), pp. 261-80.
20. See, e.g., Susan Strasser, Never Done: A History of American Housework (New York, 1982); Ruth Schwartz Cowan, More Work for Mother: The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave (New York, 1983); Carolyn Marvin, When Old Technologies Were New: Thinking About Electric Communication in the Late Nineteenth Century (New York, 1988); Philip Scranton, "None-Too-Porous Boundaries: Labor History and the History of Technology," Technology and Culture 29 (1988): 722-43; Judith McGaw, Most Wonderful Machine: Mechanization and Social Change in Berkshire Paper Making, 1801-1885 (Princeton, N. J., 1987); Donald Reid, Paris Sewers and Sewermen: Representations and Realities (Cambridge, Mass., 1991). Recent scholarship on how people experienced technology includes Wolfgang Schivelbusch, Disenchanted Night: The Industrialization of Light in the Nineteenth Century, trans. Angela Davis (Berkeley, 1988); Rosalind Williams, Notes on the Underground: An Essay on Technology, Society, and the Imagination (Cambridge, Mass., 1990); and David E. Nye, American Technological Sublime (Cambridge, Mass., 1994). For a plea for more scholarship on consumers, see Cowan, "The Consumption Junction: A Proposal for Research Strategies in the Sociology of Technology," in The Social Construction of Technological Systems: New Directions in the Sociology and History of Technology, ed. Wiebe Bijker, Thomas Hughes, and Trevor Pinch (Cambridge, Mass., 1987), pp. 261-80.
21. See, e.g., Susan Strasser, Never Done: A History of American Housework (New York, 1982); Ruth Schwartz Cowan, More Work for Mother: The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave (New York, 1983); Carolyn Marvin, When Old Technologies Were New: Thinking About Electric Communication in the Late Nineteenth Century (New York, 1988); Philip Scranton, "None-Too-Porous Boundaries: Labor History and the History of Technology," Technology and Culture 29 (1988): 722-43; Judith McGaw, Most Wonderful Machine: Mechanization and Social Change in Berkshire Paper Making, 1801-1885 (Princeton, N. J., 1987); Donald Reid, Paris Sewers and Sewermen: Representations and Realities (Cambridge, Mass., 1991). Recent scholarship on how people experienced technology includes Wolfgang Schivelbusch, Disenchanted Night: The Industrialization of Light in the Nineteenth Century, trans. Angela Davis (Berkeley, 1988); Rosalind Williams, Notes on the Underground: An Essay on Technology, Society, and the Imagination (Cambridge, Mass., 1990); and David E. Nye, American Technological Sublime (Cambridge, Mass., 1994). For a plea for more scholarship on consumers, see Cowan, "The Consumption Junction: A Proposal for Research Strategies in the Sociology of Technology," in The Social Construction of Technological Systems: New Directions in the Sociology and History of Technology, ed. Wiebe Bijker, Thomas Hughes, and Trevor Pinch (Cambridge, Mass., 1987), pp. 261-80.
22. See, e.g., Susan Strasser, Never Done: A History of American Housework (New York, 1982); Ruth Schwartz Cowan, More Work for Mother: The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave (New York, 1983); Carolyn Marvin, When Old Technologies Were New: Thinking About Electric Communication in the Late Nineteenth Century (New York, 1988); Philip Scranton, "None-Too-Porous Boundaries: Labor History and the History of Technology," Technology and Culture 29 (1988): 722-43; Judith McGaw, Most Wonderful Machine: Mechanization and Social Change in Berkshire Paper Making, 1801-1885 (Princeton, N. J., 1987); Donald Reid, Paris Sewers and Sewermen: Representations and Realities (Cambridge, Mass., 1991). Recent scholarship on how people experienced technology includes Wolfgang Schivelbusch, Disenchanted Night: The Industrialization of Light in the Nineteenth Century, trans. Angela Davis (Berkeley, 1988); Rosalind Williams, Notes on the Underground: An Essay on Technology, Society, and the Imagination (Cambridge, Mass., 1990); and David E. Nye, American Technological Sublime (Cambridge, Mass., 1994). For a plea for more scholarship on consumers, see Cowan, "The Consumption Junction: A Proposal for Research Strategies in the Sociology of Technology," in The Social Construction of Technological Systems: New Directions in the Sociology and History of Technology, ed. Wiebe Bijker, Thomas Hughes, and Trevor Pinch (Cambridge, Mass., 1987), pp. 261-80.
23. See, e.g., Susan Strasser, Never Done: A History of American Housework (New York, 1982); Ruth Schwartz Cowan, More Work for Mother: The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave (New York, 1983); Carolyn Marvin, When Old Technologies Were New: Thinking About Electric Communication in the Late Nineteenth Century (New York, 1988); Philip Scranton, "None-Too-Porous Boundaries: Labor History and the History of Technology," Technology and Culture 29 (1988): 722-43; Judith McGaw, Most Wonderful Machine: Mechanization and Social Change in Berkshire Paper Making, 1801-1885 (Princeton, N. J., 1987); Donald Reid, Paris Sewers and Sewermen: Representations and Realities (Cambridge, Mass., 1991). Recent scholarship on how people experienced technology includes Wolfgang Schivelbusch, Disenchanted Night: The Industrialization of Light in the Nineteenth Century, trans. Angela Davis (Berkeley, 1988); Rosalind Williams, Notes on the Underground: An Essay on Technology, Society, and the Imagination (Cambridge, Mass., 1990); and David E. Nye, American Technological Sublime (Cambridge, Mass., 1994). For a plea for more scholarship on consumers, see Cowan, "The Consumption Junction: A Proposal for Research Strategies in the Sociology of Technology," in The Social Construction of Technological Systems: New Directions in the Sociology and History of Technology, ed. Wiebe Bijker, Thomas Hughes, and Trevor Pinch (Cambridge, Mass., 1987), pp. 261-80.
24. See, e.g., Susan Strasser, Never Done: A History of American Housework (New York, 1982); Ruth Schwartz Cowan, More Work for Mother: The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave (New York, 1983); Carolyn Marvin, When Old Technologies Were New: Thinking About Electric Communication in the Late Nineteenth Century (New York, 1988); Philip Scranton, "None-Too-Porous Boundaries: Labor History and the History of Technology," Technology and Culture 29 (1988): 722-43; Judith McGaw, Most Wonderful Machine: Mechanization and Social Change in Berkshire Paper Making, 1801-1885 (Princeton, N. J., 1987); Donald Reid, Paris Sewers and Sewermen: Representations and Realities (Cambridge, Mass., 1991). Recent scholarship on how people experienced technology includes Wolfgang Schivelbusch, Disenchanted Night: The Industrialization of Light in the Nineteenth Century, trans. Angela Davis (Berkeley, 1988); Rosalind Williams, Notes on the Underground: An Essay on Technology, Society, and the Imagination (Cambridge, Mass., 1990); and David E. Nye, American Technological Sublime (Cambridge, Mass., 1994). For a plea for more scholarship on consumers, see Cowan, "The Consumption Junction: A Proposal for Research Strategies in the Sociology of Technology," in The Social Construction of Technological Systems: New Directions in the Sociology and History of Technology, ed. Wiebe Bijker, Thomas Hughes, and Trevor Pinch (Cambridge, Mass., 1987), pp. 261-80.
25. See, e.g., Susan Strasser, Never Done: A History of American Housework (New York, 1982); Ruth Schwartz Cowan, More Work for Mother: The Ironies of Household Technology from the Open Hearth to the Microwave (New York, 1983); Carolyn Marvin, When Old Technologies Were New: Thinking About Electric Communication in the Late Nineteenth Century (New York, 1988); Philip Scranton, "None-Too-Porous Boundaries: Labor History and the History of Technology," Technology and Culture 29 (1988): 722-43; Judith McGaw, Most Wonderful Machine: Mechanization and Social Change in Berkshire Paper Making, 1801-1885 (Princeton, N. J., 1987); Donald Reid, Paris Sewers and Sewermen: Representations and Realities (Cambridge, Mass., 1991). Recent scholarship on how people experienced technology includes Wolfgang Schivelbusch, Disenchanted Night: The Industrialization of Light in the Nineteenth Century, trans. Angela Davis (Berkeley, 1988); Rosalind Williams, Notes on the Underground: An Essay on Technology, Society, and the Imagination (Cambridge, Mass., 1990); and David E. Nye, American Technological Sublime (Cambridge, Mass., 1994). For a plea for more scholarship on consumers, see Cowan, "The Consumption Junction: A Proposal for Research Strategies in the Sociology of Technology," in The Social Construction of Technological Systems: New Directions in the Sociology and History of Technology, ed. Wiebe Bijker, Thomas Hughes, and Trevor Pinch (Cambridge, Mass., 1987), pp. 261-80.
26. Susan J. Douglas, Inventing American Broadcasting, 1899-1922 (Baltimore, 1987); Claude S. Fischer, America Calling: A Social History of the Telephone to 1940 (Berkeley, 1992); Michele Martin, "Hello Central?" Gender, Technology and Culture in the Formation of Telephone Systems (Montreal, 1991); and David E. Nye, Electrifying America: Social Meanings of a New Technology, 1880-1940 (Cambridge, Mass., 1990). Another example is the unexpected use of interactive terminals by users in the development of the French videotext system, Minitel (see Volker Schneider, Graham Thomas, Thieny Vedel, Jean Marie Charon and Ian Miles, "Pathways to Telematics: The Politics of Videotext in Britain, France and the Federal Republic of Germany" [Cologne, 1989; unpublished manuscript, copy in authors' possession]).
27. Susan J. Douglas, Inventing American Broadcasting, 1899-1922 (Baltimore, 1987); Claude S. Fischer, America Calling: A Social History of the Telephone to 1940 (Berkeley, 1992); Michele Martin, "Hello Central?" Gender, Technology and Culture in the Formation of Telephone Systems (Montreal, 1991); and David E. Nye, Electrifying America: Social Meanings of a New Technology, 1880-1940 (Cambridge, Mass., 1990). Another example is the unexpected use of interactive terminals by users in the development of the French videotext system, Minitel (see Volker Schneider, Graham Thomas, Thieny Vedel, Jean Marie Charon and Ian Miles, "Pathways to Telematics: The Politics of Videotext in Britain, France and the Federal Republic of Germany" [Cologne, 1989; unpublished manuscript, copy in authors' possession]).
28. Susan J. Douglas, Inventing American Broadcasting, 1899-1922 (Baltimore, 1987); Claude S. Fischer, America Calling: A Social History of the Telephone to 1940 (Berkeley, 1992); Michele Martin, "Hello Central?" Gender, Technology and Culture in the Formation of Telephone Systems (Montreal, 1991); and David E. Nye, Electrifying America: Social Meanings of a New Technology, 1880-1940 (Cambridge, Mass., 1990). Another example is the unexpected use of interactive terminals by users in the development of the French videotext system, Minitel (see Volker Schneider, Graham Thomas, Thieny Vedel, Jean Marie Charon and Ian Miles, "Pathways to Telematics: The Politics of Videotext in Britain, France and the Federal Republic of Germany" [Cologne, 1989; unpublished manuscript, copy in authors' possession]).
29. Susan J. Douglas, Inventing American Broadcasting, 1899-1922 (Baltimore, 1987); Claude S. Fischer, America Calling: A Social History of the Telephone to 1940 (Berkeley, 1992); Michele Martin, "Hello Central?" Gender, Technology and Culture in the Formation of Telephone Systems (Montreal, 1991); and David E. Nye, Electrifying America: Social Meanings of a New Technology, 1880-1940 (Cambridge, Mass., 1990). Another example is the unexpected use of interactive terminals by users in the development of the French videotext system, Minitel (see Volker Schneider, Graham Thomas, Thieny Vedel, Jean Marie Charon and Ian Miles, "Pathways to Telematics: The Politics of Videotext in Britain, France and the Federal Republic of Germany" [Cologne, 1989; unpublished manuscript, copy in authors' possession]).
30. Susan J. Douglas, Inventing American Broadcasting, 1899-1922 (Baltimore, 1987); Claude S. Fischer, America Calling: A Social History of the Telephone to 1940 (Berkeley, 1992); Michele Martin, "Hello Central?" Gender, Technology and Culture in the Formation of Telephone Systems (Montreal, 1991); and David E. Nye, Electrifying America: Social Meanings of a New Technology, 1880-1940 (Cambridge, Mass., 1990). Another example is the unexpected use of interactive terminals by users in the development of the French videotext system, Minitel (see Volker Schneider, Graham Thomas, Thieny Vedel, Jean Marie Charon and Ian Miles, "Pathways to Telematics: The Politics of Videotext in Britain, France and the Federal Republic of Germany" [Cologne, 1989; unpublished manuscript, copy in authors' possession]).
31. Trevor Pinch and Wiebe Bijker, "The Social Construction of Facts and Artifacts," Social Studies of Science 14 (1984): 399-441.
32. Wiebe Bijker, Of Bicycles, Bakelite, and Bulbs: Towards a Theory of Sociotechnical Change (Cambridge, Mass., 1995), has introduced the notion of a "technological frame" to understand how individuals may deviate from the shared group meaning. Often one individual can partake in a number of different technological frames and can be weakly included in some frames and strongly included in others.
33. Langdon Winner, "Upon Opening the Black Box and Finding It Empty: Social Constructivism and the Philosophy of Technology," Science, Technology, and Human Values 18 (1993): 362-78, has criticized SCOT for an overly restrictive definition of a social group and for ignoring "irrelevant" social groups. It is the possibility that groups share more than one family resemblance, which enables historians using SCOT to focus upon excluded or marginalized groups. Thus, on a priori grounds one might expect certain groups to be marginalized, e. g., women, African Americans, etc. Using this family resemblance property historians can analyze these neglected groups within the SCOT framework.
34. See for instance, Donald MacKenzie, "From Kwajalein to Armageddon? Testing and the Social Construction of Missile Accuracy," in The Uses of Experiment, ed. David Gooding, Trevor Pinch, and Simon Schaffer (Cambridge, 1989), pp. 409-35; Pinch, "'Testing, One, Two, Three . . . Testing': Towards a Sociology of Testing," Science Technology, and Human Values 18 (1993): 25-41.
35. See for instance, Donald MacKenzie, "From Kwajalein to Armageddon? Testing and the Social Construction of Missile Accuracy," in The Uses of Experiment, ed. David Gooding, Trevor Pinch, and Simon Schaffer (Cambridge, 1989), pp. 409-35; Pinch, "'Testing, One, Two, Three . . . Testing': Towards a Sociology of Testing," Science Technology, and Human Values 18 (1993): 25-41.
36. For example, Boelie Elzen, "Two Ultracentrifuges: A Comparative Study of the Social Construction of Artifacts," Social Studies of Science 16 (1986): 621-62; Thomas Misa, "Controversy and Closure in Technological Change: Constructing 'Steel,'" in Shaping Technology/Building Society: Studies in Sociotechnical Change, ed. Wiebe Bijker and John Law (Cambridge, Mass., 1992), pp. 109-39.
37. For example, Boelie Elzen, "Two Ultracentrifuges: A Comparative Study of the Social Construction of Artifacts," Social Studies of Science 16 (1986): 621-62; Thomas Misa, "Controversy and Closure in Technological Change: Constructing 'Steel,'" in Shaping Technology/Building Society: Studies in Sociotechnical Change, ed. Wiebe Bijker and John Law (Cambridge, Mass., 1992), pp. 109-39.
38. H. Mackay and Gareth Gillespie, "Extending the Social Shaping of Technology Approach: Ideology and Appropriation," Social Studies of Sciences 22 (1992): 685-716.
39. It is important to realize how the term "black box" is being used here. A technology that is black-boxed is one where design has stabilized. This does not mean it has literally to be treated as a black box, meaning that the inner workings are opaque to the user (although this may happen for some technologies and some users). Thus the Model T was a stabilized black box which was designed in such a way that it could easily be repaired.
40. Stewart Russel, "The Social Construction of Artifacts: A Response to Pinch and Bijker," Social Studies of Science 16 (1986): 331-46; Trevor J. Pinch and Wiebe E. Bijker, "Science Relativism and the New Sociology of Technology: Reply to Russel," Social Studies of Science 16 (1986): 347-60.
41. Stewart Russel, "The Social Construction of Artifacts: A Response to Pinch and Bijker," Social Studies of Science 16 (1986): 331-46; Trevor J. Pinch and Wiebe E. Bijker, "Science Relativism and the New Sociology of Technology: Reply to Russel," Social Studies of Science 16 (1986): 347-60.
42. Judy Wajcman,-Feminism Confronts Technology (University Park, Penn., 1990); Cynthia Cockburn, Machinery of Dominance: Women, Men and Technical Know-how (London, 1985), and Gender and Technology in the Making (London, 1993); Sandra Harding, The Science Question in Feminism (Ithaca, NY, 1986).
43. Judy Wajcman,-Feminism Confronts Technology (University Park, Penn., 1990); Cynthia Cockburn, Machinery of Dominance: Women, Men and Technical Know-how (London, 1985), and Gender and Technology in the Making (London, 1993); Sandra Harding, The Science Question in Feminism (Ithaca, NY, 1986).
44. Judy Wajcman,-Feminism Confronts Technology (University Park, Penn., 1990); Cynthia Cockburn, Machinery of Dominance: Women, Men and Technical Know-how (London, 1985), and Gender and Technology in the Making (London, 1993); Sandra Harding, The Science Question in Feminism (Ithaca, NY, 1986).
45. Judy Wajcman,-Feminism Confronts Technology (University Park, Penn., 1990); Cynthia Cockburn, Machinery of Dominance: Women, Men and Technical Know-how (London, 1985), and Gender and Technology in the Making (London, 1993); Sandra Harding, The Science Question in Feminism (Ithaca, NY, 1986).
46. Berger (n. 2 above, ch. 1) describes anticar sentiment well, but does not discuss the origin and use of the phrase "devil wagon" except to quote its usage in rural Colorado in 1903 (p. 14). For examples of social groups using that phrase and similar ones, like "red devils," see Chicago Tribune, August 17, 1902, p. 39 (national); Motor World, July 3, 1902, p. 404 (Long Island, New York), July 24, 1902, p. 493 (Pennsylvania), August 14, 1902, p. 567 (Glencoe, Illinois), and February 12, 1903, p. 725 (Connecticut); Rural New Yorker, June 10, 1905, p. 460 (New York); Independent, September 27, 1906, p. 762 (national); Mitford A. Matthews, ed., A Dictionary of Americanisms on Historical Principles (Chicago, 1951); and Fischer (n. 5 above) p. 138. On the anticar movement in the city, see McShane (n. 1 above).
