European perspective and update on the management of complicated skin and soft tissue infections due to methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus after more than 10 years of experience with linezolid

Clinical Microbiology and Infection

Volumn 20, Issue S4, 2014, Pages 3-18

  Bassetti, M ^a   Baguneid, M ^b   Bouza, E ^c   Dryden, M ^d   Nathwani, D ^e   Wilcox, M ^f  

^a S Maria Hospital   (Italy)

^b MANCHESTER UNIVERSITY NHS FOUNDATION TRUST   (United Kingdom)

^c UNIVERSIDAD COMPLUTENSE DE MADRID   (Spain)

^d ROYAL HAMPSHIRE COUNTY HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

^e UNIVERSITY OF DUNDEE   (United Kingdom)

^f LEEDS TEACHING HOSPITALS NHS TRUST   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Clinical management; Complicated skin and soft tissue infections; Europe; Linezolid; Methicillin resistant staphylococcus aureus; Resource use

Indexed keywords

CEFTAROLINE; DAPTOMYCIN; LINEZOLID; PANTON VALENTINE LEUKOCIDIN; TEICOPLANIN; TIGECYCLINE; VANCOMYCIN;

ANTIBIOTIC THERAPY; BACTERIAL LOAD; BACTERIAL VIRULENCE; CLINICAL ASSESSMENT; COMMUNICABLE DISEASE; COMPLICATED SKIN AND SOFT TISSUE INFECTION; COMPUTER ASSISTED TOMOGRAPHY; DISEASE SEVERITY; DRUG BIOAVAILABILITY; DRUG CHOICE; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG PENETRATION; DRUG SAFETY; DRUG TREATMENT FAILURE; EUROPE; HEALTH CARE COST; HEALTHCARE ASSOCIATED INFECTION; HOSPITAL DISCHARGE; HUMAN; INFECTION COMPLICATION; INFECTION RISK; INTENSIVE CARE UNIT; KIDNEY FAILURE; LEG DISEASE; LENGTH OF STAY; METHICILLIN RESISTANT STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS; METHICILLIN RESISTANT STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS INFECTION; MORTALITY; NONHUMAN; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; OBESITY; OUTPATIENT CARE; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SOFT TISSUE INFECTION; STAPHYLOCOCCAL SKIN INFECTION; SURGICAL INFECTION; WOUND INFECTION;

CLINICAL MANAGEMENT; COMPLICATED SKIN AND SOFT TISSUE INFECTIONS; EUROPE; LINEZOLID; METHICILLIN-RESISTANT STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS; RESOURCE USE;

ACETAMIDES; ANTI-BACTERIAL AGENTS; EUROPE; HUMANS; LENGTH OF STAY; METHICILLIN-RESISTANT STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS; OXAZOLIDINONES; PRACTICE GUIDELINES AS TOPIC; RISK FACTORS; SOFT TISSUE INFECTIONS; STAPHYLOCOCCAL SKIN INFECTIONS;

EID: 84895187661     PISSN: 1198743X     EISSN: 14690691     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/1469-0691.12463     Document Type: Review

References (162)

