The drive to be sexy: Prejudice and core motivations in women's self-sexualization

The Psychology of Prejudice: Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Contemporary Issues

Volumn , Issue , 2012, Pages 77-112

  Allen, Jill ^a   Gervais, Sarah J ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA LINCOLN   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84897186278     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: None     Document Type: Chapter

References (91)

1. Allport, G. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Cambridge, MA: Addison-Wesley.
2. American Psychological Association, Task Force on the Sexualization of Girls. (2010). Report of the APA task force on the sexualization of girls. Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/pi/women/programs/girls/report-full.pdf.
3. Bartky, S. L. (1990). Femininity and domination: Studies in the phenomenology of oppression. New York, NY: Routledge.
4. Baumeister, R.F., and Leary, M. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117 (3), 497-529.
5. Bem, S. L. (2004). Transforming and debate on sexual inequality: From biological difference to institutionalized androcentrism. In J. Chrisler, C. Golden, and P. Rozee. (Eds.), Lectures on the psychology of women (pp. 3-15). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
6. Breines, J., Crocker, J., and Garcia, J. (2008). Self-objectification and well-being in women's daily lives. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34 (5), 583-598.
7. Brewer, M. (1991). The social self: On being the same and different at the same time. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 17 (5), 475-482.
8. Buzzanell, P. (2001). Gendered practices in the contemporary workplace: A critique of what often constitutes front page news in the Wall Street Journal. Management Communication Quarterly, 14 (3), 517-537.
9. Calogero, R., Herbozo, S., and Thompson, K. (2009). Complimentary weightism: The potential costs of appearance-related commentary for women's self-objectification. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 33 (1), 120-132.
10. Calogero, R. M., and Jost, J. T. (2010). Self-subjugation among women: Exposure to sexist ideology, self-objectification, and the protective function of the need to avoid closure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100 (2), 211-222
11. Calogero, R., Tantleff-Dunn, S., and Thompson, J.K. (2011). Future directions for research and practice. In Self-objectification in women: Causes, consequences, and counteractions (pp. 187-214). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
12. Dellinger, K. (2002). Wearing gender and sexuality 'on your sleeve': Dress norms and the importance of occupational and organizational culture at work. Gender Issues, 20 (1), 3-25.
13. Dellinger, K. and Williams, C.L. (1997). Makeup at work: Negotiating appearance rules in the workplace. Gender and Society, 11 (2), 151-177.
14. Durante, K. M., Griskevicius, V., Hill, S. E., Perilloux, C., and Li, N. P. (2011). Ovulation, female competition, and product choice: Hormonal influences on consumer behavior Journal of Consumer Research, 37 (6), 921-934.
15. Eagly, A. H., Ashmore, R. D., Makhijani, M. G., and Longo, L. C. (1991). What is beautiful is good, but . . .: A meta-analytic review of research on the physical attractiveness stereotype. Psychological Bulletin, 110 (1), 109-128.
16. Eagly, A., and Diekman, A. (2005). What is the problem? Prejudice as an attitude-in-context. In J. Dovidio, P. Glick, and L. Rudman (Eds.), On the nature of prejudice: Fifty years after Allport, (pp. 19-35). Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.
17. Earp, J. (Producer), and Jhally, S. (Director). (2010). Killing us softly 4: Advertising's image of women [Documentary film]. United States: Media Education Foundation.
18. Elliot, A., Sheldon, K., and Church, M. (1997). Avoidance personal goals and subjective well-being. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 23 (9), 915-927.
19. Fairchild, K., and Rudman, L. (2008). Everyday stranger harassment and women's objectification. Social Justice Research, 21 (3), 338-357.
20. Fallon, M., and Jome, L. (2007). An exploration of gender-role expectations and conflict among women rugby players. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 31, 311-331.
21. Faragher v. City of Boca Raton, 118 S. Ct. 2275 (1998). http://www.ca11.uscourts.gov /opinions/ops/19944878.OP2.pdf.
22. Fea, C., and Brannon, L. (2006). Self-objectification and compliment type: Effects on negative mood. Body Image, 3 (2), 183-188.