47. Berger (n. 2 above, ch. 1) describes anticar sentiment well, but does not discuss the origin and use of the phrase "devil wagon" except to quote its usage in rural Colorado in 1903 (p. 14). For examples of social groups using that phrase and similar ones, like "red devils," see Chicago Tribune, August 17, 1902, p. 39 (national); Motor World, July 3, 1902, p. 404 (Long Island, New York), July 24, 1902, p. 493 (Pennsylvania), August 14, 1902, p. 567 (Glencoe, Illinois), and February 12, 1903, p. 725 (Connecticut); Rural New Yorker, June 10, 1905, p. 460 (New York); Independent, September 27, 1906, p. 762 (national); Mitford A. Matthews, ed., A Dictionary of Americanisms on Historical Principles (Chicago, 1951); and Fischer (n. 5 above) p. 138. On the anticar movement in the city, see McShane (n. 1 above).
48. Berger (n. 2 above, ch. 1) describes anticar sentiment well, but does not discuss the origin and use of the phrase "devil wagon" except to quote its usage in rural Colorado in 1903 (p. 14). For examples of social groups using that phrase and similar ones, like "red devils," see Chicago Tribune, August 17, 1902, p. 39 (national); Motor World, July 3, 1902, p. 404 (Long Island, New York), July 24, 1902, p. 493 (Pennsylvania), August 14, 1902, p. 567 (Glencoe, Illinois), and February 12, 1903, p. 725 (Connecticut); Rural New Yorker, June 10, 1905, p. 460 (New York); Independent, September 27, 1906, p. 762 (national); Mitford A. Matthews, ed., A Dictionary of Americanisms on Historical Principles (Chicago, 1951); and Fischer (n. 5 above) p. 138. On the anticar movement in the city, see McShane (n. 1 above).
49. Berger (n. 2 above, ch. 1) describes anticar sentiment well, but does not discuss the origin and use of the phrase "devil wagon" except to quote its usage in rural Colorado in 1903 (p. 14). For examples of social groups using that phrase and similar ones, like "red devils," see Chicago Tribune, August 17, 1902, p. 39 (national); Motor World, July 3, 1902, p. 404 (Long Island, New York), July 24, 1902, p. 493 (Pennsylvania), August 14, 1902, p. 567 (Glencoe, Illinois), and February 12, 1903, p. 725 (Connecticut); Rural New Yorker, June 10, 1905, p. 460 (New York); Independent, September 27, 1906, p. 762 (national); Mitford A. Matthews, ed., A Dictionary of Americanisms on Historical Principles (Chicago, 1951); and Fischer (n. 5 above) p. 138. On the anticar movement in the city, see McShane (n. 1 above).
50. Berger (n. 2 above, ch. 1) describes anticar sentiment well, but does not discuss the origin and use of the phrase "devil wagon" except to quote its usage in rural Colorado in 1903 (p. 14). For examples of social groups using that phrase and similar ones, like "red devils," see Chicago Tribune, August 17, 1902, p. 39 (national); Motor World, July 3, 1902, p. 404 (Long Island, New York), July 24, 1902, p. 493 (Pennsylvania), August 14, 1902, p. 567 (Glencoe, Illinois), and February 12, 1903, p. 725 (Connecticut); Rural New Yorker, June 10, 1905, p. 460 (New York); Independent, September 27, 1906, p. 762 (national); Mitford A. Matthews, ed., A Dictionary of Americanisms on Historical Principles (Chicago, 1951); and Fischer (n. 5 above) p. 138. On the anticar movement in the city, see McShane (n. 1 above).
51. Berger (n. 2 above, ch. 1) describes anticar sentiment well, but does not discuss the origin and use of the phrase "devil wagon" except to quote its usage in rural Colorado in 1903 (p. 14). For examples of social groups using that phrase and similar ones, like "red devils," see Chicago Tribune, August 17, 1902, p. 39 (national); Motor World, July 3, 1902, p. 404 (Long Island, New York), July 24, 1902, p. 493 (Pennsylvania), August 14, 1902, p. 567 (Glencoe, Illinois), and February 12, 1903, p. 725 (Connecticut); Rural New Yorker, June 10, 1905, p. 460 (New York); Independent, September 27, 1906, p. 762 (national); Mitford A. Matthews, ed., A Dictionary of Americanisms on Historical Principles (Chicago, 1951); and Fischer (n. 5 above) p. 138. On the anticar movement in the city, see McShane (n. 1 above).
52. Berger (n. 2 above, ch. 1) describes anticar sentiment well, but does not discuss the origin and use of the phrase "devil wagon" except to quote its usage in rural Colorado in 1903 (p. 14). For examples of social groups using that phrase and similar ones, like "red devils," see Chicago Tribune, August 17, 1902, p. 39 (national); Motor World, July 3, 1902, p. 404 (Long Island, New York), July 24, 1902, p. 493 (Pennsylvania), August 14, 1902, p. 567 (Glencoe, Illinois), and February 12, 1903, p. 725 (Connecticut); Rural New Yorker, June 10, 1905, p. 460 (New York); Independent, September 27, 1906, p. 762 (national); Mitford A. Matthews, ed., A Dictionary of Americanisms on Historical Principles (Chicago, 1951); and Fischer (n. 5 above) p. 138. On the anticar movement in the city, see McShane (n. 1 above).
53. Berger (n. 2 above, ch. 1) describes anticar sentiment well, but does not discuss the origin and use of the phrase "devil wagon" except to quote its usage in rural Colorado in 1903 (p. 14). For examples of social groups using that phrase and similar ones, like "red devils," see Chicago Tribune, August 17, 1902, p. 39 (national); Motor World, July 3, 1902, p. 404 (Long Island, New York), July 24, 1902, p. 493 (Pennsylvania), August 14, 1902, p. 567 (Glencoe, Illinois), and February 12, 1903, p. 725 (Connecticut); Rural New Yorker, June 10, 1905, p. 460 (New York); Independent, September 27, 1906, p. 762 (national); Mitford A. Matthews, ed., A Dictionary of Americanisms on Historical Principles (Chicago, 1951); and Fischer (n. 5 above) p. 138. On the anticar movement in the city, see McShane (n. 1 above).
54. Berger (n. 2 above, ch. 1) describes anticar sentiment well, but does not discuss the origin and use of the phrase "devil wagon" except to quote its usage in rural Colorado in 1903 (p. 14). For examples of social groups using that phrase and similar ones, like "red devils," see Chicago Tribune, August 17, 1902, p. 39 (national); Motor World, July 3, 1902, p. 404 (Long Island, New York), July 24, 1902, p. 493 (Pennsylvania), August 14, 1902, p. 567 (Glencoe, Illinois), and February 12, 1903, p. 725 (Connecticut); Rural New Yorker, June 10, 1905, p. 460 (New York); Independent, September 27, 1906, p. 762 (national); Mitford A. Matthews, ed., A Dictionary of Americanisms on Historical Principles (Chicago, 1951); and Fischer (n. 5 above) p. 138. On the anticar movement in the city, see McShane (n. 1 above).
55. Berger (n. 2 above, ch. 1) describes anticar sentiment well, but does not discuss the origin and use of the phrase "devil wagon" except to quote its usage in rural Colorado in 1903 (p. 14). For examples of social groups using that phrase and similar ones, like "red devils," see Chicago Tribune, August 17, 1902, p. 39 (national); Motor World, July 3, 1902, p. 404 (Long Island, New York), July 24, 1902, p. 493 (Pennsylvania), August 14, 1902, p. 567 (Glencoe, Illinois), and February 12, 1903, p. 725 (Connecticut); Rural New Yorker, June 10, 1905, p. 460 (New York); Independent, September 27, 1906, p. 762 (national); Mitford A. Matthews, ed., A Dictionary of Americanisms on Historical Principles (Chicago, 1951); and Fischer (n. 5 above) p. 138. On the anticar movement in the city, see McShane (n. 1 above).
56. Berger (n. 2 above, ch. 1) describes anticar sentiment well, but does not discuss the origin and use of the phrase "devil wagon" except to quote its usage in rural Colorado in 1903 (p. 14). For examples of social groups using that phrase and similar ones, like "red devils," see Chicago Tribune, August 17, 1902, p. 39 (national); Motor World, July 3, 1902, p. 404 (Long Island, New York), July 24, 1902, p. 493 (Pennsylvania), August 14, 1902, p. 567 (Glencoe, Illinois), and February 12, 1903, p. 725 (Connecticut); Rural New Yorker, June 10, 1905, p. 460 (New York); Independent, September 27, 1906, p. 762 (national); Mitford A. Matthews, ed., A Dictionary of Americanisms on Historical Principles (Chicago, 1951); and Fischer (n. 5 above) p. 138. On the anticar movement in the city, see McShane (n. 1 above).
57. See, e.g., Motor World, February 9, 1905, pp. 968, 969 (hayseed); Rural New Yorker, August 13, 1904, p. 607 (rube); Motor World, May 9, 1902 (autophobe), and Motor Age, June 17, 1907, pp. 94-95 (motorphobe). Even in the last article, entitled "Farmers Not All Motorphobes." which was intended to promote the rural market to car dealers, the author referred to the interurban railway as the "Great Inter-Reuben Railway" (p. 94). On the St. Louis group, see Motor World, November 16, 1905, p. 383.
58. See, e.g., Motor World, February 9, 1905, pp. 968, 969 (hayseed); Rural New Yorker, August 13, 1904, p. 607 (rube); Motor World, May 9, 1902 (autophobe), and Motor Age, June 17, 1907, pp. 94-95 (motorphobe). Even in the last article, entitled "Farmers Not All Motorphobes." which was intended to promote the rural market to car dealers, the author referred to the interurban railway as the "Great Inter-Reuben Railway" (p. 94). On the St. Louis group, see Motor World, November 16, 1905, p. 383.
59. See, e.g., Motor World, February 9, 1905, pp. 968, 969 (hayseed); Rural New Yorker, August 13, 1904, p. 607 (rube); Motor World, May 9, 1902 (autophobe), and Motor Age, June 17, 1907, pp. 94-95 (motorphobe). Even in the last article, entitled "Farmers Not All Motorphobes." which was intended to promote the rural market to car dealers, the author referred to the interurban railway as the "Great Inter-Reuben Railway" (p. 94). On the St. Louis group, see Motor World, November 16, 1905, p. 383.
60. See, e.g., Motor World, February 9, 1905, pp. 968, 969 (hayseed); Rural New Yorker, August 13, 1904, p. 607 (rube); Motor World, May 9, 1902 (autophobe), and Motor Age, June 17, 1907, pp. 94-95 (motorphobe). Even in the last article, entitled "Farmers Not All Motorphobes." which was intended to promote the rural market to car dealers, the author referred to the interurban railway as the "Great Inter-Reuben Railway" (p. 94). On the St. Louis group, see Motor World, November 16, 1905, p. 383.
61. See, e.g., Motor World, February 9, 1905, pp. 968, 969 (hayseed); Rural New Yorker, August 13, 1904, p. 607 (rube); Motor World, May 9, 1902 (autophobe), and Motor Age, June 17, 1907, pp. 94-95 (motorphobe). Even in the last article, entitled "Farmers Not All Motorphobes." which was intended to promote the rural market to car dealers, the author referred to the interurban railway as the "Great Inter-Reuben Railway" (p. 94). On the St. Louis group, see Motor World, November 16, 1905, p. 383.
62. See, e.g., Motor World, February 9, 1905, pp. 968, 969 (hayseed); Rural New Yorker, August 13, 1904, p. 607 (rube); Motor World, May 9, 1902 (autophobe), and Motor Age, June 17, 1907, pp. 94-95 (motorphobe). Even in the last article, entitled "Farmers Not All Motorphobes." which was intended to promote the rural market to car dealers, the author referred to the interurban railway as the "Great Inter-Reuben Railway" (p. 94). On the St. Louis group, see Motor World, November 16, 1905, p. 383.
63. Quoted in Berger, p. 21.
64. Rural New Yorker, July 23, 1904, p. 565; A Farmer's Wife, "The Child on the Farm," Outlook 91 (April 10, 1909): 832-33, on p. 833; and United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), Office of the Secretary, Social and Labor Needs of Farm Women (Washington, DC, 1915), pp. 66-72, on p. 66. See also Albert Clough, "Nervous Strains Due to Automobile Driving," Horseless Age, September 23, 1903, pp. 323-25, on p. 324.
65. Rural New Yorker, July 23, 1904, p. 565; A Farmer's Wife, "The Child on the Farm," Outlook 91 (April 10, 1909): 832-33, on p. 833; and United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), Office of the Secretary, Social and Labor Needs of Farm Women (Washington, DC, 1915), pp. 66-72, on p. 66. See also Albert Clough, "Nervous Strains Due to Automobile Driving," Horseless Age, September 23, 1903, pp. 323-25, on p. 324.
66. Rural New Yorker, July 23, 1904, p. 565; A Farmer's Wife, "The Child on the Farm," Outlook 91 (April 10, 1909): 832-33, on p. 833; and United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), Office of the Secretary, Social and Labor Needs of Farm Women (Washington, DC, 1915), pp. 66-72, on p. 66. See also Albert Clough, "Nervous Strains Due to Automobile Driving," Horseless Age, September 23, 1903, pp. 323-25, on p. 324.
67. Rural New Yorker, July 23, 1904, p. 565; A Farmer's Wife, "The Child on the Farm," Outlook 91 (April 10, 1909): 832-33, on p. 833; and United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), Office of the Secretary, Social and Labor Needs of Farm Women (Washington, DC, 1915), pp. 66-72, on p. 66. See also Albert Clough, "Nervous Strains Due to Automobile Driving," Horseless Age, September 23, 1903, pp. 323-25, on p. 324.
68. "Met Queer People," Motor Age, July 14, 1904, p. 14.
69. Eleanor Arnold, ed., Buggies and Bad Times: Memories of Hoosier Homemakers (Indianapolis, 1983), p. 35.
70. Motor Age, September 9, 1915, p. 15; Berger (n. 2 above), pp. 13-14, 30, 88-90; and Flink, Automobile Age (n. 1 above), pp. 101, 169-70.
71. Motor Age, September 9, 1915, p. 15; Berger (n. 2 above), pp. 13-14, 30, 88-90; and Flink, Automobile Age (n. 1 above), pp. 101, 169-70.
72. Motor Age, September 9, 1915, p. 15; Berger (n. 2 above), pp. 13-14, 30, 88-90; and Flink, Automobile Age (n. 1 above), pp. 101, 169-70.
73. F. G. Moorhead, "Automobile Versus Country Church," Technical World Magazine 18 (November 1912): 298-300; Berger, chs. 5-6; and Wik (n. 2 above), pp. 31-32. Unlike Berger, Wik says the car actually increased church attendance.
74. F. G. Moorhead, "Automobile Versus Country Church," Technical World Magazine 18 (November 1912): 298-300; Berger, chs. 5-6; and Wik (n. 2 above), pp. 31-32. Unlike Berger, Wik says the car actually increased church attendance.
75. Berger, pp. 24-28; Wik, p. 17; Motor World, December 24, 1903, p. 466, June 22, 1905, p. 569, September 28, 1905, p. 38, and October 24, 1907, p. 184a; Motor Age, July 7, 1904, p. 21. Although farm men and women eagerly adopted the telephone (and later the automobile), their early resistance to the car is similar to their distrust of "book farming" and home economics methods imposed by agrarian modernizers. See Fischer (n. 5 above), pp. 92-107, and David Danbom, The Resisted Revolution: Urban America and the Industrialization of Agriculture, 1900-1930 (Ames, Iowa, 1979).
76. Berger, pp. 24-28; Wik, p. 17; Motor World, December 24, 1903, p. 466, June 22, 1905, p. 569, September 28, 1905, p. 38, and October 24, 1907, p. 184a; Motor Age, July 7, 1904, p. 21. Although farm men and women eagerly adopted the telephone (and later the automobile), their early resistance to the car is similar to their distrust of "book farming" and home economics methods imposed by agrarian modernizers. See Fischer (n. 5 above), pp. 92-107, and David Danbom, The Resisted Revolution: Urban America and the Industrialization of Agriculture, 1900-1930 (Ames, Iowa, 1979).
77. Berger, pp. 24-28; Wik, p. 17; Motor World, December 24, 1903, p. 466, June 22, 1905, p. 569, September 28, 1905, p. 38, and October 24, 1907, p. 184a; Motor Age, July 7, 1904, p. 21. Although farm men and women eagerly adopted the telephone (and later the automobile), their early resistance to the car is similar to their distrust of "book farming" and home economics methods imposed by agrarian modernizers. See Fischer (n. 5 above), pp. 92-107, and David Danbom, The Resisted Revolution: Urban America and the Industrialization of Agriculture, 1900-1930 (Ames, Iowa, 1979).
78. Berger, pp. 24-28; Wik, p. 17; Motor World, December 24, 1903, p. 466, June 22, 1905, p. 569, September 28, 1905, p. 38, and October 24, 1907, p. 184a; Motor Age, July 7, 1904, p. 21. Although farm men and women eagerly adopted the telephone (and later the automobile), their early resistance to the car is similar to their distrust of "book farming" and home economics methods imposed by agrarian modernizers. See Fischer (n. 5 above), pp. 92-107, and David Danbom, The Resisted Revolution: Urban America and the Industrialization of Agriculture, 1900-1930 (Ames, Iowa, 1979).
79. Flink, America Adopts the Automobile (n. 1 above), pp. 67-68; Wik, p. 17; Motor World, April 27, 1905, p. 211 and November 30, 1905, p. 478; Motor Age, July 30, 1908, p. 29; Wilkes (North Carolina) Chronicle, July 14, 1909, reprinting an Indiana story. We thank Scott Crawford for the last citation.
80. Flink, America Adopts the Automobile (n. 1 above), pp. 67-68; Wik, p. 17; Motor World, April 27, 1905, p. 211 and November 30, 1905, p. 478; Motor Age, July 30, 1908, p. 29; Wilkes (North Carolina) Chronicle, July 14, 1909, reprinting an Indiana story. We thank Scott Crawford for the last citation.