1. Dryden MS. Complicated skin and soft tissue infection. J Antimicrob Chemother 2010; 65 (suppl 3): iii35-iii44.
2. Pharmacia Limited. ZYVOX 2 mg/ml Solution for Infusion [summary of product characteristics]. Sandwich, UK: Pharmacia Limited, 2011.
3. Esposito S, Bassetti M, Borre' S et al. Diagnosis and management of skin and soft-tissue infections (SSTI): a literature review and consensus statement on behalf of the Italian Society of Infectious Diseases and International Society of Chemotherapy. J Chemother 2011; 23: 251-262.
4. Jenkins TC, Sabel AL, Sarcone EE, Price CS, Mehler PS, Burman WJ. Skin and soft-tissue infections requiring hospitalization at an academic medical center: opportunities for antimicrobial stewardship. Clin Infect Dis 2010; 51: 895-903.
5. Lipsky BA, Moran GJ, Napolitano LM, Vo L, Nicholson S, Kim M. A prospective, multicenter, observational study of complicated skin and soft tissue infections in hospitalized patients: clinical characteristics, medical treatment, and outcomes. BMC Infect Dis 2012; 12: 227.
6. Stevens DL, Bisno AL, Chambers HF et al. Practice guidelines for the diagnosis and management of skin and soft-tissue infections. Clin Infect Dis 2005; 41: 1373-1406.
7. Dryden MS. Skin and soft tissue infection: microbiology and epidemiology. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2009; 34 (suppl 1): S2-S7.
8. Tognetti L, Martinelli C, Berti S et al. Bacterial skin and soft tissue infections: review of the epidemiology, microbiology, aetiopathogenesis and treatment: a collaboration between dermatologists and infectivologists. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 2012; 26: 931-941.
9. DiNubile MJ, Lipsky BA. Complicated infections of skin and skin structures: when the infection is more than skin deep. J Antimicrob Chemother 2004; 53 (suppl 2): ii37-ii50.
10. Itani KM, Merchant S, Lin SJ, Akhras K, Alandete JC, Hatoum HT. Outcomes and management costs in patients hospitalized for skin and skin-structure infections. Am J Infect Control 2011; 39: 42-49.
11. Morgan M. Treatment of MRSA soft tissue infections: an overview. Injury 2011; 42 (suppl 5): S11-S17.
12. Abbaszadeh M, Arabnia MK, Rabbani A, Mandegar MH, Vahedi S. The risk factors affecting the complications of saphenous vein graft harvesting in aortocoronary bypass surgery. Rev Bras Cir Cardiovasc 2008; 23: 317-322.
13. Fish DN. Meropenem in the treatment of complicated skin and soft tissue infections. Ther Clin Risk Manag 2006; 2: 401-415.
14. Huysman E, Mathieu C. Diabetes and peripheral vascular disease. Acta Chir Belg 2009; 109: 587-594.
15. Paraskevas KI, Giannoukas AD, Mikhailidis DP. Renal function impairment in peripheral arterial disease: an important parameter that should not be neglected. Ann Vasc Surg 2009; 23: 690-699.
16. Brook I. Synergistic aerobic and anaerobic infections. Clin Ther 1987; 10 (suppl A): 19-35.
17. Rotstein OD, Pruett TL, Simmons RL. Mechanisms of microbial synergy in polymicrobial surgical infections. Rev Infect Dis 1985; 7: 151-170.
18. Hayward A, Knott F, Petersen I et al. Increasing hospitalizations and general practice prescriptions for community-onset staphylococcal disease, England. Emerg Infect Dis 2008; 14: 720-726.
19. Kaltsas A, Guh A, Mediavilla JR et al. Frequency of Panton-Valentine leukocidin-producing methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus strains in patients with complicated skin and soft tissue infection in Bronx, New York. J Clin Microbiol 2011; 49: 2992-2995.
20. Zilberberg MD, Shorr AF, Micek ST et al. Epidemiology and outcomes of hospitalizations with complicated skin and skin-structure infections: implications of healthcare-associated infection risk factors. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2009; 30: 1203-1210.
21. Zilberberg MD, Shorr AF, Micek ST et al. Hospitalizations with healthcare-associated complicated skin and skin structure infections: impact of inappropriate empiric therapy on outcomes. J Hosp Med 2010; 5: 535-540.
22. Jones ME, Karlowsky JA, Draghi DC, Thornsberry C, Sahm DF, Nathwani D. Epidemiology and antibiotic susceptibility of bacteria causing skin and soft tissue infections in the USA and Europe: a guide to appropriate antimicrobial therapy. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2003; 22: 406-419.
23. Sader HS, Farrell DJ, Jones RN. Antimicrobial susceptibility of Gram-positive cocci isolated from skin and skin-structure infections in European medical centres. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2010; 36: 28-32.
24. Prabhu K, Rao S, Rao V. Inducible clindamycin resistance in Staphylococcus aureus isolated from clinical samples. J Lab Physicians 2011; 3: 25-27.
25. Moet GJ, Jones RN, Biedenbach DJ, Stilwell MG, Fritsche TR. Contemporary causes of skin and soft tissue infections in North America, Latin America, and Europe: report from the SENTRY Antimicrobial Surveillance Program (1998-2004). Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2007; 57: 7-13.
