Bacterial skin and soft tissue infections: Review of the epidemiology, microbiology, aetiopathogenesis and treatment: A collaboration between dermatologists and infectivologists

Journal of the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology

Volumn 26, Issue 8, 2012, Pages 931-941

  Tognetti, L ^a   Martinelli, C ^b   Berti, S ^a   Hercogova, J ^c   Lotti, T ^d   Leoncini, F ^b   Moretti, S ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF FLORENCE   (Italy)

^b CAREGGI UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL   (Italy)

^c CHARLES UNIVERSITY   (Czech Republic)

^d GUGLIELMO MARCONI UNIVERSITY   (Italy)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AMOXICILLIN PLUS CLAVULANIC ACID; ANTIBIOTIC AGENT; ANTIINFECTIVE AGENT; BETA LACTAM ANTIBIOTIC; CARBAPENEM DERIVATIVE; CEFALEXIN; CEFAZOLIN; CEFTRIAXONE; CEPHALOSPORIN DERIVATIVE; CLINDAMYCIN; COTRIMOXAZOLE; DAPTOMYCIN; DOXYCYCLINE; ERYTHROMYCIN; FUSIDIC ACID; LINEZOLID; METRONIDAZOLE; MINOCYCLINE; OXACILLIN; PENICILLIN DERIVATIVE; PENICILLIN G; PROCAINE PENICILLIN; PSEUDOMONIC ACID; QUINOLINE DERIVED ANTIINFECTIVE AGENT; SULTAMICILLIN; TELAVANCIN; TETRACYCLINE DERIVATIVE; TIGECYCLINE; UNINDEXED DRUG; VANCOMYCIN;

ABSCESS; ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE; ANTIBIOTIC THERAPY; ANTIMICROBIAL THERAPY; BACTERIUM ISOLATION; CELLULITIS; CLINICAL FEATURE; CONSTIPATION; DEBRIDEMENT; DIAGNOSTIC IMAGING; DISEASE SEVERITY; EARLY DIAGNOSIS; ECTHYMA; EPIDEMIC; ERYSIPELAS; GRAM POSITIVE BACTERIUM; HEADACHE; HISTORY; HUMAN; HYPERBARIC OXYGEN; IMPETIGO; INCIDENCE; INJECTION SITE REACTION; LABORATORY TEST; MULTIDRUG RESISTANCE; MUSCLE NECROSIS; NAUSEA; NECROTIZING FASCIITIS; NONHUMAN; PATHOGENESIS; PHYSICAL EXAMINATION; PREVALENCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SKIN AND SOFT TISSUE INFECTION; SKIN INFECTION; SOFT TISSUE INFECTION; STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS; STREPTOCOCCUS PYOGENES; SURGICAL DRAINAGE; SURGICAL INFECTION; SYSTEMIC THERAPY; TREATMENT DURATION; TREATMENT INDICATION; VOMITING; WOUND INFECTION;

BACTERIAL INFECTIONS; COOPERATIVE BEHAVIOR; DERMATOLOGY; HUMANS; INFECTIOUS DISEASE MEDICINE; SKIN DISEASES; STRUCTURE-ACTIVITY RELATIONSHIP;

EID: 84864285856     PISSN: 09269959     EISSN: 14683083     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-3083.2011.04416.x     Document Type: Review

References (61)