81. Flink, America Adopts the Automobile (n. 1 above), pp. 67-68; Wik, p. 17; Motor World, April 27, 1905, p. 211 and November 30, 1905, p. 478; Motor Age, July 30, 1908, p. 29; Wilkes (North Carolina) Chronicle, July 14, 1909, reprinting an Indiana story. We thank Scott Crawford for the last citation.
82. Flink, America Adopts the Automobile (n. 1 above), pp. 67-68; Wik, p. 17; Motor World, April 27, 1905, p. 211 and November 30, 1905, p. 478; Motor Age, July 30, 1908, p. 29; Wilkes (North Carolina) Chronicle, July 14, 1909, reprinting an Indiana story. We thank Scott Crawford for the last citation.
83. Motor World, August 13, 1903, p. 753; June 1, 1905, p. 430; May 10, 1906, p. 786.
84. Motor World, August 13, 1903, p. 753; June 1, 1905, p. 430; May 10, 1906, p. 786.
85. Motor World, August 13, 1903, p. 753; June 1, 1905, p. 430; May 10, 1906, p. 786.
86. Wik, p. 16. Wik cautions readers that "it is a gross misconception, however, to assume all rural people fought the introduction of the automobile" (p. 19), yet he notes a "stubborn resistance to the early automobiles by a large segment of the population" (p. 14). Flink, in America Adopts the Automobile, pp. 66-70, and Car Culture (n. 1 above), pp. 27-28, argues that rural opposition to the auto was localized, confined to the years 1904 (the beginning of widespread auto touring) to 1906 (the rise of auto sales to farmers), and directed against motoring, rather than the car. But his citations of antimotoring sentiment and actions in Minnesota, Ohio, Indiana, New Jersey, and Missouri tend to undermine this argument (America Adopts the Automobile, pp. 67-68, 140). Like Flink, we have found no evidence of national leadership of these actions against the auto, but the presence of both unorganized and organized resistance in several states throughout the country for nearly a decade indicates that it was a widespread phenomenon.
87. Wik, p. 16. Wik cautions readers that "it is a gross misconception, however, to assume all rural people fought the introduction of the automobile" (p. 19), yet he notes a "stubborn resistance to the early automobiles by a large segment of the population" (p. 14). Flink, in America Adopts the Automobile, pp. 66-70, and Car Culture (n. 1 above), pp. 27-28, argues that rural opposition to the auto was localized, confined to the years 1904 (the beginning of widespread auto touring) to 1906 (the rise of auto sales to farmers), and directed against motoring, rather than the car. But his citations of antimotoring sentiment and actions in Minnesota, Ohio, Indiana, New Jersey, and Missouri tend to undermine this argument (America Adopts the Automobile, pp. 67-68, 140). Like Flink, we have found no evidence of national leadership of these actions against the auto, but the presence of both unorganized and organized resistance in several states throughout the country for nearly a decade indicates that it was a widespread phenomenon.
88. Wik, p. 16. Wik cautions readers that "it is a gross misconception, however, to assume all rural people fought the introduction of the automobile" (p. 19), yet he notes a "stubborn resistance to the early automobiles by a large segment of the population" (p. 14). Flink, in America Adopts the Automobile, pp. 66-70, and Car Culture (n. 1 above), pp. 27-28, argues that rural opposition to the auto was localized, confined to the years 1904 (the beginning of widespread auto touring) to 1906 (the rise of auto sales to farmers), and directed against motoring, rather than the car. But his citations of antimotoring sentiment and actions in Minnesota, Ohio, Indiana, New Jersey, and Missouri tend to undermine this argument (America Adopts the Automobile, pp. 67-68, 140). Like Flink, we have found no evidence of national leadership of these actions against the auto, but the presence of both unorganized and organized resistance in several states throughout the country for nearly a decade indicates that it was a widespread phenomenon.
89. Proceedings of the National Grange, 1908, p. 18. Wallace's Farmer, December 20, 1907, p. 1514; January 3, 1908, p. 6; February 14, 1908, pp. 215 (quotation), 245; September 25, 1908, p. 1171. Rural New Yorker, August 13, 1904, p. 614; December 12, 1908, p. 958; and November 6, 1909, p. 961.
90. Proceedings of the National Grange, 1908, p. 18. Wallace's Farmer, December 20, 1907, p. 1514; January 3, 1908, p. 6; February 14, 1908, pp. 215 (quotation), 245; September 25, 1908, p. 1171. Rural New Yorker, August 13, 1904, p. 614; December 12, 1908, p. 958; and November 6, 1909, p. 961.
91. Proceedings of the National Grange, 1908, p. 18. Wallace's Farmer, December 20, 1907, p. 1514; January 3, 1908, p. 6; February 14, 1908, pp. 215 (quotation), 245; September 25, 1908, p. 1171. Rural New Yorker, August 13, 1904, p. 614; December 12, 1908, p. 958; and November 6, 1909, p. 961.
92. Proceedings of the National Grange, 1908, p. 18. Wallace's Farmer, December 20, 1907, p. 1514; January 3, 1908, p. 6; February 14, 1908, pp. 215 (quotation), 245; September 25, 1908, p. 1171. Rural New Yorker, August 13, 1904, p. 614; December 12, 1908, p. 958; and November 6, 1909, p. 961.
93. Proceedings of the National Grange, 1908, p. 18. Wallace's Farmer, December 20, 1907, p. 1514; January 3, 1908, p. 6; February 14, 1908, pp. 215 (quotation), 245; September 25, 1908, p. 1171. Rural New Yorker, August 13, 1904, p. 614; December 12, 1908, p. 958; and November 6, 1909, p. 961.
94. Proceedings of the National Grange, 1908, p. 18. Wallace's Farmer, December 20, 1907, p. 1514; January 3, 1908, p. 6; February 14, 1908, pp. 215 (quotation), 245; September 25, 1908, p. 1171. Rural New Yorker, August 13, 1904, p. 614; December 12, 1908, p. 958; and November 6, 1909, p. 961.
95. Proceedings of the National Grange, 1908, p. 18. Wallace's Farmer, December 20, 1907, p. 1514; January 3, 1908, p. 6; February 14, 1908, pp. 215 (quotation), 245; September 25, 1908, p. 1171. Rural New Yorker, August 13, 1904, p. 614; December 12, 1908, p. 958; and November 6, 1909, p. 961.
96. Proceedings of the National Grange, 1908, p. 18. Wallace's Farmer, December 20, 1907, p. 1514; January 3, 1908, p. 6; February 14, 1908, pp. 215 (quotation), 245; September 25, 1908, p. 1171. Rural New Yorker, August 13, 1904, p. 614; December 12, 1908, p. 958; and November 6, 1909, p. 961.
97. Berger (n. 2 above), pp. 35-40, 47-51; Wik (n. 2 above), pp. 19-33; Flink, America Adopts the Automobile, pp. 69-73, 82-85, 111 and Car Culture (n. 1 above), pp. 35, 53; Warren J. Belasco, Americans on the Road: From Auto Camp to Motel, 1910-1945 (Cambridge, Mass., 1979), pp. 125-142; Peter J. Hugill, "Good Roads and the Automobile in the United States, 1880-1929," Geographical Review 72 (1982): 327-49; and Fischer (n. 5 above), p. 102 (auto statistics).
98. Berger (n. 2 above), pp. 35-40, 47-51; Wik (n. 2 above), pp. 19-33; Flink, America Adopts the Automobile, pp. 69-73, 82-85, 111 and Car Culture (n. 1 above), pp. 35, 53; Warren J. Belasco, Americans on the Road: From Auto Camp to Motel, 1910-1945 (Cambridge, Mass., 1979), pp. 125-142; Peter J. Hugill, "Good Roads and the Automobile in the United States, 1880-1929," Geographical Review 72 (1982): 327-49; and Fischer (n. 5 above), p. 102 (auto statistics).
99. Berger (n. 2 above), pp. 35-40, 47-51; Wik (n. 2 above), pp. 19-33; Flink, America Adopts the Automobile, pp. 69-73, 82-85, 111 and Car Culture (n. 1 above), pp. 35, 53; Warren J. Belasco, Americans on the Road: From Auto Camp to Motel, 1910-1945 (Cambridge, Mass., 1979), pp. 125-142; Peter J. Hugill, "Good Roads and the Automobile in the United States, 1880-1929," Geographical Review 72 (1982): 327-49; and Fischer (n. 5 above), p. 102 (auto statistics).
100. Berger (n. 2 above), pp. 35-40, 47-51; Wik (n. 2 above), pp. 19-33; Flink, America Adopts the Automobile, pp. 69-73, 82-85, 111 and Car Culture (n. 1 above), pp. 35, 53; Warren J. Belasco, Americans on the Road: From Auto Camp to Motel, 1910-1945 (Cambridge, Mass., 1979), pp. 125-142; Peter J. Hugill, "Good Roads and the Automobile in the United States, 1880-1929," Geographical Review 72 (1982): 327-49; and Fischer (n. 5 above), p. 102 (auto statistics).
101. Berger (n. 2 above), pp. 35-40, 47-51; Wik (n. 2 above), pp. 19-33; Flink, America Adopts the Automobile, pp. 69-73, 82-85, 111 and Car Culture (n. 1 above), pp. 35, 53; Warren J. Belasco, Americans on the Road: From Auto Camp to Motel, 1910-1945 (Cambridge, Mass., 1979), pp. 125-142; Peter J. Hugill, "Good Roads and the Automobile in the United States, 1880-1929," Geographical Review 72 (1982): 327-49; and Fischer (n. 5 above), p. 102 (auto statistics).
102. Berger (n. 2 above), pp. 35-40, 47-51; Wik (n. 2 above), pp. 19-33; Flink, America Adopts the Automobile, pp. 69-73, 82-85, 111 and Car Culture (n. 1 above), pp. 35, 53; Warren J. Belasco, Americans on the Road: From Auto Camp to Motel, 1910-1945 (Cambridge, Mass., 1979), pp. 125-142; Peter J. Hugill, "Good Roads and the Automobile in the United States, 1880-1929," Geographical Review 72 (1982): 327-49; and Fischer (n. 5 above), p. 102 (auto statistics).
103. Although other social groups are significant, such as home-demonstration agents and agricultural engineers, for our purposes here we will concentrate on these three groups only and the emergent new social group of car dealers.
104. Peter J. Hugill, "Technology Diffusion in the World Automobile Industry, 1885-1985," in The Transfer and Transformation of Ideas and Material Culture, ed. Peter J. Hugill and D. Bruce Dickson (College Station, Texas, 1988), pp. 110-42. A further period of stabilization occurred in the mid-1920s with the advent of electric starters, closed bodies, and all-steel bodies; see Flink, Automobile Age, pp. 212-14.
105. Peter J. Hugill, "Technology Diffusion in the World Automobile Industry, 1885-1985," in The Transfer and Transformation of Ideas and Material Culture, ed. Peter J. Hugill and D. Bruce Dickson (College Station, Texas, 1988), pp. 110-42. A further period of stabilization occurred in the mid-1920s with the advent of electric starters, closed bodies, and all-steel bodies; see Flink, Automobile Age, pp. 212-14.
106. Rural New Yorker, June 27, 1903, p. 467; Wallace's Farmer, January 8, 1909, p. 53. For other early examples, see Rural New Yorker; August 27, 1903, p. 595 (corn sheller) and Motor World, March 3, 1904, p. 1005 (sawing wood).
107. Rural New Yorker, June 27, 1903, p. 467; Wallace's Farmer, January 8, 1909, p. 53. For other early examples, see Rural New Yorker; August 27, 1903, p. 595 (corn sheller) and Motor World, March 3, 1904, p. 1005 (sawing wood).
108. Rural New Yorker, June 27, 1903, p. 467; Wallace's Farmer, January 8, 1909, p. 53. For other early examples, see Rural New Yorker; August 27, 1903, p. 595 (corn sheller) and Motor World, March 3, 1904, p. 1005 (sawing wood).
109. Rural New Yorker, June 27, 1903, p. 467; Wallace's Farmer, January 8, 1909, p. 53. For other early examples, see Rural New Yorker; August 27, 1903, p. 595 (corn sheller) and Motor World, March 3, 1904, p. 1005 (sawing wood).
110. Ellis Parker Butler, "The Adventures of a Suburbanite, V - My Domesticated Automobile," Country Life, 17 (February 1910): 417-19.
111. Roger B. Whitman, "The Automobile in New Roles," Country Life 15 (November 1908): 53; "Ford's Versatile Flivver," Horseless Carriage Gazette 21 (January-February 1959): 8-19; Wik (n. 2 above), pp. 32-33; Berger (n. 2 above), pp. 40-43; Flink, America Adopts the Automobile (n. 1 above), p. 93. Interestingly, one of the few urban/industrial examples which parallels the rural case was the use of cars as an alternative source of power during industrial disputes. The Locke Machine works in Detroit apparently used two jacked-up Ford motor cars to power their entire works during a coal strike; see Motor Age, December 18, 1919, pp. 20-21. Another urban usage was powering hoists in building works. See Scientific American 97 (November 9, 1907): 332.
112. Roger B. Whitman, "The Automobile in New Roles," Country Life 15 (November 1908): 53; "Ford's Versatile Flivver," Horseless Carriage Gazette 21 (January-February 1959): 8-19; Wik (n. 2 above), pp. 32-33; Berger (n. 2 above), pp. 40-43; Flink, America Adopts the Automobile (n. 1 above), p. 93. Interestingly, one of the few urban/industrial examples which parallels the rural case was the use of cars as an alternative source of power during industrial disputes. The Locke Machine works in Detroit apparently used two jacked-up Ford motor cars to power their entire works during a coal strike; see Motor Age, December 18, 1919, pp. 20-21. Another urban usage was powering hoists in building works. See Scientific American 97 (November 9, 1907): 332.
113. Roger B. Whitman, "The Automobile in New Roles," Country Life 15 (November 1908): 53; "Ford's Versatile Flivver," Horseless Carriage Gazette 21 (January-February 1959): 8-19; Wik (n. 2 above), pp. 32-33; Berger (n. 2 above), pp. 40-43; Flink, America Adopts the Automobile (n. 1 above), p. 93. Interestingly, one of the few urban/industrial examples which parallels the rural case was the use of cars as an alternative source of power during industrial disputes. The Locke Machine works in Detroit apparently used two jacked-up Ford motor cars to power their entire works during a coal strike; see Motor Age, December 18, 1919, pp. 20-21. Another urban usage was powering hoists in building works. See Scientific American 97 (November 9, 1907): 332.
114. Roger B. Whitman, "The Automobile in New Roles," Country Life 15 (November 1908): 53; "Ford's Versatile Flivver," Horseless Carriage Gazette 21 (January-February 1959): 8-19; Wik (n. 2 above), pp. 32-33; Berger (n. 2 above), pp. 40-43; Flink, America Adopts the Automobile (n. 1 above), p. 93. Interestingly, one of the few urban/industrial examples which parallels the rural case was the use of cars as an alternative source of power during industrial disputes. The Locke Machine works in Detroit apparently used two jacked-up Ford motor cars to power their entire works during a coal strike; see Motor Age, December 18, 1919, pp. 20-21. Another urban usage was powering hoists in building works. See Scientific American 97 (November 9, 1907): 332.
115. Roger B. Whitman, "The Automobile in New Roles," Country Life 15 (November 1908): 53; "Ford's Versatile Flivver," Horseless Carriage Gazette 21 (January-February 1959): 8-19; Wik (n. 2 above), pp. 32-33; Berger (n. 2 above), pp. 40-43; Flink, America Adopts the Automobile (n. 1 above), p. 93. Interestingly, one of the few urban/industrial examples which parallels the rural case was the use of cars as an alternative source of power during industrial disputes. The Locke Machine works in Detroit apparently used two jacked-up Ford motor cars to power their entire works during a coal strike; see Motor Age, December 18, 1919, pp. 20-21. Another urban usage was powering hoists in building works. See Scientific American 97 (November 9, 1907): 332.
116. Roger B. Whitman, "The Automobile in New Roles," Country Life 15 (November 1908): 53; "Ford's Versatile Flivver," Horseless Carriage Gazette 21 (January-February 1959): 8-19; Wik (n. 2 above), pp. 32-33; Berger (n. 2 above), pp. 40-43; Flink, America Adopts the Automobile (n. 1 above), p. 93. Interestingly, one of the few urban/industrial examples which parallels the rural case was the use of cars as an alternative source of power during industrial disputes. The Locke Machine works in Detroit apparently used two jacked-up Ford motor cars to power their entire works during a coal strike; see Motor Age, December 18, 1919, pp. 20-21. Another urban usage was powering hoists in building works. See Scientific American 97 (November 9, 1907): 332.
117. Rural New Yorker, May 29, 1915, p. 751; and "When is a Motor Car Not a Motor Car? Assessors Ask," Motor Age, June 3, 1915, p. 29.
118. Rural New Yorker, May 29, 1915, p. 751; and "When is a Motor Car Not a Motor Car? Assessors Ask," Motor Age, June 3, 1915, p. 29.
119. Whitman, p. 53; "The Farmer and the Automobile," Country Life 15 (April 1909): 636; Walter Langsford, "What the Motor Vehicle Is Doing for the Farm," Scientific American 102 (January 15, 1910): 50-51; George E. Walsh, "Farming with Automobiles," Review of Reviews 43 (January 1911): 62-67; Charles M. Harger, "Automobiles for Country Use," Independent 70 (June 1, 1911): 1207-1211; "How Farmers Use their Cars," Rural New Yorker July 24, 1915, p. 935.
120. Whitman, p. 53; "The Farmer and the Automobile," Country Life 15 (April 1909): 636; Walter Langsford, "What the Motor Vehicle Is Doing for the Farm," Scientific American 102 (January 15, 1910): 50-51; George E. Walsh, "Farming with Automobiles," Review of Reviews 43 (January 1911): 62-67; Charles M. Harger, "Automobiles for Country Use," Independent 70 (June 1, 1911): 1207-1211; "How Farmers Use their Cars," Rural New Yorker July 24, 1915, p. 935.
121. Whitman, p. 53; "The Farmer and the Automobile," Country Life 15 (April 1909): 636; Walter Langsford, "What the Motor Vehicle Is Doing for the Farm," Scientific American 102 (January 15, 1910): 50-51; George E. Walsh, "Farming with Automobiles," Review of Reviews 43 (January 1911): 62-67; Charles M. Harger, "Automobiles for Country Use," Independent 70 (June 1, 1911): 1207-1211; "How Farmers Use their Cars," Rural New Yorker July 24, 1915, p. 935.