26. Morrissey I, Leakey A, Northwood JB. In vitro activity of ceftaroline and comparator antimicrobials against European and Middle East isolates from complicated skin and skin-structure infections collected in 2008-2009. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2012; 40: 227-234.
27. European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control. Antimicrobial resistance surveillance in Europe 2011. Annual report of the European Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance Network (EARS-Net). ECDC website. Available at http://ecdc.europa.eu/en/publications/Publications/antimicrobial-resistance-surveillance-europe-2011.pdf (last accessed 5 February 2013).
28. Moellering RC Jr. MRSA: the first half century. J Antimicrob Chemother 2012; 67: 4-11.
29. Johnson AP. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: the European landscape. J Antimicrob Chemother 2011; 66(suppl 4): iv43-iv48.
30. Health Protection Agency. Surveillance of surgical site infections in NHS hospitals in England, 2011/2012. London: Health Protection Agency, 2012.
31. Tarricone R, Aguzzi G, Capone A et al. How complicated skin and soft tissue infections are treated in Italy: economic evaluation of inpatient intravenous antibiotic treatment in seven hospitals. J Med Econ 2008; 11: 265-279.
32. Arnaiz-Garcia ME, Alonso-Pena D, Gonzalez-Vela MC, Garcia-Palomo JD, Sanz-Gimenez-Rico JR, Arnaiz-Garcia AM. Cutaneous mucormycosis: report of five cases and review of the literature. J Plast Reconstr Aesthet Surg 2009; 62: e434-e441.
33. Palmero ML, Pope E, Brophy J. Sporotrichoid aspergillosis in an immunocompromised child: a case report and review of the literature. Pediatr Dermatol 2009; 26: 592-596.
34. Thomas LM, Rand HK, Miller JL, Boyd AS. Primary cutaneous aspergillosis in a patient with a solid organ transplant: case report and review of the literature. Cutis 2008; 81: 127-130.
35. Bandyk DF. Vascular surgical site infection: risk factors and preventive measures. Semin Vasc Surg 2008; 21: 119-123.
36. Fascia DT, Singanayagam A, Keating JF. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in orthopaedic trauma: identification of risk factors as a strategy for control of infection. J Bone Joint Surg Br 2009; 91: 249-252.
37. Harbarth S, Huttner B, Gervaz P et al. Risk factors for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus surgical site infection. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2008; 29: 890-893.
38. Ibelings MM, Bruining HA. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: acquisition and risk of death in patients in the intensive care unit. Eur J Surg 1998; 164: 411-418.
39. Popovich KJ, Weinstein RA. Commentary: the graying of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2009; 30: 9-12.
40. Vandecasteele SJ, Boelaert JR, De Vriese AS. Staphylococcus aureus infections in hemodialysis: what a nephrologist should know. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2009; 4: 1388-1400.
41. Viallon A, Marjollet O, Berthelot P et al. Risk factors associated with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection in patients admitted to the ED. Am J Emerg Med 2007; 25: 880-886.
42. Yamakawa K, Tasaki O, Fukuyama M et al. Assessment of risk factors related to healthcare-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection at patient admission to an intensive care unit in Japan. BMC Infect Dis 2011; 11: 303.
43. Yano K, Minoda Y, Sakawa A et al. Positive nasal culture of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a risk factor for surgical site infection in orthopedics. Acta Orthop 2009; 80: 486-490.
44. Tacconelli E, De AG, Cataldo MA, Pozzi E, Cauda R. Does antibiotic exposure increase the risk of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) isolation? A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Antimicrob Chemother 2008; 61: 26-38.
45. Bilavsky E, Lerman Y, Rabinovich A et al. Carriage of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus on admission to European rehabilitation centres-a prospective study. Clin Microbiol Infect 2012; 18: E164-E169.
46. Zilberberg MD, Chaudhari P, Nathanson BH et al. Development and validation of a bedside risk score for MRSA among patients hospitalized with complicated skin and skin structure infections. BMC Infect Dis 2012; 12: 154.
47. Kock R, Becker K, Cookson B et al. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA): burden of disease and control challenges in Europe. Euro Surveill 2010; 15: 19688.
48. Nathwani D, Morgan M, Masterton RG et al. Guidelines for UK practice for the diagnosis and management of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infections presenting in the community. J Antimicrob Chemother 2008; 61: 976-994.