23. Fischer, A., Bettendorf, S., and Wang, Y. (2011). Contextualizing sexual objectification. The Counseling Psychologist, 39 (1), 127-139.
24. Fiske, S. (2004). Social beings: A core motives approach to social psychology. New York, NY: Wiley.
25. Fiske, S., and Berdahl, J. (2007). Social power. In A. E. Kruglanski and E. T. Higgins (Eds.), Social psychology: Handbook of basic principles, 2nd edition (pp. 678-692). New York, NY: Guilford.
26. Fiske, S., Cuddy, A., Glick, P., and Xu, J. (2002). A model of (often mixed) stereotype content: Competence and warmth respectively follow from perceived status and competition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82 (6), 878-902.
27. Fitzgerald, L., Drasgow, F., Hulin, C. L., Gelfand, M., and Magley, V. J. (1997). Antecedents and consequences of sexual harassment in organizations: A test of an integrated model. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82 (4), 578-589.
28. Fitzgerald, L., and Collinsworth, L. (2008). (Un)common knowledge: The legal viability of sexual harassment research. In E. Borgida and S. Fiske (Eds.), Beyond common sense: Psychological science in the courtroom (pp. 103-125). Maiden, MA: Blackwell Publishing.
29. Fredrickson, B. L., and Roberts, T. (1997). Objectification theory: Toward understanding women's lived experiences and mental health risks. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21 (2), 173-206.
30. Fredrickson, B. L., Roberts, T., Noll, S. M., Quinn, D. M., and Twenge, J. M. (1998). That swimsuit becomes you: Sex differences in self-objectification, restrained eating, and math performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75 (1), 269-284.
31. Gervais, S., Vescio, T., and Allen, J. (2011a). When what you see is what you get: The consequences of the objectifying gaze for women and men. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 35 (1), 5-17.
32. Gervais, S., Vescio, T., and Allen, J. (2011b). When are people interchangeable sexual objects? The effect of gender and body type on sexual fungibility. British Journal of Social Psychology. Advance online publication.
33. Gill, R. (2008). Empowerment/sexism: Figuring female sexual agency in contemporary advertising. Feminism and Psychology, 18 (1), 35-60.
34. Glick, P., Chrislock, K., Petersik, K., Vijay, M., and Turek, A. (2008). Does cleavage work at work? Men, but not women, falsely believe cleavage sells a weak product. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 32 (3), 326-335.
35. Glick, P., and Fiske, S. (1996). The ambivalent sexism inventory: Differentiating hostile and benevolent sexism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70 (3), 491-512.
36. Glick, P., and Fiske, S. T. (2001). An ambivalent alliance: Hostile and benevolent sexism as complementary justifications for gender inequality. American Psychologist, 56 (2), 109-118.
37. Glick, P., Larsen, S., Johnson, C. and Branstiter, H. (2005). Evaluations of sexy women in low-and high-status jobs. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 29 (4), 389-395.
38. Goodin, S., Van Denburg, A., Murnen, S., and Smolak, L. (2011). "Putting on" sexiness: A content analysis of the presence of sexualizing characteristics in girls' clothing. Sex Roles, 65 (1-2), 1-12.
39. Guinote, A. (2007). Power and goal pursuit. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 33 (8), 1076-1087.
40. Guinote, A. (2010). The situated focus theory of power. In A. Guinote and T. Vescio (Eds). The social psychology of power (pp. 141-173). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
41. Harper, B., and Tiggemann, M. (2008). The effect of thin ideal media images on women's self-objectification, mood, and body image. Sex Roles, 58 (9-10), 649-657.
42. Heilman, M., and Stopeck, M. (1985). Being attractive, advantage or disadvantage? Performance-based evaluations and recommended personnel actions as a function of appearance, sex, and job type. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 35 (2), 202-215.
43. Higgins, E. T. (1997). Beyond pleasure and pain. American Psychologist, 52 (12), 1280-1300.
44. Hulin, C. L., Fitzgerald, L. F., and Drasgow, F. (1996). Organizational influences on sexual harassment. In M. Stockdale (Ed.), Sexual harassment in the workplace (Vol. 5, pp. 127-150). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
45. Inesi, M.E., Botti, S., Dubois, D., Rucker, D., and Galinksy, A. (2011). Power and choice: Their dynamic interplay in quenching the thirst for personal control. Psychological Science. Advance online publication.