122. Whitman, p. 53; "The Farmer and the Automobile," Country Life 15 (April 1909): 636; Walter Langsford, "What the Motor Vehicle Is Doing for the Farm," Scientific American 102 (January 15, 1910): 50-51; George E. Walsh, "Farming with Automobiles," Review of Reviews 43 (January 1911): 62-67; Charles M. Harger, "Automobiles for Country Use," Independent 70 (June 1, 1911): 1207-1211; "How Farmers Use their Cars," Rural New Yorker July 24, 1915, p. 935.
123. Whitman, p. 53; "The Farmer and the Automobile," Country Life 15 (April 1909): 636; Walter Langsford, "What the Motor Vehicle Is Doing for the Farm," Scientific American 102 (January 15, 1910): 50-51; George E. Walsh, "Farming with Automobiles," Review of Reviews 43 (January 1911): 62-67; Charles M. Harger, "Automobiles for Country Use," Independent 70 (June 1, 1911): 1207-1211; "How Farmers Use their Cars," Rural New Yorker July 24, 1915, p. 935.
124. Suzanne Moon, oral history interviews with Winfred Arnold, November 28, 1994; Gerald Cornell, May 24, 1995; Jessie Hamilton, February 11, 1995; Leroy Harris, April 4, 1995; Owen and Kathleen Howarth, January 24, 1995; Stanley and Albina Konchar, December 16, 1994; and Thena Whitehead, February 11, 1995. Tapes and transcripts of these and other oral history interviews conducted by Suzanne Moon and referred to in this article are in the possession of Ronald Kline.
125. Again we would stress that the analysis in terms of social groups is not meant to preclude subdivisions being found within groups. The important point to keep in mind is that members of a social group share a particular meaning of a technology. That shared meaning will take more the form of a Wittgensteinian "family resemblance" than an exact template.
126. John Mack Faragher, "History from the Inside-Out: Writing the History of Women in Rural America," American Quarterly 33 (1981): 537-57; Corlann Gee Bush, "'He Isn't Half So Cranky as He Used to Be': Agricultural Mechanization, Comparable Worth, and the Changing Farm Family," in "To Toil the Livelong Day": American Women at Work, 1780-1980, ed. Carol Groneman and Mary Beth Norton (Ithaca, 1987), pp. 213-29; Nancy G. Osterud, Bonds of Community: The Lives of Farm Women in Nineteenth-Century New York (Ithaca, 1991); Deborah J. Fink, Agrarian Women: Wives and Mothers in Rural Nebraska, 1880-1940 (Chapel Hill, 1992); Katherine Jellison, Entitled to Power: Farm Women and Technology, 1913-1963 (Chapel Hill, 1993); and Mary Neth, Preserving the Family Farm: Women, Community, and the Foundations of Agribusiness in the Midwest, 1900-1940 (Baltimore, 1995).
127. John Mack Faragher, "History from the Inside-Out: Writing the History of Women in Rural America," American Quarterly 33 (1981): 537-57; Corlann Gee Bush, "'He Isn't Half So Cranky as He Used to Be': Agricultural Mechanization, Comparable Worth, and the Changing Farm Family," in "To Toil the Livelong Day": American Women at Work, 1780-1980, ed. Carol Groneman and Mary Beth Norton (Ithaca, 1987), pp. 213-29; Nancy G. Osterud, Bonds of Community: The Lives of Farm Women in Nineteenth-Century New York (Ithaca, 1991); Deborah J. Fink, Agrarian Women: Wives and Mothers in Rural Nebraska, 1880-1940 (Chapel Hill, 1992); Katherine Jellison, Entitled to Power: Farm Women and Technology, 1913-1963 (Chapel Hill, 1993); and Mary Neth, Preserving the Family Farm: Women, Community, and the Foundations of Agribusiness in the Midwest, 1900-1940 (Baltimore, 1995).
128. John Mack Faragher, "History from the Inside-Out: Writing the History of Women in Rural America," American Quarterly 33 (1981): 537-57; Corlann Gee Bush, "'He Isn't Half So Cranky as He Used to Be': Agricultural Mechanization, Comparable Worth, and the Changing Farm Family," in "To Toil the Livelong Day": American Women at Work, 1780-1980, ed. Carol Groneman and Mary Beth Norton (Ithaca, 1987), pp. 213-29; Nancy G. Osterud, Bonds of Community: The Lives of Farm Women in Nineteenth-Century New York (Ithaca, 1991); Deborah J. Fink, Agrarian Women: Wives and Mothers in Rural Nebraska, 1880-1940 (Chapel Hill, 1992); Katherine Jellison, Entitled to Power: Farm Women and Technology, 1913-1963 (Chapel Hill, 1993); and Mary Neth, Preserving the Family Farm: Women, Community, and the Foundations of Agribusiness in the Midwest, 1900-1940 (Baltimore, 1995).
129. John Mack Faragher, "History from the Inside-Out: Writing the History of Women in Rural America," American Quarterly 33 (1981): 537-57; Corlann Gee Bush, "'He Isn't Half So Cranky as He Used to Be': Agricultural Mechanization, Comparable Worth, and the Changing Farm Family," in "To Toil the Livelong Day": American Women at Work, 1780-1980, ed. Carol Groneman and Mary Beth Norton (Ithaca, 1987), pp. 213-29; Nancy G. Osterud, Bonds of Community: The Lives of Farm Women in Nineteenth-Century New York (Ithaca, 1991); Deborah J. Fink, Agrarian Women: Wives and Mothers in Rural Nebraska, 1880-1940 (Chapel Hill, 1992); Katherine Jellison, Entitled to Power: Farm Women and Technology, 1913-1963 (Chapel Hill, 1993); and Mary Neth, Preserving the Family Farm: Women, Community, and the Foundations of Agribusiness in the Midwest, 1900-1940 (Baltimore, 1995).
130. John Mack Faragher, "History from the Inside-Out: Writing the History of Women in Rural America," American Quarterly 33 (1981): 537-57; Corlann Gee Bush, "'He Isn't Half So Cranky as He Used to Be': Agricultural Mechanization, Comparable Worth, and the Changing Farm Family," in "To Toil the Livelong Day": American Women at Work, 1780-1980, ed. Carol Groneman and Mary Beth Norton (Ithaca, 1987), pp. 213-29; Nancy G. Osterud, Bonds of Community: The Lives of Farm Women in Nineteenth-Century New York (Ithaca, 1991); Deborah J. Fink, Agrarian Women: Wives and Mothers in Rural Nebraska, 1880-1940 (Chapel Hill, 1992); Katherine Jellison, Entitled to Power: Farm Women and Technology, 1913-1963 (Chapel Hill, 1993); and Mary Neth, Preserving the Family Farm: Women, Community, and the Foundations of Agribusiness in the Midwest, 1900-1940 (Baltimore, 1995).
131. John Mack Faragher, "History from the Inside-Out: Writing the History of Women in Rural America," American Quarterly 33 (1981): 537-57; Corlann Gee Bush, "'He Isn't Half So Cranky as He Used to Be': Agricultural Mechanization, Comparable Worth, and the Changing Farm Family," in "To Toil the Livelong Day": American Women at Work, 1780-1980, ed. Carol Groneman and Mary Beth Norton (Ithaca, 1987), pp. 213-29; Nancy G. Osterud, Bonds of Community: The Lives of Farm Women in Nineteenth-Century New York (Ithaca, 1991); Deborah J. Fink, Agrarian Women: Wives and Mothers in Rural Nebraska, 1880-1940 (Chapel Hill, 1992); Katherine Jellison, Entitled to Power: Farm Women and Technology, 1913-1963 (Chapel Hill, 1993); and Mary Neth, Preserving the Family Farm: Women, Community, and the Foundations of Agribusiness in the Midwest, 1900-1940 (Baltimore, 1995).
132. These gender identities were not, of course, predetermined, they were flexibly negotiated.
133. Reynold M. Wik, Steam Power on the American Farm (Philadelphia, 1953).
134. Cockburn (n. 15 above); Wajcman (n. 15 above), pp. 38-40, 141-46; and McShane (n. 1 above), p. 155.
135. Cockburn (n. 15 above); Wajcman (n. 15 above), pp. 38-40, 141-46; and McShane (n. 1 above), p. 155.
136. Cockburn (n. 15 above); Wajcman (n. 15 above), pp. 38-40, 141-46; and McShane (n. 1 above), p. 155.
137. McShane, p. 163; Scharff (n. 1 above), pp. 52-55. McShane notes that women purchasers of automobiles in Maryland and New Hampshire avoided the Model T, which had a reputation as a man's car because of the physical strength required to steer and shift it and because of the lack of amenities like a front door on the driver's side.
138. Eleanor Arnold (n. 21 above), pp. 30-44, quotations on pp. 40, 41; Suzanne Moon, oral history interviews with Sylvia Schrumpf, January 24, 1995, and Eva Watson, February 21, 1995 (see n. 36). According to some accounts, farm daughters drove as much as their brothers; see Harger (n. 36 above), p. 1210; "The New Car," Rural New Yorker, October 7, 1916, p. 1296; and Eleanor Arnold, p. 42.
139. "The Auto on the Farm," Literary Digest, October 9, 1915, p. 770 (quotation); Wik, Henry Ford (n. 2 above), ch. 4. On the need to educate farm men in auto mechanics, see Editor, "Educating the Farmer-Motorist," Motor Age, March 18, 1915, p. 12, and Editor, "The Farmer and the Auto," Independent 73 (November 7, 1912): 1091-1092. For views of farm men as more technically competent with cars than city men, see "Farmer, Accustomed to Machinery, Can 'Use' Auto," Ford Times, July 15, 1908, p. 133, Ford Motor Company Archives, Henry Ford Museum and Greenfield Village, Dearborn, Michigan (FMCA), Ace. 972; H. R. Harper, "The Automobile in the Farming Districts," Ford Times, December 1, 1908, pp. 6, 8; Harger, p. 1208; and "Farmers as Prospects," Ford Times, February 7, 1914, p. 183. Farm men also sent in tips to farm journals about the care of cars; see Wallace's Farmer, December 31, 1915, p. 1728; Rural New Yorker, January 11, 1919, p. 66.
140. "The Auto on the Farm," Literary Digest, October 9, 1915, p. 770 (quotation); Wik, Henry Ford (n. 2 above), ch. 4. On the need to educate farm men in auto mechanics, see Editor, "Educating the Farmer-Motorist," Motor Age, March 18, 1915, p. 12, and Editor, "The Farmer and the Auto," Independent 73 (November 7, 1912): 1091-1092. For views of farm men as more technically competent with cars than city men, see "Farmer, Accustomed to Machinery, Can 'Use' Auto," Ford Times, July 15, 1908, p. 133, Ford Motor Company Archives, Henry Ford Museum and Greenfield Village, Dearborn, Michigan (FMCA), Ace. 972; H. R. Harper, "The Automobile in the Farming Districts," Ford Times, December 1, 1908, pp. 6, 8; Harger, p. 1208; and "Farmers as Prospects," Ford Times, February 7, 1914, p. 183. Farm men also sent in tips to farm journals about the care of cars; see Wallace's Farmer, December 31, 1915, p. 1728; Rural New Yorker, January 11, 1919, p. 66.
141. "The Auto on the Farm," Literary Digest, October 9, 1915, p. 770 (quotation); Wik, Henry Ford (n. 2 above), ch. 4. On the need to educate farm men in auto mechanics, see Editor, "Educating the Farmer-Motorist," Motor Age, March 18, 1915, p. 12, and Editor, "The Farmer and the Auto," Independent 73 (November 7, 1912): 1091-1092. For views of farm men as more technically competent with cars than city men, see "Farmer, Accustomed to Machinery, Can 'Use' Auto," Ford Times, July 15, 1908, p. 133, Ford Motor Company Archives, Henry Ford Museum and Greenfield Village, Dearborn, Michigan (FMCA), Ace. 972; H. R. Harper, "The Automobile in the Farming Districts," Ford Times, December 1, 1908, pp. 6, 8; Harger, p. 1208; and "Farmers as Prospects," Ford Times, February 7, 1914, p. 183. Farm men also sent in tips to farm journals about the care of cars; see Wallace's Farmer, December 31, 1915, p. 1728; Rural New Yorker, January 11, 1919, p. 66.
142. "The Auto on the Farm," Literary Digest, October 9, 1915, p. 770 (quotation); Wik, Henry Ford (n. 2 above), ch. 4. On the need to educate farm men in auto mechanics, see Editor, "Educating the Farmer-Motorist," Motor Age, March 18, 1915, p. 12, and Editor, "The Farmer and the Auto," Independent 73 (November 7, 1912): 1091-1092. For views of farm men as more technically competent with cars than city men, see "Farmer, Accustomed to Machinery, Can 'Use' Auto," Ford Times, July 15, 1908, p. 133, Ford Motor Company Archives, Henry Ford Museum and Greenfield Village, Dearborn, Michigan (FMCA), Ace. 972; H. R. Harper, "The Automobile in the Farming Districts," Ford Times, December 1, 1908, pp. 6, 8; Harger, p. 1208; and "Farmers as Prospects," Ford Times, February 7, 1914, p. 183. Farm men also sent in tips to farm journals about the care of cars; see Wallace's Farmer, December 31, 1915, p. 1728; Rural New Yorker, January 11, 1919, p. 66.
143. "The Auto on the Farm," Literary Digest, October 9, 1915, p. 770 (quotation); Wik, Henry Ford (n. 2 above), ch. 4. On the need to educate farm men in auto mechanics, see Editor, "Educating the Farmer-Motorist," Motor Age, March 18, 1915, p. 12, and Editor, "The Farmer and the Auto," Independent 73 (November 7, 1912): 1091-1092. For views of farm men as more technically competent with cars than city men, see "Farmer, Accustomed to Machinery, Can 'Use' Auto," Ford Times, July 15, 1908, p. 133, Ford Motor Company Archives, Henry Ford Museum and Greenfield Village, Dearborn, Michigan (FMCA), Ace. 972; H. R. Harper, "The Automobile in the Farming Districts," Ford Times, December 1, 1908, pp. 6, 8; Harger, p. 1208; and "Farmers as Prospects," Ford Times, February 7, 1914, p. 183. Farm men also sent in tips to farm journals about the care of cars; see Wallace's Farmer, December 31, 1915, p. 1728; Rural New Yorker, January 11, 1919, p. 66.
144. "The Auto on the Farm," Literary Digest, October 9, 1915, p. 770 (quotation); Wik, Henry Ford (n. 2 above), ch. 4. On the need to educate farm men in auto mechanics, see Editor, "Educating the Farmer-Motorist," Motor Age, March 18, 1915, p. 12, and Editor, "The Farmer and the Auto," Independent 73 (November 7, 1912): 1091-1092. For views of farm men as more technically competent with cars than city men, see "Farmer, Accustomed to Machinery, Can 'Use' Auto," Ford Times, July 15, 1908, p. 133, Ford Motor Company Archives, Henry Ford Museum and Greenfield Village, Dearborn, Michigan (FMCA), Ace. 972; H. R. Harper, "The Automobile in the Farming Districts," Ford Times, December 1, 1908, pp. 6, 8; Harger, p. 1208; and "Farmers as Prospects," Ford Times, February 7, 1914, p. 183. Farm men also sent in tips to farm journals about the care of cars; see Wallace's Farmer, December 31, 1915, p. 1728; Rural New Yorker, January 11, 1919, p. 66.
145. "The Auto on the Farm," Literary Digest, October 9, 1915, p. 770 (quotation); Wik, Henry Ford (n. 2 above), ch. 4. On the need to educate farm men in auto mechanics, see Editor, "Educating the Farmer-Motorist," Motor Age, March 18, 1915, p. 12, and Editor, "The Farmer and the Auto," Independent 73 (November 7, 1912): 1091-1092. For views of farm men as more technically competent with cars than city men, see "Farmer, Accustomed to Machinery, Can 'Use' Auto," Ford Times, July 15, 1908, p. 133, Ford Motor Company Archives, Henry Ford Museum and Greenfield Village, Dearborn, Michigan (FMCA), Ace. 972; H. R. Harper, "The Automobile in the Farming Districts," Ford Times, December 1, 1908, pp. 6, 8; Harger, p. 1208; and "Farmers as Prospects," Ford Times, February 7, 1914, p. 183. Farm men also sent in tips to farm journals about the care of cars; see Wallace's Farmer, December 31, 1915, p. 1728; Rural New Yorker, January 11, 1919, p. 66.
146. "The Auto on the Farm," Literary Digest, October 9, 1915, p. 770 (quotation); Wik, Henry Ford (n. 2 above), ch. 4. On the need to educate farm men in auto mechanics, see Editor, "Educating the Farmer-Motorist," Motor Age, March 18, 1915, p. 12, and Editor, "The Farmer and the Auto," Independent 73 (November 7, 1912): 1091-1092. For views of farm men as more technically competent with cars than city men, see "Farmer, Accustomed to Machinery, Can 'Use' Auto," Ford Times, July 15, 1908, p. 133, Ford Motor Company Archives, Henry Ford Museum and Greenfield Village, Dearborn, Michigan (FMCA), Ace. 972; H. R. Harper, "The Automobile in the Farming Districts," Ford Times, December 1, 1908, pp. 6, 8; Harger, p. 1208; and "Farmers as Prospects," Ford Times, February 7, 1914, p. 183. Farm men also sent in tips to farm journals about the care of cars; see Wallace's Farmer, December 31, 1915, p. 1728; Rural New Yorker, January 11, 1919, p. 66.
147. "The Auto on the Farm," Literary Digest, October 9, 1915, p. 770 (quotation); Wik, Henry Ford (n. 2 above), ch. 4. On the need to educate farm men in auto mechanics, see Editor, "Educating the Farmer-Motorist," Motor Age, March 18, 1915, p. 12, and Editor, "The Farmer and the Auto," Independent 73 (November 7, 1912): 1091-1092. For views of farm men as more technically competent with cars than city men, see "Farmer, Accustomed to Machinery, Can 'Use' Auto," Ford Times, July 15, 1908, p. 133, Ford Motor Company Archives, Henry Ford Museum and Greenfield Village, Dearborn, Michigan (FMCA), Ace. 972; H. R. Harper, "The Automobile in the Farming Districts," Ford Times, December 1, 1908, pp. 6, 8; Harger, p. 1208; and "Farmers as Prospects," Ford Times, February 7, 1914, p. 183. Farm men also sent in tips to farm journals about the care of cars; see Wallace's Farmer, December 31, 1915, p. 1728; Rural New Yorker, January 11, 1919, p. 66.