49. Graglia E, Mantengoli E, Bartalesi F et al. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in community-, healthcare-, and hospital-associated infections: results of a 12-month observational study in a large tertiary-care Italian hospital. Clin Infect Dis 2012; 18: 340. P1324.
50. Stryjewski ME, Chambers HF. Skin and soft-tissue infections caused by community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Clin Infect Dis 2008; 46: S368-S377.
51. Davis SL, Perri MB, Donabedian SM et al. Epidemiology and outcomes of community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection. J Clin Microbiol 2007; 45: 1705-1711.
52. Otter JA, French GL. Molecular epidemiology of community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in Europe. Lancet Infect Dis 2010; 10: 227-239.
53. Hersh AL, Chambers HF, Maselli JH, Gonzales R. National trends in ambulatory visits and antibiotic prescribing for skin and soft-tissue infections. Arch Intern Med 2008; 168: 1585-1591.
54. Dufour P, Gillet Y, Bes M et al. Community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections in France: emergence of a single clone that produces Panton-Valentine leukocidin. Clin Infect Dis 2002; 35: 819-824.
55. Del Giudice P, Blanc V, Durupt F et al. Emergence of two populations of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus with distinct epidemiological, clinical and biological features, isolated from patients with community-acquired skin infections. Br J Dermatol 2006; 154: 118-124.
56. Health Protection Agency. Community MRSA in England and Wales: definition through strain characterisation. Commun Dis Rep CDR Wkly 2005; 15: 3-4.
57. Schneider-Lindner V, Delaney JA, Dial S, Dascal A, Suissa S. Antimicrobial drugs and community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, United Kingdom. Emerg Infect Dis 2007; 13: 994-1000.
58. Eagye KJ, Kim A, Laohavaleeson S, Kuti JL, Nicolau DP. Surgical site infections: does inadequate antibiotic therapy affect patient outcomes? Surg Infect (Larchmt) 2009; 10: 323-331.
59. Lipsky BA, Weigelt JA, Gupta V, Killian A, Peng MM. Skin, soft tissue, bone, and joint infections in hospitalized patients: epidemiology and microbiological, clinical, and economic outcomes. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2007; 28: 1290-1298.
60. Edelsberg J, Berger A, Weber DJ, Mallick R, Kuznik A, Oster G. Clinical and economic consequences of failure of initial antibiotic therapy for hospitalized patients with complicated skin and skin-structure infections. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2008; 29: 160-169.
61. Engemann JJ, Carmeli Y, Cosgrove SE et al. Adverse clinical and economic outcomes attributable to methicillin resistance among patients with Staphylococcus aureus surgical site infection. Clin Infect Dis 2003; 36: 592-598.
62. Ostermann H, Blasi F, Medina J, Pascual E, McBride K, Garau J. Health economic analysis of current clinical management of patients hospitalised with complicated skin and soft tissue infections across Europe (2010-2011) (REACH study): use of resources and consequences of treatment failure. Clin Infect Dis 2012; 18(suppl 3): 121-122. P690.
63. Zervos MJ, Freeman K, Vo L et al. Epidemiology and outcomes of complicated skin and soft tissue infections in hospitalized patients. J Clin Microbiol 2012; 50: 238-245.
64. Garau J, Blasi F, Medina J, Vila MA, McBride K, Ostermann H. Current management of patients hospitalised with complicated skin and soft tissue infections across Europe (2010-2011): assessment of clinical practice patterns and real-life effectiveness of antibiotics (REACH study). Clin Infect Dis 2012; 18 (s3): 121. P689.
65. Bouza E, Burillo A, Munoz P, Cercenado E, Rodriguez-Creixems M. Semiquantitative culture of open surgical wounds for diagnosis of surgical site infection. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2004; 23: 119-122.
66. Wassenberg M, Kluytmans J, Erdkamp S et al. Costs and benefits of rapid screening of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus carriage in intensive care units: a prospective multicenter study. Crit Care 2012; 16: R22.
67. Wassenberg MW, Kluytmans JA, Box AT et al. Rapid screening of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus using PCR and chromogenic agar: a prospective study to evaluate costs and effects. Clin Microbiol Infect 2010; 16: 1754-1761.
68. Polisena J, Chen S, Cimon K, McGill S, Forward K, Gardam M. Clinical effectiveness of rapid tests for methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in hospitalized patients: a systematic review. BMC Infect Dis 2011; 11: 336.
69. Aydiner A, Lusebrink J, Schildgen V et al. Comparison of two commercial PCR methods for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) screening in a tertiary care hospital. PLoS ONE 2012; 7: e43935.