46. Jones, E. E. (1964). Ingratiation: A social psychological analysis. New York, NY: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
47. Jones, E. E., and Pittman, T. S. (1982). Toward a general theory of strategic self-presentation. In J. Suls (Ed.), Psychological perspectives on the self (Vol. 1, pp. 231-262). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
48. Kanter, R. M. (1977). Numbers: Minorities and majorities. In Men and women of the corporation. (pp. 206-244). New York, NY: Basic Books.
49. Leary, M., Tambor, E., Terdal, S., and Downs, D. (1995). Self-esteem as an interpersonal monitor: The sociometer hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68 (3), 518-530.
50. Leonardelli, G., Pickett, C., and Brewer, M. (2010). Optimal distinctiveness theory: A framework for social identity, social cognition, and intergroup relations. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 43, 63-113
51. Levy, A. (2005). Female chauvinist pigs: Women and the rise of raunch culture. New York, NY: Free Press.
52. Liss, M., Erchull, M., and Ramsey, L. (2011). Empowering or oppressing? Development and exploration of the enjoyment of sexualization scale. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 37 (1), 55-68.
53. Mahalik, J., Morray, E., Coonerty-Femiano, A., Ludlow, L., Slattery, S., and Smiler, A. (2005). Development of the conformity to feminine norms inventory. Sex Roles, 52 (7-8), 417-435.
54. Maner, J., DeWall, C.N., Baumeister, R., and Schaller, M. (2007). Does social exclusion motivate interpersonal reconnection? Resolving the "porcupine problem". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92 (1), 42-55.
55. Masser, B., Lee, K., and McKimmie, B. (2010). Bad woman, bad victim? Disentangling the effects of victim stereotypicality, gender stereotypicality, and benevolent sexism on acquaintance rape and victim blame. Sex Roles, 62 (7-8), 494-504.
56. Mead, N., Baumeister, R., Stillman, T., Rawn, C., and Vohs, K. (2011). Social exclusion causes people to spend and consume strategically in the service of affiliation. Journal of Consumer Research, 37 (5), 902-919.
57. Messman-Moore, T., and Long, P. (2003). The role of childhood abuse sequelae in the sexual revictimization of women: An empirical review and theoretical reformulation. Clinical Psychology Review, 23 (4), 537-571.
58. Moradi, B., and Huang, Y. (2008). Objectification theory and psychology of women: A decade of advances and future directions. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 32 (4), 377-398.
59. Mori, D., Chaiken, S., and Pliner, P. (1987). "Eating lightly" and the self-presentation of femininity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53 (4), 693-702.
60. Moss, G. (2011). Party out of bounds: Booze, the pleasure principle, and party-girl pop. Bitch Magazine, 5, 43-47.
61. Moss-Racusin, C., Phelan, J., and Rudman, L. (2010). When men break the gender rules: Status incongruity and backlash against modest men. Psychology of Men and Masculinity, 11 (2), 140-151.
62. Nadesan, M. H., and Trethewey, A. (2000). Performing the enterprising subject: Gendered strategies for success (?). Text and Performance Quarterly, 20 (3), 223-250.
63. Noll, S. M., and Fredrickson, B. L. (1998). A mediational model linking self-objectification, body shame, and disordered eating. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 22 (4), 623-636.
64. Nussbaum, M. C. (1999). Sex and social justice. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
65. Overbeck, J. (2010). Concepts and historical perspectives on power. In A. Guinote and T. Vescio (Eds.) The social psychology of power (pp. 19-45). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
66. Pickett, C. L., Bonner, B. L., and Coleman, J. M. (2002). Motivated self-stereotyping: Heightened assimilation and differentiation needs result in increased levels of positive and negative self-stereotyping. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82 (4), 543-562.
67. Prentice, D., and Carranza, E. (2002). What women should be, shouldn't be, are allowed to be, and don't have to be: The contents of prescriptive gender stereotypes. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 26 (4), 269-281.