148. Rural New Yorker, September 21, 1918, p. 1089.
149. See, e.g., Motor Age, July 2, 1908, p. 11.
150. See, e.g., Berger (n. 2 above), ch 2; Scharff, pp. 142-45.
151. See, e.g., Florence E. Ward, "The Farm Woman's Problems," Journal of Home Economics 12 (1920): 437-57; Wallace's Farmer, January 7, 1910, p. 29, and September 9, 1910, p. 1179.
152. See, e.g., Florence E. Ward, "The Farm Woman's Problems," Journal of Home Economics 12 (1920): 437-57; Wallace's Farmer, January 7, 1910, p. 29, and September 9, 1910, p. 1179.
153. See, e.g., Florence E. Ward, "The Farm Woman's Problems," Journal of Home Economics 12 (1920): 437-57; Wallace's Farmer, January 7, 1910, p. 29, and September 9, 1910, p. 1179.
154. "Farm Women Who Count Themselves Blest by Fate," Literary Digest November 13, 1920, pp. 52-53, quotation on p. 52. For other examples, see "Women and Present-day Problems," Progressive Farmer, October 16, 1920, p. 1679; Frances Gilbert Ingersoll to the Editor, Rural New Yorker, March 14, 1925, p. 482.
155. "Farm Women Who Count Themselves Blest by Fate," Literary Digest November 13, 1920, pp. 52-53, quotation on p. 52. For other examples, see "Women and Present-day Problems," Progressive Farmer, October 16, 1920, p. 1679; Frances Gilbert Ingersoll to the Editor, Rural New Yorker, March 14, 1925, p. 482.
156. "Farm Women Who Count Themselves Blest by Fate," Literary Digest November 13, 1920, pp. 52-53, quotation on p. 52. For other examples, see "Women and Present-day Problems," Progressive Farmer, October 16, 1920, p. 1679; Frances Gilbert Ingersoll to the Editor, Rural New Yorker, March 14, 1925, p. 482.
157. Jellison (n. 39 above), pp. 122-24; Neth (n. 39 above), pp. 246-47. Neth takes a position similar to that of Fischer for the telephone, and argues on the basis of oral histories that farm people often used the car to "enhance the social ties that shaped their lives, rather than to alter them." For these women, the "automobile became a new tool for building rural neighborhoods in traditional ways." On the auto and suburban women, see Cowan, More Work for Mother (n. 4 above), pp. 82-85, 173-74; and Wajcman (n. 15 above), pp. 129-31.
158. Jellison (n. 39 above), pp. 122-24; Neth (n. 39 above), pp. 246-47. Neth takes a position similar to that of Fischer for the telephone, and argues on the basis of oral histories that farm people often used the car to "enhance the social ties that shaped their lives, rather than to alter them." For these women, the "automobile became a new tool for building rural neighborhoods in traditional ways." On the auto and suburban women, see Cowan, More Work for Mother (n. 4 above), pp. 82-85, 173-74; and Wajcman (n. 15 above), pp. 129-31.
159. Jellison (n. 39 above), pp. 122-24; Neth (n. 39 above), pp. 246-47. Neth takes a position similar to that of Fischer for the telephone, and argues on the basis of oral histories that farm people often used the car to "enhance the social ties that shaped their lives, rather than to alter them." For these women, the "automobile became a new tool for building rural neighborhoods in traditional ways." On the auto and suburban women, see Cowan, More Work for Mother (n. 4 above), pp. 82-85, 173-74; and Wajcman (n. 15 above), pp. 129-31.
160. On the time-use studies see Ronald Kline, "Ideology and Social Surveys: Reinterpreting the Effects of 'Laborsaving' Technology on American Farm Women," Technology and Culture 38 (April 1997).
161. L. B. Pierce to the Editor, Rural New Yorker, December 6, 1919, p. 1804.
162. Tractor World, September 1918, p. 40; October 1918, p. 32; January 1919, p. 16; May 1919, pp. 33, 35. Penny Martelet, "The Woman's Land Army, World War I," in Clio Was a Woman: Studies in the History of American Women, ed. Mabel E. Deutrich and Virginia C. Purdy (Washington, D.C., 1980), pp. 136-46; and Jellison, ch. 5. Women also built tractors in the factory during the war; see Tractor World, November 1918, p. 12.
163. Tractor World, September 1918, p. 40; October 1918, p. 32; January 1919, p. 16; May 1919, pp. 33, 35. Penny Martelet, "The Woman's Land Army, World War I," in Clio Was a Woman: Studies in the History of American Women, ed. Mabel E. Deutrich and Virginia C. Purdy (Washington, D.C., 1980), pp. 136-46; and Jellison, ch. 5. Women also built tractors in the factory during the war; see Tractor World, November 1918, p. 12.
164. Tractor World, September 1918, p. 40; October 1918, p. 32; January 1919, p. 16; May 1919, pp. 33, 35. Penny Martelet, "The Woman's Land Army, World War I," in Clio Was a Woman: Studies in the History of American Women, ed. Mabel E. Deutrich and Virginia C. Purdy (Washington, D.C., 1980), pp. 136-46; and Jellison, ch. 5. Women also built tractors in the factory during the war; see Tractor World, November 1918, p. 12.
165. Tractor World, September 1918, p. 40; October 1918, p. 32; January 1919, p. 16; May 1919, pp. 33, 35. Penny Martelet, "The Woman's Land Army, World War I," in Clio Was a Woman: Studies in the History of American Women, ed. Mabel E. Deutrich and Virginia C. Purdy (Washington, D.C., 1980), pp. 136-46; and Jellison, ch. 5. Women also built tractors in the factory during the war; see Tractor World, November 1918, p. 12.
166. Tractor World, September 1918, p. 40; October 1918, p. 32; January 1919, p. 16; May 1919, pp. 33, 35. Penny Martelet, "The Woman's Land Army, World War I," in Clio Was a Woman: Studies in the History of American Women, ed. Mabel E. Deutrich and Virginia C. Purdy (Washington, D.C., 1980), pp. 136-46; and Jellison, ch. 5. Women also built tractors in the factory during the war; see Tractor World, November 1918, p. 12.
167. Tractor World, September 1918, p. 40; October 1918, p. 32; January 1919, p. 16; May 1919, pp. 33, 35. Penny Martelet, "The Woman's Land Army, World War I," in Clio Was a Woman: Studies in the History of American Women, ed. Mabel E. Deutrich and Virginia C. Purdy (Washington, D.C., 1980), pp. 136-46; and Jellison, ch. 5. Women also built tractors in the factory during the war; see Tractor World, November 1918, p. 12.
168. Tractor World, September 1918, p. 40; October 1918, p. 32; January 1919, p. 16; May 1919, pp. 33, 35. Penny Martelet, "The Woman's Land Army, World War I," in Clio Was a Woman: Studies in the History of American Women, ed. Mabel E. Deutrich and Virginia C. Purdy (Washington, D.C., 1980), pp. 136-46; and Jellison, ch. 5. Women also built tractors in the factory during the war; see Tractor World, November 1918, p. 12.
169. Jellison, ch. 6.
170. "Automobile Engines for Farm Work," Rural New Yorker, December 22, 1906, p. 945. The other companies were Electric Vehicle, Knox, Pope, Nordyke & Marmon, Winton, and Franklin.
171. Rural New Yorker, January 19, 1907, p. 38; June 22, 1907, p. 492; February 8, 1913, p. 165; March 8, 1913, p. 371; March 29, 1913, p. 468; August 3, 1913, p. 976; July 11, 1914, p. 910; April 12, 1919, p. 647; December 6, 1919, p. 180; February 21, 1920, p. 364; January 10, 1925, p. 58; March 21, 1925, p. 506; and September 12, 1925, p. 1216. For similar complaints by an agricultural engineer in the Midwest, see Wallace's Farmer, September 9, 1917, p. 1218.
172. Rural New Yorker, January 19, 1907, p. 38; June 22, 1907, p. 492; February 8, 1913, p. 165; March 8, 1913, p. 371; March 29, 1913, p. 468; August 3, 1913, p. 976; July 11, 1914, p. 910; April 12, 1919, p. 647; December 6, 1919, p. 180; February 21, 1920, p. 364; January 10, 1925, p. 58; March 21, 1925, p. 506; and September 12, 1925, p. 1216. For similar complaints by an agricultural engineer in the Midwest, see Wallace's Farmer, September 9, 1917, p. 1218.
173. Rural New Yorker, January 19, 1907, p. 38; June 22, 1907, p. 492; February 8, 1913, p. 165; March 8, 1913, p. 371; March 29, 1913, p. 468; August 3, 1913, p. 976; July 11, 1914, p. 910; April 12, 1919, p. 647; December 6, 1919, p. 180; February 21, 1920, p. 364; January 10, 1925, p. 58; March 21, 1925, p. 506; and September 12, 1925, p. 1216. For similar complaints by an agricultural engineer in the Midwest, see Wallace's Farmer, September 9, 1917, p. 1218.
174. Rural New Yorker, January 19, 1907, p. 38; June 22, 1907, p. 492; February 8, 1913, p. 165; March 8, 1913, p. 371; March 29, 1913, p. 468; August 3, 1913, p. 976; July 11, 1914, p. 910; April 12, 1919, p. 647; December 6, 1919, p. 180; February 21, 1920, p. 364; January 10, 1925, p. 58; March 21, 1925, p. 506; and September 12, 1925, p. 1216. For similar complaints by an agricultural engineer in the Midwest, see Wallace's Farmer, September 9, 1917, p. 1218.
175. Rural New Yorker, January 19, 1907, p. 38; June 22, 1907, p. 492; February 8, 1913, p. 165; March 8, 1913, p. 371; March 29, 1913, p. 468; August 3, 1913, p. 976; July 11, 1914, p. 910; April 12, 1919, p. 647; December 6, 1919, p. 180; February 21, 1920, p. 364; January 10, 1925, p. 58; March 21, 1925, p. 506; and September 12, 1925, p. 1216. For similar complaints by an agricultural engineer in the Midwest, see Wallace's Farmer, September 9, 1917, p. 1218.
176. Rural New Yorker, January 19, 1907, p. 38; June 22, 1907, p. 492; February 8, 1913, p. 165; March 8, 1913, p. 371; March 29, 1913, p. 468; August 3, 1913, p. 976; July 11, 1914, p. 910; April 12, 1919, p. 647; December 6, 1919, p. 180; February 21, 1920, p. 364; January 10, 1925, p. 58; March 21, 1925, p. 506; and September 12, 1925, p. 1216. For similar complaints by an agricultural engineer in the Midwest, see Wallace's Farmer, September 9, 1917, p. 1218.
177. Rural New Yorker, January 19, 1907, p. 38; June 22, 1907, p. 492; February 8, 1913, p. 165; March 8, 1913, p. 371; March 29, 1913, p. 468; August 3, 1913, p. 976; July 11, 1914, p. 910; April 12, 1919, p. 647; December 6, 1919, p. 180; February 21, 1920, p. 364; January 10, 1925, p. 58; March 21, 1925, p. 506; and September 12, 1925, p. 1216. For similar complaints by an agricultural engineer in the Midwest, see Wallace's Farmer, September 9, 1917, p. 1218.
178. Rural New Yorker, January 19, 1907, p. 38; June 22, 1907, p. 492; February 8, 1913, p. 165; March 8, 1913, p. 371; March 29, 1913, p. 468; August 3, 1913, p. 976; July 11, 1914, p. 910; April 12, 1919, p. 647; December 6, 1919, p. 180; February 21, 1920, p. 364; January 10, 1925, p. 58; March 21, 1925, p. 506; and September 12, 1925, p. 1216. For similar complaints by an agricultural engineer in the Midwest, see Wallace's Farmer, September 9, 1917, p. 1218.
179. Rural New Yorker, January 19, 1907, p. 38; June 22, 1907, p. 492; February 8, 1913, p. 165; March 8, 1913, p. 371; March 29, 1913, p. 468; August 3, 1913, p. 976; July 11, 1914, p. 910; April 12, 1919, p. 647; December 6, 1919, p. 180; February 21, 1920, p. 364; January 10, 1925, p. 58; March 21, 1925, p. 506; and September 12, 1925, p. 1216. For similar complaints by an agricultural engineer in the Midwest, see Wallace's Farmer, September 9, 1917, p. 1218.
180. Rural New Yorker, January 19, 1907, p. 38; June 22, 1907, p. 492; February 8, 1913, p. 165; March 8, 1913, p. 371; March 29, 1913, p. 468; August 3, 1913, p. 976; July 11, 1914, p. 910; April 12, 1919, p. 647; December 6, 1919, p. 180; February 21, 1920, p. 364; January 10, 1925, p. 58; March 21, 1925, p. 506; and September 12, 1925, p. 1216. For similar complaints by an agricultural engineer in the Midwest, see Wallace's Farmer, September 9, 1917, p. 1218.
181. Rural New Yorker, January 19, 1907, p. 38; June 22, 1907, p. 492; February 8, 1913, p. 165; March 8, 1913, p. 371; March 29, 1913, p. 468; August 3, 1913, p. 976; July 11, 1914, p. 910; April 12, 1919, p. 647; December 6, 1919, p. 180; February 21, 1920, p. 364; January 10, 1925, p. 58; March 21, 1925, p. 506; and September 12, 1925, p. 1216. For similar complaints by an agricultural engineer in the Midwest, see Wallace's Farmer, September 9, 1917, p. 1218.
182. Rural New Yorker, January 19, 1907, p. 38; June 22, 1907, p. 492; February 8, 1913, p. 165; March 8, 1913, p. 371; March 29, 1913, p. 468; August 3, 1913, p. 976; July 11, 1914, p. 910; April 12, 1919, p. 647; December 6, 1919, p. 180; February 21, 1920, p. 364; January 10, 1925, p. 58; March 21, 1925, p. 506; and September 12, 1925, p. 1216. For similar complaints by an agricultural engineer in the Midwest, see Wallace's Farmer, September 9, 1917, p. 1218.
183. Rural New Yorker, January 19, 1907, p. 38; June 22, 1907, p. 492; February 8, 1913, p. 165; March 8, 1913, p. 371; March 29, 1913, p. 468; August 3, 1913, p. 976; July 11, 1914, p. 910; April 12, 1919, p. 647; December 6, 1919, p. 180; February 21, 1920, p. 364; January 10, 1925, p. 58; March 21, 1925, p. 506; and September 12, 1925, p. 1216. For similar complaints by an agricultural engineer in the Midwest, see Wallace's Farmer, September 9, 1917, p. 1218.
184. Rural New Yorker, January 19, 1907, p. 38; June 22, 1907, p. 492; February 8, 1913, p. 165; March 8, 1913, p. 371; March 29, 1913, p. 468; August 3, 1913, p. 976; July 11, 1914, p. 910; April 12, 1919, p. 647; December 6, 1919, p. 180; February 21, 1920, p. 364; January 10, 1925, p. 58; March 21, 1925, p. 506; and September 12, 1925, p. 1216. For similar complaints by an agricultural engineer in the Midwest, see Wallace's Farmer, September 9, 1917, p. 1218.
185. Horseless Age, November 4, 1903, p. 479; and photographs 188-20749, 188-4763, and 0338, FMCA, Acc. 1660, Box 9. An annotation on the back of photo 188-4763 speculates that they were taken either at the Ford farm, or at the back of the home of Henry's wife Clara. Photo 188-20749 is reproduced in Flink, Automobile Age (n. 1 above), p. 100.
186. Horseless Age, November 4, 1903, p. 479; and photographs 188-20749, 188-4763, and 0338, FMCA, Acc. 1660, Box 9. An annotation on the back of photo 188-4763 speculates that they were taken either at the Ford farm, or at the back of the home of Henry's wife Clara. Photo 188-20749 is reproduced in Flink, Automobile Age (n. 1 above), p. 100.
187. Ford Times, July 1, 1908, p. 34; Harper (n. 45 above), p. 6 (quotation). For examples, see Ford Times, August 1, 1910, pp. 481-82 (grinding grain); December 1910, pp. 112-13 (hauling produce); November 1911, p. 34 (filling silo); August 1, 1912, p. 357 (sawing wood); and September 1913, pp. 509-11 (general); and Ford Sales Bulletin, June 17, 1916, p. 195 (plowing). After Ford introduced a tractor and truck, the stories tended to be about using discarded Ford engines; see, e.g., Ford News, October 1, 1923, p. 5.
188. Ford Times, July 1, 1908, p. 34; Harper (n. 45 above), p. 6 (quotation). For examples, see Ford Times, August 1, 1910, pp. 481-82 (grinding grain); December 1910, pp. 112-13 (hauling produce); November 1911, p. 34 (filling silo); August 1, 1912, p. 357 (sawing wood); and September 1913, pp. 509-11 (general); and Ford Sales Bulletin, June 17, 1916, p. 195 (plowing). After Ford introduced a tractor and truck, the stories tended to be about using discarded Ford engines; see, e.g., Ford News, October 1, 1923, p. 5.
189. Ford Times, July 1, 1908, p. 34; Harper (n. 45 above), p. 6 (quotation). For examples, see Ford Times, August 1, 1910, pp. 481-82 (grinding grain); December 1910, pp. 112-13 (hauling produce); November 1911, p. 34 (filling silo); August 1, 1912, p. 357 (sawing wood); and September 1913, pp. 509-11 (general); and Ford Sales Bulletin, June 17, 1916, p. 195 (plowing). After Ford introduced a tractor and truck, the stories tended to be about using discarded Ford engines; see, e.g., Ford News, October 1, 1923, p. 5.
190. Ford Times, July 1, 1908, p. 34; Harper (n. 45 above), p. 6 (quotation). For examples, see Ford Times, August 1, 1910, pp. 481-82 (grinding grain); December 1910, pp. 112-13 (hauling produce); November 1911, p. 34 (filling silo); August 1, 1912, p. 357 (sawing wood); and September 1913, pp. 509-11 (general); and Ford Sales Bulletin, June 17, 1916, p. 195 (plowing). After Ford introduced a tractor and truck, the stories tended to be about using discarded Ford engines; see, e.g., Ford News, October 1, 1923, p. 5.