70. Perfect JR. Fungal diagnosis: how do we do it and can we do better? Curr Med Res Opin 2013; 29 (suppl 4): 3-11.
71. Kim KT, Kim YJ, Won LJ et al. Can necrotizing infectious fasciitis be differentiated from nonnecrotizing infectious fasciitis with MR imaging? Radiology 2011; 259: 816-824.
72. Liu C, Bayer A, Cosgrove SE et al. Clinical practice guidelines by the Infectious Diseases Society of America for the treatment of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections in adults and children: executive summary. Clin Infect Dis 2011; 52: 285-292.
73. Michaels JA, Campbell WB, King BM et al. A prospective randomised controlled trial and economic modelling of antimicrobial silver dressings versus non-adherent control dressings for venous leg ulcers: the VULCAN trial. Health Technol Assess 2009; 13: 1-114, iii.
74. Venturi ML, Attinger CE, Mesbahi AN, Hess CL, Graw KS. Mechanisms and clinical applications of the vacuum-assisted closure (VAC) device: a review. Am J Clin Dermatol 2005; 6: 185-194.
75. Pan A, Cauda R, Concia E et al. Consensus document on controversial issues in the treatment of complicated skin and skin-structure infections. Int J Infect Dis 2010; 14(suppl 4): S39-S53.
76. Kujath P, Kujath C. Complicated skin, skin structure and soft tissue infections - are we threatened by multi-resistant pathogens? Eur J Med Res 2010; 15: 544-553.
77. Napolitano LM. Severe soft tissue infections. Infect Dis Clin North Am 2009; 23: 571-591.
78. Association of Medical Biologists, Health Protection Agency. Diagnosis and management of PVL-Staphylococcus aureus infections quick reference guide for primary care. Health Protection Agency website. Available at www.hpa.org.uk/webc/HPAwebFile/HPAweb_C/1242630043495. (last accessed 21 April 2013).
79. Gould FK, Brindle R, Chadwick PR et al. Guidelines (2008) for the prophylaxis and treatment of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infections in the United Kingdom. J Antimicrob Chemother 2009; 63: 849-861.
80. May AK. Skin and soft tissue infections: the new Surgical Infection Society guidelines. Surg Infect (Larchmt) 2011; 12: 179-184.
81. Mensa J, Soriano A, Llinares P et al. Guidelines for antimicrobial treatment of the infection by Staphylococcus aureus. Rev Esp Quimioter 2013; 26(suppl 1): 1-84.
82. National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence. Surgical site infection prevention and treatment of surgical site infection. National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence. Available at http://www.nice.org.uk/nicemedia/pdf/CG74FullGuideline.pdf. (last accessed 8 February 2013).
83. Reinhart K, Brunkhorst FM, Bone HG et al. Prevention, diagnosis, therapy and follow-up care of sepsis: 1st revision of S-2k guidelines of the German Sepsis Society (Deutsche Sepsis-Gesellschaft e.V. (DSG)) and the German Interdisciplinary Association of Intensive Care and Emergency Medicine (Deutsche Interdisziplinare Vereinigung fur Intensiv- und Notfallmedizin (DIVI)). Ger Med Sci 2010; 8: 14.
84. Moran GJ, Abrahamian FM, Lovecchio F, Talan DA. Acute bacterial skin infections: developments since the 2005 Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) guidelines. J Emerg Med 2013; 44: e397-e412.
85. Figtree M, Konecny P, Jennings Z, Goh C, Krilis SA, Miyakis S. Risk stratification and outcome of cellulitis admitted to hospital. J Infect 2010; 60: 431-439.
86. Halilovic J, Heintz BH, Brown J. Risk factors for clinical failure in patients hospitalized with cellulitis and cutaneous abscess. J Infect 2012; 65: 128-134.
87. Marwick C, Rae N, Irvine N, Davey P. Prospective study of severity assessment and management of acute medical admissions with skin and soft tissue infection. J Antimicrob Chemother 2012; 67: 1016-1019.
88. Hessen MT, Kaye D. Principles of use of antibacterial agents. Infect Dis Clin North Am 2004; 18: 435-450, vii.
89. Joukhadar C, Klein N, Frossard M et al. Angioplasty increases target site concentrations of ciprofloxacin in patients with peripheral arterial occlusive disease. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2001; 70: 532-539.
90. Powlson AS, Coll AP. The treatment of diabetic foot infections. J Antimicrob Chemother 2010; 65(suppl 3): iii3-iii9.
91. Raymakers JT, Houben AJ, van der Heyden JJ, Tordoir JH, Kitslaar PJ, Schaper NC. The effect of diabetes and severe ischaemia on the penetration of ceftazidime into tissues of the limb. Diabet Med 2001; 18: 229-234.
92. de Lalla F, Novelli A, Pellizzer G et al. Regional and systemic prophylaxis with teicoplanin in monolateral and bilateral total knee replacement procedures: study of pharmacokinetics and tissue penetration. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1993; 37: 2693-2698.
93. Gee T, Ellis R, Marshall G, Andrews J, Ashby J, Wise R. Pharmacokinetics and tissue penetration of linezolid following multiple oral doses. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2001; 45: 1843-1846.