1. Stevens DL, Bisno AL, Chambers HF, et al. Practice guidelines for the diagnosis and management of skin and soft-tissue infections. Clin Infect Dis 2005; 41: 1373-1406.
2. Ki V, Rotstein C,. Bacterial skin and soft tissue infections in adults: a review of their epidemiology, pathogenesis, diagnosis, treatment and site of care. Can J Infect Dis Med Microbiol 2008; 19: 173-184.
3. Templer SJ, Brito MO,. Bacterial skin and soft tissue infections. 2009. URL (last accessed: 20 November 2011).
4. May AK,. Skin and soft tissue infections. Surg Clin N Am 2009; 89: 403-420.
5. Jones ME, Karlowsky A, Draghi D, et al. Epidemiology and antibiotic susceptibility of bacteria causing skin and soft tissue infections in the USA and Europe: a guide to appropriate antimicrobial therapy. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2003; 22: 406-419.
6. Abrahamian FM, Talan DA, Moran GJ,. Management of skin and soft-tissue infections in the emergency department. Infect Dis Clin North Am 2008; 22: 89-116.
7. Pretorius J,. Skin and soft-tissue infections: the early clinical presentation of soft-tissue infections may be deceptive. CME 2010; 28: 265-269.
8. Di Nubile MJ, Lipsky BA,. Complicated infections of skin and skin structures: when the infection is more than skin deep. J Antimicrob Chemother 2004; 53: 37-50.
9. Vinh DC, Embil JM,. Rapidly progressive soft tissue infections. Lancet Infect Dis 2005; 5: 501-513.
10. Hersh AL, Chambers HF, Maselli JH, Gonzales R,. National trends in ambulatory visits and antibiotic prescribing for skin and soft tissue infections. Arch Intern Med 2008; 168: 1585-1591.
11. Simonsen E, van Orman ER, Hatch BE, et al. Cellulitis incidence in a defined population. Epidemiol Infect 2006; 134: 293-299.
12. Martinelli C, Giorgini S, Giuntini R, et al. Infezioni batteriche della cute e dei tessuti sottocutanei. Giorn It Mal Inf 2004; 10: 170-176.
13. Chiller K, Selkin BA, Murakawa GJ,. Skin microflora and bacterial infections of the skin. J Inv Dermatol Symp Proc 2001; 6: 170-174.
14. Dryden MS,. Skin and soft tissue infection: microbiology and epidemiology. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2009; 34: 2-7.
15. Bowler PG, Duerden BI, Armstrong DG,. Wound microbiology and associated approaches to wound management. Clin Microbiol Rev 2001; 14: 244-269.
16. BjörnsdAttir S, Gottfredsson M, ThArisdAttir AS, et al. Risk factors for acute cellulitis of the lower limb: a prospective case-control study. Clin Infect Dis 2005; 41: 1416-1422.
17. Eron LJ, Lipsky BA, Low DE, et al. Managing skin and soft tissue infections: expert panel recommendations on key decision point. J Antimicrob Chemoter 2003; 52: 3-17.
18. Merlino JI, Malangoni MA,. Complicated skin and soft-tissue infections: diagnostic approach and empiric treatment options. Cleve Clin J Med 2007; 74: 21-28.
19. Stryjewski ME, Chambers HF,. Skin and soft-tissue infections caused by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Clin Inf Dis 2008; 46: 368-377.
20. Eells SJ, Chira S, David CG,. Non-suppurative cellulitis: risk factors and its association with Staphylococcus aureus colonization in an area of endemic community-associated methicillin-resistant S. aureus infections. Epidemiol Infect 2011; 139: 606-612.
21. Parchman ML, Munoz A,. Risk factors for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcal aureus skin and soft tissue infections presenting in primary care: A South Texas Ambulatory Research Network (STARNet) Study. J Am Board Fam Med 2009; 22: 375-379.
22. Swartz MN, Pasternack MS,. Cellulitis and subcutaneous tissue infections. In, Mandell GL, Bennet JE, Dolin R, eds. Mandell, Douglas and Bennett's Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases, 6th edn. Elsevier Churchill Livingstone, Philadelphia, 2005: 1172-1194.
23. Chiller K, Selkin BA, Murakawa GJ,. Skin microflora and bacterial infections of the skin. JID Symp Proc 2001; 6: 70-174.
24. Chambers HF,. The changing epidemiology of Staphylococcus aureus? Emerg Infect Dis 2001; 7: 178-182.
25. Ferry T, Etienne J,. Community acquired MRSA in Europe. BMJ 2007; 335: 947-978.
26. European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control. Antimicrobial resistance surveillance in Europe 2009. Annual Report of the European Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance Network (EARS-Net). Stockholm, ECD. 2010. URL (last accessed: 16 September 2011).
27. Moran GJ, Krishnadasan A, Gorwitz RJ, et al. EMERGEncy ID Net Study Group. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections among patients in the emergency department. N Engl J Med 2006; 355: 666-674.
28. Popovich KJ, Weinstein RA, Hota B,. Are community-associated methicillinresistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) strains replacing traditional nosocomial MRSA strains? Clin Infect Dis 2008; 46: 787-794.
29. Deleo FR, Otto M, Kreiswirth BN, Chambers HF,. Community-associated meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Lancet 2010; 375: 1557-1568.
30. Valentini P, Parisi G, Monaco M, et al. An uncommon presentation for a severe invasive infection due to methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus clone USA300 in Italy: a case report. Ann Clin Microbiol Antimicrob 2008; 7: 11.
31. King MD, Humphrey BJ, Wang YF,. Emergence of community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus USA 300 clone as the predominant cause of skin and soft-tissue infections. Ann Intern Med 2006; 144: 309-317.