191. Ford Times, July 1, 1908, p. 34; Harper (n. 45 above), p. 6 (quotation). For examples, see Ford Times, August 1, 1910, pp. 481-82 (grinding grain); December 1910, pp. 112-13 (hauling produce); November 1911, p. 34 (filling silo); August 1, 1912, p. 357 (sawing wood); and September 1913, pp. 509-11 (general); and Ford Sales Bulletin, June 17, 1916, p. 195 (plowing). After Ford introduced a tractor and truck, the stories tended to be about using discarded Ford engines; see, e.g., Ford News, October 1, 1923, p. 5.
192. Ford Times, July 1, 1908, p. 34; Harper (n. 45 above), p. 6 (quotation). For examples, see Ford Times, August 1, 1910, pp. 481-82 (grinding grain); December 1910, pp. 112-13 (hauling produce); November 1911, p. 34 (filling silo); August 1, 1912, p. 357 (sawing wood); and September 1913, pp. 509-11 (general); and Ford Sales Bulletin, June 17, 1916, p. 195 (plowing). After Ford introduced a tractor and truck, the stories tended to be about using discarded Ford engines; see, e.g., Ford News, October 1, 1923, p. 5.
193. Ford Times, July 1, 1908, p. 34; Harper (n. 45 above), p. 6 (quotation). For examples, see Ford Times, August 1, 1910, pp. 481-82 (grinding grain); December 1910, pp. 112-13 (hauling produce); November 1911, p. 34 (filling silo); August 1, 1912, p. 357 (sawing wood); and September 1913, pp. 509-11 (general); and Ford Sales Bulletin, June 17, 1916, p. 195 (plowing). After Ford introduced a tractor and truck, the stories tended to be about using discarded Ford engines; see, e.g., Ford News, October 1, 1923, p. 5.
194. Ford Times, July 1, 1908, p. 34; Harper (n. 45 above), p. 6 (quotation). For examples, see Ford Times, August 1, 1910, pp. 481-82 (grinding grain); December 1910, pp. 112-13 (hauling produce); November 1911, p. 34 (filling silo); August 1, 1912, p. 357 (sawing wood); and September 1913, pp. 509-11 (general); and Ford Sales Bulletin, June 17, 1916, p. 195 (plowing). After Ford introduced a tractor and truck, the stories tended to be about using discarded Ford engines; see, e.g., Ford News, October 1, 1923, p. 5.
195. Ford Times, July 1, 1908, p. 34; Harper (n. 45 above), p. 6 (quotation). For examples, see Ford Times, August 1, 1910, pp. 481-82 (grinding grain); December 1910, pp. 112-13 (hauling produce); November 1911, p. 34 (filling silo); August 1, 1912, p. 357 (sawing wood); and September 1913, pp. 509-11 (general); and Ford Sales Bulletin, June 17, 1916, p. 195 (plowing). After Ford introduced a tractor and truck, the stories tended to be about using discarded Ford engines; see, e.g., Ford News, October 1, 1923, p. 5.
196. Ford Times, August 1912, p. 361. The original poem also had two more stanzas, including the one about driving the baby around the block; see Peoria Transcript, n.d. (c. 1911), Reel 1, vol. 1, p. 7, FMCA, Acc. 7.
197. Ford Times, August 1912, p. 361. The original poem also had two more stanzas, including the one about driving the baby around the block; see Peoria Transcript, n.d. (c. 1911), Reel 1, vol. 1, p. 7, FMCA, Acc. 7.
198. Two postcards from this 12-card series are in FMCA, General Postcard Collection, Box 2 (caricatures); two others are in the collection of Ronald Kline. On the company's attitude toward the Ford jokes, see Lewis (n. 1 above), pp. 121-26. One card showed Maud Muller, a stock poetic figure representing fam women working in the field, now up-to-date because she plowed with a Ford.
199. Ford Times, August 1, 1912, p. 357; Wallace's Farmer, May 18, 1917, p. 817; Rural New Yorker, July 21, 1917, p. 909.
200. Ford Times, August 1, 1912, p. 357; Wallace's Farmer, May 18, 1917, p. 817; Rural New Yorker, July 21, 1917, p. 909.
201. Ford Times, August 1, 1912, p. 357; Wallace's Farmer, May 18, 1917, p. 817; Rural New Yorker, July 21, 1917, p. 909.
202. Scientific American 117 (1917): 32; Wallace's Farmer, September 7, 1917, p. 1213 and September 28, 1917, p. 1320; Motor Age, October 3, 1918, p. 104 and November 6, 1919, p. 149; Rural New Yorker, January 11, 1919, p. 70, December 6, 1919, p. 1802, and November 20, 1948, p. 712. An ad for the World War I era Lawrence kit is reprinted in Paul C. Johnson, Farm Power in the Making of America (Des Moines, Iowa, 1978), p. 127.
203. Scientific American 117 (1917): 32; Wallace's Farmer, September 7, 1917, p. 1213 and September 28, 1917, p. 1320; Motor Age, October 3, 1918, p. 104 and November 6, 1919, p. 149; Rural New Yorker, January 11, 1919, p. 70, December 6, 1919, p. 1802, and November 20, 1948, p. 712. An ad for the World War I era Lawrence kit is reprinted in Paul C. Johnson, Farm Power in the Making of America (Des Moines, Iowa, 1978), p. 127.
204. Scientific American 117 (1917): 32; Wallace's Farmer, September 7, 1917, p. 1213 and September 28, 1917, p. 1320; Motor Age, October 3, 1918, p. 104 and November 6, 1919, p. 149; Rural New Yorker, January 11, 1919, p. 70, December 6, 1919, p. 1802, and November 20, 1948, p. 712. An ad for the World War I era Lawrence kit is reprinted in Paul C. Johnson, Farm Power in the Making of America (Des Moines, Iowa, 1978), p. 127.
205. Scientific American 117 (1917): 32; Wallace's Farmer, September 7, 1917, p. 1213 and September 28, 1917, p. 1320; Motor Age, October 3, 1918, p. 104 and November 6, 1919, p. 149; Rural New Yorker, January 11, 1919, p. 70, December 6, 1919, p. 1802, and November 20, 1948, p. 712. An ad for the World War I era Lawrence kit is reprinted in Paul C. Johnson, Farm Power in the Making of America (Des Moines, Iowa, 1978), p. 127.
206. Scientific American 117 (1917): 32; Wallace's Farmer, September 7, 1917, p. 1213 and September 28, 1917, p. 1320; Motor Age, October 3, 1918, p. 104 and November 6, 1919, p. 149; Rural New Yorker, January 11, 1919, p. 70, December 6, 1919, p. 1802, and November 20, 1948, p. 712. An ad for the World War I era Lawrence kit is reprinted in Paul C. Johnson, Farm Power in the Making of America (Des Moines, Iowa, 1978), p. 127.
207. Scientific American 117 (1917): 32; Wallace's Farmer, September 7, 1917, p. 1213 and September 28, 1917, p. 1320; Motor Age, October 3, 1918, p. 104 and November 6, 1919, p. 149; Rural New Yorker, January 11, 1919, p. 70, December 6, 1919, p. 1802, and November 20, 1948, p. 712. An ad for the World War I era Lawrence kit is reprinted in Paul C. Johnson, Farm Power in the Making of America (Des Moines, Iowa, 1978), p. 127.
208. Scientific American 117 (1917): 32; Wallace's Farmer, September 7, 1917, p. 1213 and September 28, 1917, p. 1320; Motor Age, October 3, 1918, p. 104 and November 6, 1919, p. 149; Rural New Yorker, January 11, 1919, p. 70, December 6, 1919, p. 1802, and November 20, 1948, p. 712. An ad for the World War I era Lawrence kit is reprinted in Paul C. Johnson, Farm Power in the Making of America (Des Moines, Iowa, 1978), p. 127.
209. Scientific American 117 (1917): 32; Wallace's Farmer, September 7, 1917, p. 1213 and September 28, 1917, p. 1320; Motor Age, October 3, 1918, p. 104 and November 6, 1919, p. 149; Rural New Yorker, January 11, 1919, p. 70, December 6, 1919, p. 1802, and November 20, 1948, p. 712. An ad for the World War I era Lawrence kit is reprinted in Paul C. Johnson, Farm Power in the Making of America (Des Moines, Iowa, 1978), p. 127.
210. Scientific American 117 (1917): 32; Wallace's Farmer, September 7, 1917, p. 1213 and September 28, 1917, p. 1320; Motor Age, October 3, 1918, p. 104 and November 6, 1919, p. 149; Rural New Yorker, January 11, 1919, p. 70, December 6, 1919, p. 1802, and November 20, 1948, p. 712. An ad for the World War I era Lawrence kit is reprinted in Paul C. Johnson, Farm Power in the Making of America (Des Moines, Iowa, 1978), p. 127.
211. Frank McClure, "The Automobile as a Plow Horse," Scientific American 89 (1903): 201; Ford Sales Bulletin, June 17, 1916, p. 195, FMCA, Acc. 972, Box 1913-1916; Motor Age, September 2, 1915, p. 46.
212. Frank McClure, "The Automobile as a Plow Horse," Scientific American 89 (1903): 201; Ford Sales Bulletin, June 17, 1916, p. 195, FMCA, Acc. 972, Box 1913-1916; Motor Age, September 2, 1915, p. 46.
213. Frank McClure, "The Automobile as a Plow Horse," Scientific American 89 (1903): 201; Ford Sales Bulletin, June 17, 1916, p. 195, FMCA, Acc. 972, Box 1913-1916; Motor Age, September 2, 1915, p. 46.
214. Wallace's Farmer, January 12, 1917, p. 49; February 9, 1917, pp. 243, 270; March 2, 1917, p. 401; March 16, 1917, p. 510; and July 27, 1917, p. 1054. Motor Age, May 17, 1917, p. 42; May 24, 1917, pp. 40-41; November 22, 1917, pp. 71-74; December 13, 1917, p. 46; February 21, 1918, p. 9; and July 4, 1918, p. 42. C. L. Edholm, "The Car of All Work," Scientific American 116 (1917): 349. Victor W. Pagé, The Model T Ford Car, Truck and Tractor Conversion Kits (New York, 1918), pp. 285-89. Automotive Industries, March 6, 1919, pp. 528-29. Tractor World, November 1919, p. 14. Rural New Yorker, September 27, 1919, p. 1409 and December 12, 1931, p. 1208. Farm Journal, January 1923, p. 76. Johnson, pp. 126, 128. Joseph Floyd Clymer, Henry's Wonderful Model T (New York, 1955), pp. 164-65. Wik, Henry Ford (n. 2 above), p. 33, and "The Early Automobile and the American Farmer," in Lewis and Goldstein (n. 1 above), pp. 37-47, on p. 45. Berger (n. 2 above), pp. 40-41.
215. Wallace's Farmer, January 12, 1917, p. 49; February 9, 1917, pp. 243, 270; March 2, 1917, p. 401; March 16, 1917, p. 510; and July 27, 1917, p. 1054. Motor Age, May 17, 1917, p. 42; May 24, 1917, pp. 40-41; November 22, 1917, pp. 71-74; December 13, 1917, p. 46; February 21, 1918, p. 9; and July 4, 1918, p. 42. C. L. Edholm, "The Car of All Work," Scientific American 116 (1917): 349. Victor W. Pagé, The Model T Ford Car, Truck and Tractor Conversion Kits (New York, 1918), pp. 285-89. Automotive Industries, March 6, 1919, pp. 528-29. Tractor World, November 1919, p. 14. Rural New Yorker, September 27, 1919, p. 1409 and December 12, 1931, p. 1208. Farm Journal, January 1923, p. 76. Johnson, pp. 126, 128. Joseph Floyd Clymer, Henry's Wonderful Model T (New York, 1955), pp. 164-65. Wik, Henry Ford (n. 2 above), p. 33, and "The Early Automobile and the American Farmer," in Lewis and Goldstein (n. 1 above), pp. 37-47, on p. 45. Berger (n. 2 above), pp. 40-41.
216. Wallace's Farmer, January 12, 1917, p. 49; February 9, 1917, pp. 243, 270; March 2, 1917, p. 401; March 16, 1917, p. 510; and July 27, 1917, p. 1054. Motor Age, May 17, 1917, p. 42; May 24, 1917, pp. 40-41; November 22, 1917, pp. 71-74; December 13, 1917, p. 46; February 21, 1918, p. 9; and July 4, 1918, p. 42. C. L. Edholm, "The Car of All Work," Scientific American 116 (1917): 349. Victor W. Pagé, The Model T Ford Car, Truck and Tractor Conversion Kits (New York, 1918), pp. 285-89. Automotive Industries, March 6, 1919, pp. 528-29. Tractor World, November 1919, p. 14. Rural New Yorker, September 27, 1919, p. 1409 and December 12, 1931, p. 1208. Farm Journal, January 1923, p. 76. Johnson, pp. 126, 128. Joseph Floyd Clymer, Henry's Wonderful Model T (New York, 1955), pp. 164-65. Wik, Henry Ford (n. 2 above), p. 33, and "The Early Automobile and the American Farmer," in Lewis and
217. Wallace's Farmer, January 12, 1917, p. 49; February 9, 1917, pp. 243, 270; March 2, 1917, p. 401; March 16, 1917, p. 510; and July 27, 1917, p. 1054. Motor Age, May 17, 1917, p. 42; May 24, 1917, pp. 40-41; November 22, 1917, pp. 71-74; December 13, 1917, p. 46; February 21, 1918, p. 9; and July 4, 1918, p. 42. C. L. Edholm, "The Car of All Work," Scientific American 116 (1917): 349. Victor W. Pagé, The Model T Ford Car, Truck and Tractor Conversion Kits (New York, 1918), pp. 285-89. Automotive Industries, March 6, 1919, pp. 528-29. Tractor World, November 1919, p. 14. Rural New Yorker, September 27, 1919, p. 1409 and December 12, 1931, p. 1208. Farm Journal, January 1923, p. 76. Johnson, pp. 126, 128. Joseph Floyd Clymer, Henry's Wonderful Model T (New York, 1955), pp. 164-65. Wik, Henry Ford (n. 2 above), p. 33, and "The Early Automobile and the American Farmer," in Lewis and Goldstein (n. 1 above), pp. 37-47, on p. 45. Berger (n. 2 above), pp. 40-41.
218. Wallace's Farmer, January 12, 1917, p. 49; February 9, 1917, pp. 243, 270; March 2, 1917, p. 401; March 16, 1917, p. 510; and July 27, 1917, p. 1054. Motor Age, May 17, 1917, p. 42; May 24, 1917, pp. 40-41; November 22, 1917, pp. 71-74; December 13, 1917, p. 46; February 21, 1918, p. 9; and July 4, 1918, p. 42. C. L. Edholm, "The Car of All Work," Scientific American 116 (1917): 349. Victor W. Pagé, The Model T Ford Car, Truck and Tractor Conversion Kits (New York, 1918), pp. 285-89. Automotive Industries, March 6, 1919, pp. 528-29. Tractor World, November 1919, p. 14. Rural New Yorker, September 27, 1919, p. 1409 and December 12, 1931, p. 1208. Farm Journal, January 1923, p. 76. Johnson, pp. 126, 128. Joseph Floyd Clymer, Henry's Wonderful Model T (New York, 1955), pp. 164-65. Wik, Henry Ford (n. 2 above), p. 33, and "The Early Automobile and the American Farmer," in Lewis and Goldstein (n. 1 above), pp. 37-47, on p. 45. Berger (n. 2 above), pp. 40-41.
219. Wallace's Farmer, January 12, 1917, p. 49; February 9, 1917, pp. 243, 270; March 2, 1917, p. 401; March 16, 1917, p. 510; and July 27, 1917, p. 1054. Motor Age, May 17, 1917, p. 42; May 24, 1917, pp. 40-41; November 22, 1917, pp. 71-74; December 13, 1917, p. 46; February 21, 1918, p. 9; and July 4, 1918, p. 42. C. L. Edholm, "The Car of All Work," Scientific American 116 (1917): 349. Victor W. Pagé, The Model T Ford Car, Truck and Tractor Conversion Kits (New York, 1918), pp. 285-89. Automotive Industries, March 6, 1919, pp. 528-29. Tractor World, November 1919, p. 14. Rural New Yorker, September 27, 1919, p. 1409 and December 12, 1931, p. 1208. Farm Journal, January 1923, p. 76. Johnson, pp. 126, 128. Joseph Floyd Clymer, Henry's Wonderful Model T (New York, 1955), pp. 164-65. Wik, Henry Ford (n. 2 above), p. 33, and "The Early Automobile and the American Farmer," in Lewis and Goldstein (n. 1 above), pp. 37-47, on p. 45. Berger (n. 2 above), pp. 40-41.
220. Wallace's Farmer, January 12, 1917, p. 49; February 9, 1917, pp. 243, 270; March 2, 1917, p. 401; March 16, 1917, p. 510; and July 27, 1917, p. 1054. Motor Age, May 17, 1917, p. 42; May 24, 1917, pp. 40-41; November 22, 1917, pp. 71-74; December 13, 1917, p. 46; February 21, 1918, p. 9; and July 4, 1918, p. 42. C. L. Edholm, "The Car of All Work," Scientific American 116 (1917): 349. Victor W. Pagé, The Model T Ford Car, Truck and Tractor Conversion Kits (New York, 1918), pp. 285-89. Automotive Industries, March 6, 1919, pp. 528-29. Tractor World, November 1919, p. 14. Rural New Yorker, September 27, 1919, p. 1409 and December 12, 1931, p. 1208. Farm Journal, January 1923, p. 76. Johnson, pp. 126, 128. Joseph Floyd Clymer, Henry's Wonderful Model T (New York, 1955), pp. 164-65. Wik, Henry Ford (n. 2 above), p. 33, and "The Early Automobile and the American Farmer," in Lewis and Goldstein (n. 1 above), pp. 37-47, on p. 45. Berger (n. 2 above), pp. 40-41.