94. Skhirtladze K, Hutschala D, Fleck T et al. Impaired target site penetration of vancomycin in diabetic patients following cardiac surgery. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2006; 50: 1372-1375.
95. Sun HK, Ong CT, Umer A et al. Pharmacokinetic profile of tigecycline in serum and skin blister fluid of healthy subjects after multiple intravenous administrations. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2005; 49: 1629-1632.
96. Wise R, Donovan IA, McNulty CA, Waldron R, Andrews JM. Teicoplanin, its pharmacokinetics, blister and peritoneal fluid penetration. J Hosp Infect 1986; 7(suppl A): 47-55.
97. Wise R, Gee T, Andrews JM, Dvorchik B, Marshall G. Pharmacokinetics and inflammatory fluid penetration of intravenous daptomycin in volunteers. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2002; 46: 31-33.
98. Saravolatz LD, Stein GE, Johnson LB. Ceftaroline: a novel cephalosporin with activity against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Clin Infect Dis 2011; 52: 1156-1163.
99. Pfizer Labs. Vancomycin Hydrochloride [prescribing information]. NY, USA: Pfizer Labs, 2010.
100. Cubist Pharmaceuticals, Inc. Cubicin [prescribing information]. MA, USA: Cubist Pharmaceuticals, Inc, 2013.
101. Pfizer Limited. Tygacil [prescribing information]. Kent, CT: Pfizer Limited, 2012.
102. Biotechnology, Inc. Teicoplanin Complex [prescribing information]. CA, USA: Biotechnology, Inc, 2012.
103. Sanofi-aventis. Targocid [summary of product characteristics]. Surrey, UK: Sanofi-aventis, 2013.
104. Pharmacia Limited. ZYVOX 600 mg Film-Coated Tablets [summary of product characteristics]. Sandwich, UK: Pharmacia Limited, 2011.
105. Welshman IR, Sisson TA, Jungbluth GL, Stalker DJ, Hopkins NK. Linezolid absolute bioavailability and the effect of food on oral bioavailability. Biopharm Drug Dispos 2001; 22: 91-97.
106. Slatter JG, Adams LA, Bush EC et al. Pharmacokinetics, toxicokinetics, distribution, metabolism and excretion of linezolid in mouse, rat and dog. Xenobiotica 2002; 32: 907-924.
107. Stein GE, Schooley S, Peloquin CA, Missavage A, Havlichek DH. Linezolid tissue penetration and serum activity against strains of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus with reduced vancomycin susceptibility in diabetic patients with foot infections. J Antimicrob Chemother 2007; 60: 819-823.
108. Stein GE, Wells EM. The importance of tissue penetration in achieving successful antimicrobial treatment of nosocomial pneumonia and complicated skin and soft-tissue infections caused by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: vancomycin and linezolid. Curr Med Res Opin 2010; 26: 571-588.
109. MacGregor RR, Graziani AL. Oral administration of antibiotics: a rational alternative to the parenteral route. Clin Infect Dis 1997; 24: 457-467.
110. Peppard WJ, Weigelt JA. Role of linezolid in the treatment of complicated skin and soft tissue infections. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2006; 4: 357-366.
111. Itani KM, Biswas P, Reisman A, Bhattacharyya H, Baruch AM. Clinical efficacy of oral linezolid compared with intravenous vancomycin for the treatment of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus-complicated skin and soft tissue infections: a retrospective, propensity score-matched, case-control analysis. Clin Ther 2012; 34: 1667-1673.
112. Lee SL, Azmi S, Wong PS. Clinicians' knowledge, beliefs and acceptance of intravenous-to-oral antibiotic switching, Hospital Pulau Pinang. Med J Malaysia 2012; 67: 190-198.
113. Mertz D, Koller M, Haller P et al. Outcomes of early switching from intravenous to oral antibiotics on medical wards. J Antimicrob Chemother 2009; 64: 188-199.
114. Bamford KB, Desai M, Aruede MJ, Lawson W, Jacklin A, Franklin BD. Patients' views and experience of intravenous and oral antimicrobial therapy: room for change. Injury 2011; 42 (suppl 5): S24-S27.
115. Dryden M, Saeed K, Townsend R et al. Antibiotic stewardship and early discharge from hospital: impact of a structured approach to antimicrobial management. J Antimicrob Chemother 2012; 67: 2289-2296.
116. Goff DA, Bauer KA, Reed EE, Stevenson KB, Taylor JJ, West JE. Is the "low-hanging fruit" worth picking for antimicrobial stewardship programs? Clin Infect Dis 2012; 55: 587-592.
117. Buyle FM, Metz-Gercek S, Mechtler R et al. Prospective multicentre feasibility study of a quality of care indicator for intravenous to oral switch therapy with highly bioavailable antibiotics. J Antimicrob Chemother 2012; 67: 2043-2046.
118. Lim SC, Doshi V, Castasus B, Lim JK, Mamun K. Factors causing delay in discharge of elderly patients in an acute care hospital. Ann Acad Med Singapore 2006; 35: 27-32.
119. Nathwani D. Impact of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections on key health economic outcomes: does reducing the length of hospital stay matter? J Antimicrob Chemother 2003; 51(suppl 2): ii37-ii44.