32. Pallin DJ, Egan DJ, Pelletrier AJ, et al. Increased US emergency department visits for skin and soft tissue infections, and changes in antibiotic choices, during the emergence of community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Ann Emerg Med 2008; 51: 291-298.
33. Adam HJ, Allen VG, Currie A, et al. Community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: prevalence in skin and soft tissue infections at emergency departments in the greater Toronto area and associated risk factors. CJEM 2009; 11: 439-446.
34. Stenstrom R, Grafstein E, Romney M, et al. Prevalence of and risk factors for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus skin and soft tissue infection in a Canadian emergency department. CJEM 2009; 11: 430-438.
35. Forcade NA, Parchman ML, Jorgensen JH, et al. Prevalence, severity and treatment of community-acquired methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (CA-MRSA) skin and soft tissue infections in 10 medical clinics in Texas: a south Texas ambulatory research network (STARNet) study. J Am Board Fam Med 2011; 24: 543-550.
36. Lipsky BA, Tabak YP, Johannes RS, et al. Skin and soft tissue infections in hospitalised patients with diabetes: culture isolates and risk factors associated with mortality, length of stay and cost. Diabetologia 2010; 53: 914-923.
37. Maree ACL, Daum RS, Boyle-Vavra S, et al. Community associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolates causing healthcare-associated infections. Emerg Infect Dis 2007; 3: 236-242.
38. Skiest DJ, Brown K, Cooper TW, et al. Prospective comparison of methicillin-susceptible and methicillin-resistant community-associated Staphylococcus aureus infections in hospitalized patients. J Infect 2007; 54: 427-434.
39. Love BL,. Management of complicated skin and soft tissue infections in hospitalized patients. US Pharm 2007; 32: 5-12.
40. Majeski JA, John JF Jr,. Necrotizing soft tissue infections: a guide to early diagnosis and initial therapy. South Med J 2003; 96: 900-905.
41. Swartz MN,. Cellulitis. N Engl J Med 2004; 350: 904-912.
42. Davis L, Cole JA, Benbenisty K,. Erysipelas. 2010. URL (last accessed: 20 November 2011).
43. El-Maghraby TA, Moustafa HM, Pauwels EK,. Nuclear medicine methods for evaluation of skeletal infection among other diagnostic modalities. Q J Nuc Med Mol Imaging 2006; 50: 167-192.
44. Chata DS, Cunningham PM, Schweitzer ME,. MR imaging of the diabetic foot: diagnostic challenges. Radiol Clin North Am 2005; 43: 747-759.
45. Childers BJ, Potyondy LD, Nachreiner R, et al. Necrotizing fasciitis: a fourteen-years retrospective study of 163 consecutive patients. Am Surg 2002; 68: 109-116.
46. Jallali N, Withey S, Butler PE,. Hyperbaric oxygen as adjuvant therapy in the management of necrotizing fasciitis. Am J Surg 2005; 189: 462-466.
47. Fung HB, Chang JY, Kuczynski S,. A pratical guide to the treatment of complicated skin and soft tissue infections. Drugs 2003; 63: 1459-1480.
48. Liu C, Bayer A, Cosgrove AE, et al. Clinical practice guidelines by the infectious diseases society of America for the treatment of methicillin- resistant Staphylococcus aureaus infections in adults and children. Clin Inf Dis 2011; 52: e18-e55.
49. Swartz MN, Pasternack MS,. Myositis. In, Mandell GL, Bennet JE, Dolin R, eds. Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett's Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases, 6th edn. Elsevier Churchill Livingstone, Philadelphia, 2005: 1195-1204.
50. Norrby-Teglund A, Haul R, Low DE, et al. Evidence for the presence of streptococcal- superantigen neutralising antibodies in normal polyspecific immunoglobulin O. Infect Immun 1996; 64: 5395-5398.
51. Cawley MJ, Briggs M, Haith LR Jr, et al. Intravenous immunoglobulin as adjunctive treatment for streptococcal toxic shock syndrome associated with necrotizing fasciitis: case report and review. Pharmacotherapy 1999; 19: 1094-1098.
52. Provan D, Nokes TJC, Agrawal S, et al. Clinical Guidelines for Immunoglobulin Use, 2nd edn. Department of Health, London, 2008, 62.
53. Aakalu VK, Sajja K, Cook J, et al. Group A streptococcal necrotizing fasciitis of the eyelids and face managed with debridement and adjunctive intravenous immunoglobulin. Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg 2009; 25: 332-334.
54. Floris J, Logman S, Stephens J, et al. Comparative effectiveness of antibiotics for the treatment of MRSA complicated skin and soft tissue infections. Curr Med Res Opin 2010; 26: 1565-1578.
55. Frazee BW, Lynn J, Charlebois ED, et al. High prevalence of methicillinresistant Staphylococcus aureus in emergency department skin and soft tissue infections. Ann Emerg Med 2005; 45: 311-322.
56. Lewis JS 2nd, Jorgensen JH,. Inducible resistance in staphylococci: should clinicians and microbiologists be concerned? Clin Infect Dis 2005; 40: 280-285.
57. Carpenter CF, Chambers HF,. Daptomycin: another novel agent for treating infections due to drug-resistant gram-positive pathogens. Clin Infect Dis 2004; 38: 994-1000.
58. Keating GM, Perry CM,. Ertapenem: a review of its use in the treatment of bacterial infections. Drugs 2005; 65: 2151-2178.
59. Tellado J, Woods GL, Gesser R, et al. Ertapenem versus piperacillin-tazobactam for treatment of mixed anaerobic complicated intra-abdominal, complicated skin and skin structure, and acute pelvic infections. Surg Infect 2002; 3: 303-314.
60. Moellering RC,. Linezolid: the first oxazolidinone antimicrobial. Ann Intern Med 2003; 138: 135-142.
61. Doan TL, Fung HB, Mehta D, Riska PF,. Tigecycline: a glycylcycline antimicrobial agent. Clin Therap 2006; 28: 1079-1106.