221. Wallace's Farmer, January 12, 1917, p. 49; February 9, 1917, pp. 243, 270; March 2, 1917, p. 401; March 16, 1917, p. 510; and July 27, 1917, p. 1054. Motor Age, May 17, 1917, p. 42; May 24, 1917, pp. 40-41; November 22, 1917, pp. 71-74; December 13, 1917, p. 46; February 21, 1918, p. 9; and July 4, 1918, p. 42. C. L. Edholm, "The Car of All Work," Scientific American 116 (1917): 349. Victor W. Pagé, The Model T Ford Car, Truck and Tractor Conversion Kits (New York, 1918), pp. 285-89. Automotive Industries, March 6, 1919, pp. 528-29. Tractor World, November 1919, p. 14. Rural New Yorker, September 27, 1919, p. 1409 and December 12, 1931, p. 1208. Farm Journal, January 1923, p. 76. Johnson, pp. 126, 128. Joseph Floyd Clymer, Henry's Wonderful Model T (New York, 1955), pp. 164-65. Wik, Henry Ford (n. 2 above), p. 33, and "The Early Automobile and the American Farmer," in Lewis and Goldstein (n. 1 above), pp. 37-47, on p. 45. Berger (n. 2 above), pp. 40-41.
222. Wallace's Farmer, January 12, 1917, p. 49; February 9, 1917, pp. 243, 270; March 2, 1917, p. 401; March 16, 1917, p. 510; and July 27, 1917, p. 1054. Motor Age, May 17, 1917, p. 42; May 24, 1917, pp. 40-41; November 22, 1917, pp. 71-74; December 13, 1917, p. 46; February 21, 1918, p. 9; and July 4, 1918, p. 42. C. L. Edholm, "The Car of All Work," Scientific American 116 (1917): 349. Victor W. Pagé, The Model T Ford Car, Truck and Tractor Conversion Kits (New York, 1918), pp. 285-89. Automotive Industries, March 6, 1919, pp. 528-29. Tractor World, November 1919, p. 14. Rural New Yorker, September 27, 1919, p. 1409 and December 12, 1931, p. 1208. Farm Journal, January 1923, p. 76. Johnson, pp. 126, 128. Joseph Floyd Clymer, Henry's Wonderful Model T (New York, 1955), pp. 164-65. Wik, Henry Ford (n. 2 above), p. 33, and "The Early Automobile and the American Farmer," in Lewis and Goldstein (n. 1 above), pp. 37-47, on p. 45. Berger (n. 2 above), pp. 40-41.
223. Wallace's Farmer, January 12, 1917, p. 49; February 9, 1917, pp. 243, 270; March 2, 1917, p. 401; March 16, 1917, p. 510; and July 27, 1917, p. 1054. Motor Age, May 17, 1917, p. 42; May 24, 1917, pp. 40-41; November 22, 1917, pp. 71-74; December 13, 1917, p. 46; February 21, 1918, p. 9; and July 4, 1918, p. 42. C. L. Edholm, "The Car of All Work," Scientific American 116 (1917): 349. Victor W. Pagé, The Model T Ford Car, Truck and Tractor Conversion Kits (New York, 1918), pp. 285-89. Automotive Industries, March 6, 1919, pp. 528-29. Tractor World, November 1919, p. 14. Rural New Yorker, September 27, 1919, p. 1409 and December 12, 1931, p. 1208. Farm Journal, January 1923, p. 76. Johnson, pp. 126, 128. Joseph Floyd Clymer, Henry's Wonderful Model T (New York, 1955), pp. 164-65. Wik, Henry Ford (n. 2 above), p. 33, and "The Early Automobile and the American Farmer," in Lewis and Goldstein (n. 1 above), pp. 37-47, on p. 45. Berger (n. 2 above), pp. 40-41.
224. Wallace's Farmer, January 12, 1917, p. 49; February 9, 1917, pp. 243, 270; March 2, 1917, p. 401; March 16, 1917, p. 510; and July 27, 1917, p. 1054. Motor Age, May 17, 1917, p. 42; May 24, 1917, pp. 40-41; November 22, 1917, pp. 71-74; December 13, 1917, p. 46; February 21, 1918, p. 9; and July 4, 1918, p. 42. C. L. Edholm, "The Car of All Work," Scientific American 116 (1917): 349. Victor W. Pagé, The Model T Ford Car, Truck and Tractor Conversion Kits (New York, 1918), pp. 285-89. Automotive Industries, March 6, 1919, pp. 528-29. Tractor World, November 1919, p. 14. Rural New Yorker, September 27, 1919, p. 1409 and December 12, 1931, p. 1208. Farm Journal, January 1923, p. 76. Johnson, pp. 126, 128. Joseph Floyd Clymer, Henry's Wonderful Model T (New York, 1955), pp. 164-65. Wik, Henry Ford (n. 2 above), p. 33, and "The Early Automobile and the American Farmer," in Lewis and Goldstein (n. 1 above), pp. 37-47, on p. 45. Berger (n. 2 above), pp. 40-41.
225. Wallace's Farmer, January 12, 1917, p. 49; February 9, 1917, pp. 243, 270; March 2, 1917, p. 401; March 16, 1917, p. 510; and July 27, 1917, p. 1054. Motor Age, May 17, 1917, p. 42; May 24, 1917, pp. 40-41; November 22, 1917, pp. 71-74; December 13, 1917, p. 46; February 21, 1918, p. 9; and July 4, 1918, p. 42. C. L. Edholm, "The Car of All Work," Scientific American 116 (1917): 349. Victor W. Pagé, The Model T Ford Car, Truck and Tractor Conversion Kits (New York, 1918), pp. 285-89. Automotive Industries, March 6, 1919, pp. 528-29. Tractor World, November 1919, p. 14. Rural New Yorker, September 27, 1919, p. 1409 and December 12, 1931, p. 1208. Farm Journal, January 1923, p. 76. Johnson, pp. 126, 128. Joseph Floyd Clymer, Henry's Wonderful Model T (New York, 1955), pp. 164-65. Wik, Henry Ford (n. 2 above), p. 33, and "The Early Automobile and the American Farmer," in Lewis and Goldstein (n. 1 above), pp. 37-47, on p. 45. Berger (n. 2 above), pp. 40-41.
226. Wallace's Farmer, January 12, 1917, p. 49; February 9, 1917, pp. 243, 270; March 2, 1917, p. 401; March 16, 1917, p. 510; and July 27, 1917, p. 1054. Motor Age, May 17, 1917, p. 42; May 24, 1917, pp. 40-41; November 22, 1917, pp. 71-74; December 13, 1917, p. 46; February 21, 1918, p. 9; and July 4, 1918, p. 42. C. L. Edholm, "The Car of All Work," Scientific American 116 (1917): 349. Victor W. Pagé, The Model T Ford Car, Truck and Tractor Conversion Kits (New York, 1918), pp. 285-89. Automotive Industries, March 6, 1919, pp. 528-29. Tractor World, November 1919, p. 14. Rural New Yorker, September 27, 1919, p. 1409 and December 12, 1931, p. 1208. Farm Journal, January 1923, p. 76. Johnson, pp. 126, 128. Joseph Floyd Clymer, Henry's Wonderful Model T (New York, 1955), pp. 164-65. Wik, Henry Ford (n. 2 above), p. 33, and "The Early Automobile and the American Farmer," in Lewis and Goldstein (n. 1 above), pp. 37-47, on p. 45. Berger (n. 2 above), pp. 40-41.
227. Wallace's Farmer, January 12, 1917, p. 49; February 9, 1917, pp. 243, 270; March 2, 1917, p. 401; March 16, 1917, p. 510; and July 27, 1917, p. 1054. Motor Age, May 17, 1917, p. 42; May 24, 1917, pp. 40-41; November 22, 1917, pp. 71-74; December 13, 1917, p. 46; February 21, 1918, p. 9; and July 4, 1918, p. 42. C. L. Edholm, "The Car of All Work," Scientific American 116 (1917): 349. Victor W. Pagé, The Model T Ford Car, Truck and Tractor Conversion Kits (New York, 1918), pp. 285-89. Automotive Industries, March 6, 1919, pp. 528-29. Tractor World, November 1919, p. 14. Rural New Yorker, September 27, 1919, p. 1409 and December 12, 1931, p. 1208. Farm Journal, January 1923, p. 76. Johnson, pp. 126, 128. Joseph Floyd Clymer, Henry's Wonderful Model T (New York, 1955), pp. 164-65. Wik, Henry Ford (n. 2 above), p. 33, and "The Early Automobile and the American Farmer," in Lewis and Goldstein (n. 1 above), pp. 37-47, on p. 45. Berger (n. 2 above), pp. 40-41.
228. Wallace's Farmer, January 12, 1917, p. 49; February 9, 1917, pp. 243, 270; March 2, 1917, p. 401; March 16, 1917, p. 510; and July 27, 1917, p. 1054. Motor Age, May 17, 1917, p. 42; May 24, 1917, pp. 40-41; November 22, 1917, pp. 71-74; December 13, 1917, p. 46; February 21, 1918, p. 9; and July 4, 1918, p. 42. C. L. Edholm, "The Car of All Work," Scientific American 116 (1917): 349. Victor W. Pagé, The Model T Ford Car, Truck and Tractor Conversion Kits (New York, 1918), pp. 285-89. Automotive Industries, March 6, 1919, pp. 528-29. Tractor World, November 1919, p. 14. Rural New Yorker, September 27, 1919, p. 1409 and December 12, 1931, p. 1208. Farm Journal, January 1923, p. 76. Johnson, pp. 126, 128. Joseph Floyd Clymer, Henry's Wonderful Model T (New York, 1955), pp. 164-65. Wik, Henry Ford (n. 2 above), p. 33, and "The Early Automobile and the American Farmer," in Lewis and Goldstein (n. 1 above), pp. 37-47, on p. 45. Berger (n. 2 above), pp. 40-41.
229. Wallace's Farmer, January 12, 1917, p. 49; February 9, 1917, pp. 243, 270; March 2, 1917, p. 401; March 16, 1917, p. 510; and July 27, 1917, p. 1054. Motor Age, May 17, 1917, p. 42; May 24, 1917, pp. 40-41; November 22, 1917, pp. 71-74; December 13, 1917, p. 46; February 21, 1918, p. 9; and July 4, 1918, p. 42. C. L. Edholm, "The Car of All Work," Scientific American 116 (1917): 349. Victor W. Pagé, The Model T Ford Car, Truck and Tractor Conversion Kits (New York, 1918), pp. 285-89. Automotive Industries, March 6, 1919, pp. 528-29. Tractor World, November 1919, p. 14. Rural New Yorker, September 27, 1919, p. 1409 and December 12, 1931, p. 1208. Farm Journal, January 1923, p. 76. Johnson, pp. 126, 128. Joseph Floyd Clymer, Henry's Wonderful Model T (New York, 1955), pp. 164-65. Wik, Henry Ford (n. 2 above), p. 33, and "The Early Automobile and the American Farmer," in Lewis and Goldstein (n. 1 above), pp. 37-47, on p. 45. Berger (n. 2 above), pp. 40-41.
230. Wallace's Farmer, January 12, 1917, p. 49; February 9, 1917, pp. 243, 270; March 2, 1917, p. 401; March 16, 1917, p. 510; and July 27, 1917, p. 1054. Motor Age, May 17, 1917, p. 42; May 24, 1917, pp. 40-41; November 22, 1917, pp. 71-74; December 13, 1917, p. 46; February 21, 1918, p. 9; and July 4, 1918, p. 42. C. L. Edholm, "The Car of All Work," Scientific American 116 (1917): 349. Victor W. Pagé, The Model T Ford Car, Truck and Tractor Conversion Kits (New York, 1918), pp. 285-89. Automotive Industries, March 6, 1919, pp. 528-29. Tractor World, November 1919, p. 14. Rural New Yorker, September 27, 1919, p. 1409 and December 12, 1931, p. 1208. Farm Journal, January 1923, p. 76. Johnson, pp. 126, 128. Joseph Floyd Clymer, Henry's Wonderful Model T (New York, 1955), pp. 164-65. Wik, Henry Ford (n. 2 above), p. 33, and "The Early Automobile and the American Farmer," in Lewis and Goldstein (n. 1 above), pp. 37-47, on p. 45. Berger (n. 2 above), pp. 40-41.
231. Wallace's Farmer, January 12, 1917, p. 49; February 9, 1917, pp. 243, 270; March 2, 1917, p. 401; March 16, 1917, p. 510; and July 27, 1917, p. 1054. Motor Age, May 17, 1917, p. 42; May 24, 1917, pp. 40-41; November 22, 1917, pp. 71-74; December 13, 1917, p. 46; February 21, 1918, p. 9; and July 4, 1918, p. 42. C. L. Edholm, "The Car of All Work," Scientific American 116 (1917): 349. Victor W. Pagé, The Model T Ford Car, Truck and Tractor Conversion Kits (New York, 1918), pp. 285-89. Automotive Industries, March 6, 1919, pp. 528-29. Tractor World, November 1919, p. 14. Rural New Yorker, September 27, 1919, p. 1409 and December 12, 1931, p. 1208. Farm Journal, January 1923, p. 76. Johnson, pp. 126, 128. Joseph Floyd Clymer, Henry's Wonderful Model T (New York, 1955), pp. 164-65. Wik, Henry Ford (n. 2 above), p. 33, and "The Early Automobile and the American Farmer," in Lewis and Goldstein (n. 1 above), pp. 37-47, on p. 45. Berger (n. 2 above), pp. 40-41.
232. Wallace's Farmer, January 12, 1917, p. 49; February 9, 1917, pp. 243, 270; March 2, 1917, p. 401; March 16, 1917, p. 510; and July 27, 1917, p. 1054. Motor Age, May 17, 1917, p. 42; May 24, 1917, pp. 40-41; November 22, 1917, pp. 71-74; December 13, 1917, p. 46; February 21, 1918, p. 9; and July 4, 1918, p. 42. C. L. Edholm, "The Car of All Work," Scientific American 116 (1917): 349. Victor W. Pagé, The Model T Ford Car, Truck and Tractor Conversion Kits (New York, 1918), pp. 285-89. Automotive Industries, March 6, 1919, pp. 528-29. Tractor World, November 1919, p. 14. Rural New Yorker, September 27, 1919, p. 1409 and December 12, 1931, p. 1208. Farm Journal, January 1923, p. 76. Johnson, pp. 126, 128. Joseph Floyd Clymer, Henry's Wonderful Model T (New York, 1955), pp. 164-65. Wik, Henry Ford (n. 2 above), p. 33, and "The Early Automobile and the American Farmer," in Lewis and Goldstein (n. 1 above), pp. 37-47, on p. 45. Berger (n. 2 above), pp. 40-41.
233. Wallace's Farmer, January 12, 1917, p. 49; February 9, 1917, pp. 243, 270; March 2, 1917, p. 401; March 16, 1917, p. 510; and July 27, 1917, p. 1054. Motor Age, May 17, 1917, p. 42; May 24, 1917, pp. 40-41; November 22, 1917, pp. 71-74; December 13, 1917, p. 46; February 21, 1918, p. 9; and July 4, 1918, p. 42. C. L. Edholm, "The Car of All Work," Scientific American 116 (1917): 349. Victor W. Pagé, The Model T Ford Car, Truck and Tractor Conversion Kits (New York, 1918), pp. 285-89. Automotive Industries, March 6, 1919, pp. 528-29. Tractor World, November 1919, p. 14. Rural New Yorker, September 27, 1919, p. 1409 and December 12, 1931, p. 1208. Farm Journal, January 1923, p. 76. Johnson, pp. 126, 128. Joseph Floyd Clymer, Henry's Wonderful Model T (New York, 1955), pp. 164-65. Wik, Henry Ford (n. 2 above), p. 33, and "The Early Automobile and the American Farmer," in Lewis and Goldstein (n. 1 above), pp. 37-47, on p. 45. Berger (n. 2 above), pp. 40-41.
234. Wallace's Farmer, January 12, 1917, p. 49; February 9, 1917, pp. 243, 270; March 2, 1917, p. 401; March 16, 1917, p. 510; and July 27, 1917, p. 1054. Motor Age, May 17, 1917, p. 42; May 24, 1917, pp. 40-41; November 22, 1917, pp. 71-74; December 13, 1917, p. 46; February 21, 1918, p. 9; and July 4, 1918, p. 42. C. L. Edholm, "The Car of All Work," Scientific American 116 (1917): 349. Victor W. Pagé, The Model T Ford Car, Truck and Tractor Conversion Kits (New York, 1918), pp. 285-89. Automotive Industries, March 6, 1919, pp. 528-29. Tractor World, November 1919, p. 14. Rural New Yorker, September 27, 1919, p. 1409 and December 12, 1931, p. 1208. Farm Journal, January 1923, p. 76. Johnson, pp. 126, 128. Joseph Floyd Clymer, Henry's Wonderful Model T (New York, 1955), pp. 164-65. Wik, Henry Ford (n. 2 above), p. 33, and "The Early Automobile and the American Farmer," in Lewis and Goldstein (n. 1 above), pp. 37-47, on p. 45. Berger (n. 2 above), pp. 40-41.
235. Wallace's Farmer, January 12, 1917, p. 49; February 9, 1917, pp. 243, 270; March 2, 1917, p. 401; March 16, 1917, p. 510; and July 27, 1917, p. 1054. Motor Age, May 17, 1917, p. 42; May 24, 1917, pp. 40-41; November 22, 1917, pp. 71-74; December 13, 1917, p. 46; February 21, 1918, p. 9; and July 4, 1918, p. 42. C. L. Edholm, "The Car of All Work," Scientific American 116 (1917): 349. Victor W. Pagé, The Model T Ford Car, Truck and Tractor Conversion Kits (New York, 1918), pp. 285-89. Automotive Industries, March 6, 1919, pp. 528-29. Tractor World, November 1919, p. 14. Rural New Yorker, September 27, 1919, p. 1409 and December 12, 1931, p. 1208. Farm Journal, January 1923, p. 76. Johnson, pp. 126, 128. Joseph Floyd Clymer, Henry's Wonderful Model T (New York, 1955), pp. 164-65. Wik, Henry Ford (n. 2 above), p. 33, and "The Early Automobile and the American Farmer," in Lewis and Goldstein (n. 1 above), pp. 37-47, on p. 45. Berger (n. 2 above), pp. 40-41.
236. Wik, Henry Ford, p. 33, and Robert C. Williams, Fordson, Farmall, and Poppin' Johnny: A History of the Farm Tractor and Its Impact on America (Urbana, 1987), p. 52, say technical problems were key factors in the kits' demise. The development of small tractors undoubtedly played a role, as well.
237. Wik, Henry Ford, p. 33, and Robert C. Williams, Fordson, Farmall, and Poppin' Johnny: A History of the Farm Tractor and Its Impact on America (Urbana, 1987), p. 52, say technical problems were key factors in the kits' demise. The development of small tractors undoubtedly played a role, as well.
238. See ads in Rural New Yorker, 1919 to 1940. The last ad we found for Pullford was February 10, 1940.
239. Emily Schluenzen to Henry Ford, June 28, 1939, letter no. 25395; Leonard Dieler to Henry Ford, August 3, 1939, letter no. 17015; Fred Desosivay to Henry Ford, June 3, 1940, letter no. 17021; and George Jallings to Henry Ford, April 23, 1942, letter no. 36464, FMCA, Acc. 380.
240. Conversations between Ronald Kline and Scott Crawford, November 2, 1993 (1927 Skeeter in North Carolina), Kline and Raymond Kline, Fall 1994 (1930s Puddle Jumper in Kansas); Suzanne Moon, oral history interview with Jessie Hamilton, November 28, 1994 (Model T Doodle-Bug in New York) (see n. 36). Possible related meanings of "doodle-bug" were a gasoline railroad car, a midget racing car, or the V-1 rocket that landed in Britain during World War II. See Matthews (n. 16 above).
241. John Matheson to Henry Ford, November 28, 1908; FLK to Matheson, December 1, 1908; W. W. Walker to Henry Ford, November 26, 1908; and FLK to Walker, December 1, 1908, FMCA, Acc. 2, Box 28. J. M. Bullock to Henry Ford, February 3, 1919; G. S. Anderson to Bullock, February 5, 1919, FMCA, Acc. 62, Box 78. Ford Times, August 1, 1912, p. 375. Although not identified as such, a kit may also have been used by the Model T grinding grain shown in Ford Times, August 1, 1910, pp. 481-82.
242. John Matheson to Henry Ford, November 28, 1908; FLK to Matheson, December 1, 1908; W. W. Walker to Henry Ford, November 26, 1908; and FLK to Walker, December 1, 1908, FMCA, Acc. 2, Box 28. J. M. Bullock to Henry Ford, February 3, 1919; G. S. Anderson to Bullock, February 5, 1919, FMCA, Acc. 62, Box 78. Ford Times, August 1, 1912, p. 375. Although not identified as such, a kit may also have been used by the Model T grinding grain shown in Ford Times, August 1, 1910, pp. 481-82.
243. "Altering Ford Cars," General Sales Letter No. 119, February 28, 1916; "Truck Attachments and Special Bodies," General Sales Letter No. 242, September 17, 1917; and "Attachments to Ford Cars," General Sales Letter No. 267, April 24, 1918, FMCA, Ace. 78, Box 1.
244. "Altering Ford Cars," General Sales Letter No. 119, February 28, 1916; "Truck Attachments and Special Bodies," General Sales Letter No. 242, September 17, 1917; and "Attachments to Ford Cars," General Sales Letter No. 267, April 24, 1918, FMCA, Ace. 78, Box 1.
245. "Altering Ford Cars," General Sales Letter No. 119, February 28, 1916; "Truck Attachments and Special Bodies," General Sales Letter No. 242, September 17, 1917; and "Attachments to Ford Cars," General Sales Letter No. 267, April 24, 1918, FMCA, Ace. 78, Box 1.
246. Our analysis of power here resonates with that developed by Bijker, Of Bicycles (n. 7 above), p. 262. Bijker uses social theorist Anthony Giddens's definition of power as the transformative capacity to harness the agency of others to comply with one's ends. Bijker is concerned to counteract overly simplistic uses of power which simply treat power as "stuff" which one group will possess more of than another. This is a useful cautionary note; dealers may not always have to be as compliant as in this particular case.
247. Wik, Steam Power on the American Farm (n. 40 above), ch. 9; Williams, Fordson, Farmall, and Poppin' Johnny (n. 65 above).
248. Wik, Steam Power on the American Farm (n. 40 above), ch. 9; Williams, Fordson, Farmall, and Poppin' Johnny (n. 65 above).
249. Motor Age, February 21, 1918, pp. 7-9 and August 22, 1918, pp. 312-14; Tractor World, August 1918, pp. 33-39, March 1919, pp. 5-13, and November 1919, p. 14; Automotive Industries, November 14, 1918, p. 849 (quotation); and Williams, Fordson, Farmall, and Poppin' Johnny, p. 52. Although Williams says that the trade group succeeded in prohibiting the manufacture of kits, it is not clear if the War Industries Board accepted this part of the proposal. For examples of Pullford advertising its success at the Fremont trials, see Motor Age, October 11, 1917, p. 40; Rural New Yorker, February 1, 1919, p. 102; and Johnson (n. 62 above), p. 128. On these contests, see Reynold M. Wik, "Nebraska Tractor Shows and the Beginning of Power Farming," Nebraska History 64 (1983): 193-208.
250. Motor Age, February 21, 1918, pp. 7-9 and August 22, 1918, pp. 312-14; Tractor World, August 1918, pp. 33-39, March 1919, pp. 5-13, and November 1919, p. 14; Automotive Industries, November 14, 1918, p. 849 (quotation); and Williams, Fordson, Farmall, and Poppin' Johnny, p. 52. Although Williams says that the trade group succeeded in prohibiting the manufacture of kits, it is not clear if the War Industries Board accepted this part of the proposal. For examples of Pullford advertising its success at the Fremont trials, see Motor Age, October 11, 1917, p. 40; Rural New Yorker, February 1, 1919, p. 102; and Johnson (n. 62 above), p. 128. On these contests, see Reynold M. Wik, "Nebraska Tractor Shows and the Beginning of Power Farming," Nebraska History 64 (1983): 193-208.
251. Motor Age, February 21, 1918, pp. 7-9 and August 22, 1918, pp. 312-14; Tractor World, August 1918, pp. 33-39, March 1919, pp. 5-13, and November 1919, p. 14; Automotive Industries, November 14, 1918, p. 849 (quotation); and Williams, Fordson, Farmall, and Poppin' Johnny, p. 52. Although Williams says that the trade group succeeded in prohibiting the manufacture of kits, it is not clear if the War Industries Board accepted this part of the proposal. For examples of Pullford advertising its success at the Fremont trials, see Motor Age, October 11, 1917, p. 40; Rural New Yorker, February 1, 1919, p. 102; and Johnson (n. 62 above), p. 128. On these contests, see Reynold M. Wik, "Nebraska Tractor Shows and the Beginning of Power Farming," Nebraska History 64 (1983): 193-208.
252. Motor Age, February 21, 1918, pp. 7-9 and August 22, 1918, pp. 312-14; Tractor World, August 1918, pp. 33-39, March 1919, pp. 5-13, and November 1919, p. 14; Automotive Industries, November 14, 1918, p. 849 (quotation); and Williams, Fordson, Farmall, and Poppin' Johnny, p. 52. Although Williams says that the trade group succeeded in prohibiting the manufacture of kits, it is not clear if the War Industries Board accepted this part of the proposal. For examples of Pullford advertising its success at the Fremont trials, see Motor Age, October 11, 1917, p. 40; Rural New Yorker, February 1, 1919, p. 102; and Johnson (n. 62 above), p. 128. On these contests, see Reynold M. Wik, "Nebraska Tractor Shows and the Beginning of Power Farming," Nebraska History 64 (1983): 193-208.
253. Motor Age, February 21, 1918, pp. 7-9 and August 22, 1918, pp. 312-14; Tractor World, August 1918, pp. 33-39, March 1919, pp. 5-13, and November 1919, p. 14; Automotive Industries, November 14, 1918, p. 849 (quotation); and Williams, Fordson, Farmall, and Poppin' Johnny, p. 52. Although Williams says that the trade group succeeded in prohibiting the manufacture of kits, it is not clear if the War Industries Board accepted this part of the proposal. For examples of Pullford advertising its success at the Fremont trials, see Motor Age, October 11, 1917, p. 40; Rural New Yorker, February 1, 1919, p. 102; and Johnson (n. 62 above), p. 128. On these contests, see Reynold M. Wik, "Nebraska Tractor Shows and the Beginning of Power Farming," Nebraska History 64 (1983): 193-208.
254. Motor Age, February 21, 1918, pp. 7-9 and August 22, 1918, pp. 312-14; Tractor World, August 1918, pp. 33-39, March 1919, pp. 5-13, and November 1919, p. 14; Automotive Industries, November 14, 1918, p. 849 (quotation); and Williams, Fordson, Farmall, and Poppin' Johnny, p. 52. Although Williams says that the trade group succeeded in prohibiting the manufacture of kits, it is not clear if the War Industries Board accepted this part of the proposal. For examples of Pullford advertising its success at the Fremont trials, see Motor Age, October 11, 1917, p. 40; Rural New Yorker, February 1, 1919, p. 102; and Johnson (n. 62 above), p. 128. On these contests, see Reynold M. Wik, "Nebraska Tractor Shows and the Beginning of Power Farming," Nebraska History 64 (1983): 193-208.
255. Motor Age, February 21, 1918, pp. 7-9 and August 22, 1918, pp. 312-14; Tractor World, August 1918, pp. 33-39, March 1919, pp. 5-13, and November 1919, p. 14; Automotive Industries, November 14, 1918, p. 849 (quotation); and Williams, Fordson, Farmall, and Poppin' Johnny, p. 52. Although Williams says that the trade group succeeded in prohibiting the manufacture of kits, it is not clear if the War Industries Board accepted this part of the proposal. For examples of Pullford advertising its success at the Fremont trials, see Motor Age, October 11, 1917, p. 40; Rural New Yorker, February 1, 1919, p. 102; and Johnson (n. 62 above), p. 128. On these contests, see Reynold M. Wik, "Nebraska Tractor Shows and the Beginning of Power Farming," Nebraska History 64 (1983): 193-208.
256. Motor Age, February 21, 1918, pp. 7-9 and August 22, 1918, pp. 312-14; Tractor World, August 1918, pp. 33-39, March 1919, pp. 5-13, and November 1919, p. 14; Automotive Industries, November 14, 1918, p. 849 (quotation); and Williams, Fordson, Farmall, and Poppin' Johnny, p. 52. Although Williams says that the trade group succeeded in prohibiting the manufacture of kits, it is not clear if the War Industries Board accepted this part of the proposal. For examples of Pullford advertising its success at the Fremont trials, see Motor Age, October 11, 1917, p. 40; Rural New Yorker, February 1, 1919, p. 102; and Johnson (n. 62 above), p. 128. On these contests, see Reynold M. Wik, "Nebraska Tractor Shows and the Beginning of Power Farming," Nebraska History 64 (1983): 193-208.
257. Motor Age, February 21, 1918, pp. 7-9 and August 22, 1918, pp. 312-14; Tractor World, August 1918, pp. 33-39, March 1919, pp. 5-13, and November 1919, p. 14; Automotive Industries, November 14, 1918, p. 849 (quotation); and Williams, Fordson, Farmall, and Poppin' Johnny, p. 52. Although Williams says that the trade group succeeded in prohibiting the manufacture of kits, it is not clear if the War Industries Board accepted this part of the proposal. For examples of Pullford advertising its success at the Fremont trials, see Motor Age, October 11, 1917, p. 40; Rural New Yorker, February 1, 1919, p. 102; and Johnson (n. 62 above), p. 128. On these contests, see Reynold M. Wik, "Nebraska Tractor Shows and the Beginning of Power Farming," Nebraska History 64 (1983): 193-208.
258. Motor Age, February 21, 1918, pp. 7-9 and August 22, 1918, pp. 312-14; Tractor World, August 1918, pp. 33-39, March 1919, pp. 5-13, and November 1919, p. 14; Automotive Industries, November 14, 1918, p. 849 (quotation); and Williams, Fordson, Farmall, and Poppin' Johnny, p. 52. Although Williams says that the trade group succeeded in prohibiting the manufacture of kits, it is not clear if the War Industries Board accepted this part of the proposal. For examples of Pullford advertising its success at the Fremont trials, see Motor Age, October 11, 1917, p. 40; Rural New Yorker, February 1, 1919, p. 102; and Johnson (n. 62 above), p. 128. On these contests, see Reynold M. Wik, "Nebraska Tractor Shows and the Beginning of Power Farming," Nebraska History 64 (1983): 193-208.
259. W. A. Jones, "Demonstrating General Work Utility of Farm Tractors," Tractor World, November 1918, p. 10. On Ford's tractor experiments, see photograph number 833.63702, 1907, FMCA, Acc. 1660; Motor Age, June 3, 1915, p. 18; "Cost of Experimental Work on Tractor," n.d. [c. February 1916], FMCA, Acc. 62, Box 87; Wik, Henry Ford (n. 2 above), pp. 84-86; and Williams, Fordson, Farmall, and Poppin' Johnny, pp. 47-48. Ford News, in the early 1920s, is filled with stories about Fordson's power take-off option being used to power all types of farm chores and industrial processes.
260. W. A. Jones, "Demonstrating General Work Utility of Farm Tractors," Tractor World, November 1918, p. 10. On Ford's tractor experiments, see photograph number 833.63702, 1907, FMCA, Acc. 1660; Motor Age, June 3, 1915, p. 18; "Cost of Experimental Work on Tractor," n.d. [c. February 1916], FMCA, Acc. 62, Box 87; Wik, Henry Ford (n. 2 above), pp. 84-86; and Williams, Fordson, Farmall, and Poppin' Johnny, pp. 47-48. Ford News, in the early 1920s, is filled with stories about Fordson's power take-off option being used to power all types of farm chores and industrial processes.
261. W. A. Jones, "Demonstrating General Work Utility of Farm Tractors," Tractor World, November 1918, p. 10. On Ford's tractor experiments, see photograph number 833.63702, 1907, FMCA, Acc. 1660; Motor Age, June 3, 1915, p. 18; "Cost of Experimental Work on Tractor," n.d. [c. February 1916], FMCA, Acc. 62, Box 87; Wik, Henry Ford (n. 2 above), pp. 84-86; and Williams, Fordson, Farmall, and Poppin' Johnny, pp. 47-48. Ford News, in the early 1920s, is filled with stories about Fordson's power take-off option being used to power all types of farm chores and industrial processes.
262. W. A. Jones, "Demonstrating General Work Utility of Farm Tractors," Tractor World, November 1918, p. 10. On Ford's tractor experiments, see photograph number 833.63702, 1907, FMCA, Acc. 1660; Motor Age, June 3, 1915, p. 18; "Cost of Experimental Work on Tractor," n.d. [c. February 1916], FMCA, Acc. 62, Box 87; Wik, Henry Ford (n. 2 above), pp. 84-86; and Williams, Fordson, Farmall, and Poppin' Johnny, pp. 47-48. Ford News, in the early 1920s, is filled with stories about Fordson's power take-off option being used to power all types of farm chores and industrial processes.
263. W. A. Jones, "Demonstrating General Work Utility of Farm Tractors," Tractor World, November 1918, p. 10. On Ford's tractor experiments, see photograph number 833.63702, 1907, FMCA, Acc. 1660; Motor Age, June 3, 1915, p. 18; "Cost of Experimental Work on Tractor," n.d. [c. February 1916], FMCA, Acc. 62, Box 87; Wik, Henry Ford (n. 2 above), pp. 84-86; and Williams, Fordson, Farmall, and Poppin' Johnny, pp. 47-48. Ford News, in the early 1920s, is filled with stories about Fordson's power take-off option being used to power all types of farm chores and industrial processes.
264. W. A. Jones, "Demonstrating General Work Utility of Farm Tractors," Tractor World, November 1918, p. 10. On Ford's tractor experiments, see photograph number 833.63702, 1907, FMCA, Acc. 1660; Motor Age, June 3, 1915, p. 18; "Cost of Experimental Work on Tractor," n.d. [c. February 1916], FMCA, Acc. 62, Box 87; Wik, Henry Ford (n. 2 above), pp. 84-86; and Williams, Fordson, Farmall, and Poppin' Johnny, pp. 47-48. Ford News, in the early 1920s, is filled with stories about Fordson's power take-off option being used to power all types of farm chores and industrial processes.
265. James R. Wren and Genevieve J. Wren, Motor Trucks of America (Ann Arbor, 1979), p. 69.
266. Johnson, p. 119; Eleanor Arnold, ed., Party Lines, Pumps and Privies: Memories of Hoosier Homemakers (Indianapolis, 1983), pp. 65-66; and Suzanne Moon, interviews with Goldie Jarvis, November 28, 1994, John Nichols, May 22, 1995, and Sylvia Schrumpf, January 24, 1995 (see n. 36).
267. Tom F. Blackburn, "Washers Getting Better and Better," Electrical Merchandising, November 1940, pp. 6-15, 70. For typical Maytag ads, see Wallace's Farmer, October 12, 1935, p. 19, and Katherine Jellison, "'Let Your Cornstalks Buy a Maytag': Prescriptive Literature and Domestic Consumerism in Rural Iowa," Palimpsest 69 (1988): 132-39.
268. Tom F. Blackburn, "Washers Getting Better and Better," Electrical Merchandising, November 1940, pp. 6-15, 70. For typical Maytag ads, see Wallace's Farmer, October 12, 1935, p. 19, and Katherine Jellison, "'Let Your Cornstalks Buy a Maytag': Prescriptive Literature and Domestic Consumerism in Rural Iowa," Palimpsest 69 (1988): 132-39.
269. Tom F. Blackburn, "Washers Getting Better and Better," Electrical Merchandising, November 1940, pp. 6-15, 70. For typical Maytag ads, see Wallace's Farmer, October 12, 1935, p. 19, and Katherine Jellison, "'Let Your Cornstalks Buy a Maytag': Prescriptive Literature and Domestic Consumerism in Rural Iowa," Palimpsest 69 (1988): 132-39.
270. William L. Cavert, "Sources of Power on 538 Minnesota Farms," (Ph.D. diss., Cornell University, 1929).
271. Sally Clarke, "New Deal Regulation and the Revolution in American Farm Productivity: A Case Study of the Diffusion of the Tractor in the Corn Belt, 1920-1940," Journal of Economic History 51 (1991): 101-23.
272. Scharff (n. 1 above), ch. 9. See also McShane (n. 1 above), ch. 8.
273. Scharff (n. 1 above), ch. 9. See also McShane (n. 1 above), ch. 8.