120. Ward WJ Jr, Spragens L, Smithson K. Building the business case for clinical quality. Healthc Financ Manage 2006; 60: 92-98.
121. Gray A, Dryden M, Charos A. Antibiotic management and early discharge from hospital: an economic analysis. J Antimicrob Chemother 2012; 67: 2297-2302.
122. Nathwani D, Eckmann C, Lawson W et al. Pan-European study of real-world treatment patterns and early switch/early discharge opportunities in patients with complicated skin and soft tissue infections due to methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: study methodology and interim results. Clin Microbiol Infect 2012; 18: 711 Abstract LB2805.
123. Biedenbach DJ, Farrell DJ, Mendes RE, Ross JE, Jones RN. Stability of linezolid activity in an era of mobile oxazolidinone resistance determinants: results from the 2009 Zyvox(R) Annual Appraisal of Potency and Spectrum program. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2010; 68: 459-467.
124. Flamm RK, Mendes RE, Ross JE, Sader HS, Jones RN. An international activity and spectrum analysis of linezolid: ZAAPS Program results for 2011. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2013; 76: 206-213.
125. Flamm RK, Mendes RE, Ross JE, Sader HS, Jones RN. Linezolid surveillance results for the United States: LEADER surveillance program 2011. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2013; 57: 1077-1081.
126. Meka VG, Pillai SK, Sakoulas G et al. Linezolid resistance in sequential Staphylococcus aureus isolates associated with a T2500A mutation in the 23S rRNA gene and loss of a single copy of rRNA. J Infect Dis 2004; 190: 311-317.
127. Sanchez GM, De la Torre MA, Morales G et al. Clinical outbreak of linezolid-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in an intensive care unit. JAMA 2010; 303: 2260-2264.
128. Tsiodras S, Gold HS, Sakoulas G et al. Linezolid resistance in a clinical isolate of Staphylococcus aureus. Lancet 2001; 358: 207-208.
129. Kelly S, Collins J, Maguire M et al. An outbreak of colonization with linezolid-resistant Staphylococcus epidermidis in an intensive therapy unit. J Antimicrob Chemother 2008; 61: 901-907.
130. Schulte B, Heininger A, Autenrieth IB, Wolz C. Emergence of increasing linezolid-resistance in enterococci in a post-outbreak situation with vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium. Epidemiol Infect 2008; 136: 1131-1133.
131. Farrell DJ, Mendes RE, Ross JE, Sader HS, Jones RN. LEADER Program results for 2009: an activity and spectrum analysis of linezolid using 6, 414 clinical isolates from 56 medical centers in the United States. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2011; 55: 3684-3690.
132. ® Annual Appraisal of Potency and Spectrum; ZAAPS) program in European countries. J Chemother 2011; 23: 71-76.
133. Jones RN, Sader HS, Flamm RK, Streit JM, Mendes RE, Castanheira M. Resistance surveillance programme report for European nations. 23rd European Congress of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases; 27-30 April 2013, Berlin, Germany. Poster P1503. Available at: http://www.escmid.org/escmid_library/online_lecture_library/
134. Melo-Cristino J, Resina C, Manuel V, Lito L, Ramirez M. First case of infection with vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in Europe. Lancet 2013; 382: 205. 20 June, 2013. [Epub ahead of print].
135. Corey GR, Wilcox MH, Talbot GH, Thye D, Friedland D, Baculik T. CANVAS 1: the first phase III, randomized, double-blind study evaluating ceftaroline fosamil for the treatment of patients with complicated skin and skin structure infections. J Antimicrob Chemother 2010; 65(suppl 4): iv41-iv51.
136. Ellis-Grosse EJ, Babinchak T, Dartois N, Rose G, Loh E. The efficacy and safety of tigecycline in the treatment of skin and skin-structure infections: results of 2 double-blind phase 3 comparison studies with vancomycin-aztreonam. Clin Infect Dis 2005; 41(suppl 5): S341-S353.
137. Itani KM, Dryden MS, Bhattacharyya H, Kunkel MJ, Baruch AM, Weigelt JA. Efficacy and safety of linezolid versus vancomycin for the treatment of complicated skin and soft-tissue infections proven to be caused by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Am J Surg 2010; 199: 804-816.
138. Nathwani D, Davey PG, Marwick CA. MRSA: treating people with infection. Clin Evid 2010; 19: 58-63.
139. van Hal SJ, Paterson DL. New Gram-positive antibiotics: better than vancomycin? Curr Opin Infect Dis 2011; 24: 515-520.
140. Wilcox MH, Corey GR, Talbot GH, Thye D, Friedland D, Baculik T. CANVAS 2: the second phase III, randomized, double-blind study evaluating ceftaroline fosamil for the treatment of patients with complicated skin and skin structure infections. J Antimicrob Chemother 2010; 65(suppl 4): iv53-iv65.