68. Pronin, E., Steele, C., and Ross, L. (2004). Identity bifurcation in response to stereotype threat: Women and mathematics. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 40 (2), 152-168.
69. Quinn, D. M., Kallen, R. W., Twenge, J. M., and Fredrickson, B. L. (2006). The disruptive effect of self-objectification on performance. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 30 (1), 59-64.
70. Roney, C., Higgins, E.T., and Shah, J. (1995). Goals and framing: How outcome focus influences motivation and emotion. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21 (11), 1151-1160.
71. Rudman, L. A. (1998). Self-promotion as a risk factor for women: The costs and benefits of counterstereotypical impression management. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74 (3), 629-645.
72. Rudman, L. A., and Fairchild, K. (2004). Reactions to counterstereotypic behavior: The role of backlash in cultural stereotype maintenance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87 (2), 157-176.
73. Salmansohn, K. (1996). How to succeed in business without a penis: Secrets and strategies for the working woman. New York, NY: Random House.
74. Schlenker, K., and Vescio, T. (2010). Responding to masculinity threats with self-sexualizing appeasement strategies. Presented at Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues annual meeting, New Orleans, L.A.
75. Schmuck, P., Kassar, T., and Ryan, R. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic goals: Their structure and relationship to well-being in German and U.S. college students. Social Indicators Research, 50 (2), 225-241.
76. Schutz, W.C. (1958). FIRO: A Three Dimensional Theory of Interpersonal Behavior. New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.
77. Smith, J.L., Wagaman, J., and Handley, I. (2009). Task variation as a function of promotion versus prevention focus. Motivation and Emotion, 33 (2), 150-160.
78. Stahl, T., Eeek, D., and Kazemi, A. (2010). Rape victim blaming as system justification: The role of gender and activation of complementary stereotypes. Social Justice Research, 23 (4), 239-258.
79. Steele, C., Spencer, S., and Aronson, J. (2002). Contending with group image: The psychology of stereotype and social identity threat. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 34, 379-440.
80. Tretheway, A. (2001). Reproducing and resisting the master narrative of decline: Midlife professional women's experiences of aging. Management Communication Quarterly, 15 (2), 183-226.
81. Vandello, J., Bosson, J., Cohen, D., Burnaford, R. and Weaver, J. (2008). Precarious mahood. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95 (6), 1325-1339.
82. Vescio, T., Schlenker, K., and Lenes, J. (2010). Power and sexism. In A. Guinote and T. Vescio (Eds). The social psychology of power (pp. 363-380). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
83. Wallace, C. and Chen, G. (2006). A multilevel integration of personality, climate, self-regulation, and performance. Personnel Psychology, 59 (3), 529-557.
84. Wallace, C., Johnson, P., and Frazier, M.L. (2009). An examination of the factorial, construct, and predictive validity and utility of the regulatory focus at work scale. Journal of Organization Behavior, 30 (6), 805-831.
85. Wiener, R. L., and Hurt, L. E. (2000). How do people evaluate social-sexual conduct: A psycholegal model. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85 (1), 75-85.
86. Wiener, R. L., Winter, R., Rogers, M., and Arnot, L. (2004). The effects of prior workplace behavior on subsequent sexual harassment judgments. Law and Human Behavior, 28 (1), 47-67.
87. Weitz, R. (2001) Women and their hair: seeking power through resistance and accommodation. Gender and Society, 15 (5), 667-686.
88. Williams, K. (2007). Ostracism. Annual Review of Psychology, 58 (1), 425-452.
89. Williams, K. and Jarvis, B. (2006). Cyberball: A program for use in research on interpersonal ostracism and acceptance. Behavior Research Methods, 38 (1), 174-180.
90. Williams, M., Paluck, E.L., and Spencer-Rodgers, J. (2010). The masculinity of money: Automatic stereotypes predict gender differences in estimated salaries. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 34 (1), 7-20.
91. Zhou, X., Vohs, K., and Baumeister, R. (2009). The symbolic power of money: Reminders of money alter social distress and physical pain. Psychological Science, 20 (6), 700-706.