141. Falcone M, Russo A, Pompeo ME et al. Retrospective case-control analysis of patients with staphylococcal infections receiving daptomycin or glycopeptide therapy. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2012; 39: 64-68.
142. Drabu YJ, Walsh B, Blakemore PH, Mehtar S. Teicoplanin in infections caused by methicillin-resistant staphylococci. J Antimicrob Chemother 1988; 21(suppl A): 89-92.
143. Lang E, Foldes M, Marghescu S. Teicoplanin in the treatment of skin and soft tissue infections: results of a multicentre study. Infection 1991; 19: 190-194.
144. Turpin PJ, Taylor GP, Logan MN, Wood MJ. Teicoplanin in the treatment of skin and soft tissue infections. J Antimicrob Chemother 1988; 21(suppl A): 117-122.
145. Pachon J, Prados D, Palomino J, Cantos A, Cisneros JM, Vaquero F. Efficacy and safety of teicoplanin in infections caused by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. J Antimicrob Chemother 1996; 37: 197-200.
146. Sharpe JN, Shively EH, Polk HC Jr. Clinical and economic outcomes of oral linezolid versus intravenous vancomycin in the treatment of MRSA-complicated, lower-extremity skin and soft-tissue infections caused by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Am J Surg 2005; 189: 425-428.
147. Duane TM, Weigelt JA, Puzniak LA, Huang DB. Linezolid and vancomycin in treatment of lower-extremity complicated skin and skin structure infections caused by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in patients with and without vascular disease. Surg Infect (Larchmt) 2012; 13: 147-153.
148. Tice AD, Equil O, Huang DB, Stevens D. The impact of linezolid versus vancomycin treatment on the resolution of local signs of inflammation of complicated skin and skin structure infections caused by culture-proven methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Clin Microbiol Infect 2012; 17: s438 Poster P1535.
149. Duane TM, Capitano B, Puzniak LA, Biswas P, Huang DB, Joshi M. The impact of linezolid versus vancomycin on surgical interventions for complicated skin and skin structure infections caused by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Presented at: Infectious Diseases Society of America and the HIV Medicine Association; October 20-23, 2011; Boston, MA, USA. Poster 571.
150. Nukui Y, Hatakeyama S, Okamoto K et al. High plasma linezolid concentration and impaired renal function affect development of linezolid-induced thrombocytopenia. J Antimicrob Chemother 2013; 68: 2128-2133.
151. Brier ME, Stalker DJ, Aronoff GR et al. Pharmacokinetics of linezolid in subjects with renal dysfunction. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2003; 47: 2775-2780.
152. Dryden MS. Linezolid pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics in clinical treatment. J Antimicrob Chemother 2011; 66(suppl 4): iv7-iv15.
153. Janson B, Thursky K. Dosing of antibiotics in obesity. Curr Opin Infect Dis 2012; 25: 634-649.
154. Pai MP, Bearden DT. Antimicrobial dosing considerations in obese adult patients. Pharmacotherapy 2007; 27: 1081-1091.
155. Stein GE, Schooley SL, Peloquin CA et al. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of linezolid in obese patients with cellulitis. Ann Pharmacother 2005; 39: 427-432.
156. Bhalodi AA, Papasavas PK, Tishler DS, Nicolau DP, Kuti JL. Pharmacokinetics (PK) of intravenous (IV) linezolid (LZD) in moderately to morbidly obese adults. Presented at: 52nd Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy; September 9-12, 2012; San Francisco, CA, USA. Poster A-1287
157. Rubinstein E, Isturiz R, Standiford HC et al. Worldwide assessment of linezolid's clinical safety and tolerability: comparator-controlled phase III studies. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2003; 47: 1824-1831.
158. Gerson SL, Kaplan SL, Bruss JB et al. Hematologic effects of linezolid: summary of clinical experience. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2002; 46: 2723-2726.
159. Attassi K, Hershberger E, Alam R, Zervos MJ. Thrombocytopenia associated with linezolid therapy. Clin Infect Dis 2002; 34: 695-698.
160. Wilcox MH, Tack KJ, Bouza E et al. Complicated skin and skin-structure infections and catheter-related bloodstream infections: noninferiority of linezolid in a phase 3 study. Clin Infect Dis 2009; 48: 203-212.
161. LaPlante KL, Sakoulas G. Evaluating aztreonam and ceftazidime pharmacodynamics with Escherichia coli in combination with daptomycin, linezolid, or vancomycin in an in vitro pharmacodynamic model. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2009; 53: 4549-4555.
162. Hanna D, Kuhn M, Irvine B et al. Pharmacokinetic/Pharmacodynamic (PK/PD) Analysis of Linezolid (LZD) in Combination with Aztreonam (ATM) and Ceftazidime (CAZ) against E. coli: use of in vitro PK models to assess combinations at therapeutically relevant drug concentrations. Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy.