Pathogenesis and Prevention of Intraventricular Hemorrhage

Clinics in Perinatology

Volumn 41, Issue 1, 2014, Pages 47-67

  Ballabh, Praveen ^a  

^a WESTCHESTER MEDICAL CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

Angiogenesis; Astrocytes; Germinal matrix hemorrhage; Glucocorticoids; Indomethacin; Intraventricular hemorrhage; Pericytes; Premature infants

Indexed keywords

ANGIOGENESIS; ASTROCYTES; GERMINAL MATRIX HEMORRHAGE; GLUCOCORTICOIDS; INDOMETHACIN; INTRAVENTRICULAR HEMORRHAGE; PERICYTES; PREMATURE INFANTS;

ASTROCYTES; BASEMENT MEMBRANE; CEREBRAL HEMORRHAGE; CEREBRAL VENTRICLES; CEREBROVASCULAR CIRCULATION; FIBRONECTINS; GLIAL FIBRILLARY ACIDIC PROTEIN; GLUCOCORTICOIDS; HUMANS; INFANT, NEWBORN; INFANT, PREMATURE; INFANT, PREMATURE, DISEASES; NEOVASCULARIZATION, PHYSIOLOGIC; PERICYTES;

EID: 84893788851     PISSN: 00955108     EISSN: 15579840     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.clp.2013.09.007     Document Type: Review

References (125)

1. Fanaroff A.A., Stoll B.J., Wright L.L., et al. Trends in neonatal morbidity and mortality for very low birthweight infants. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2007, 196(2):147.e1-147.e8.
2. Jain N.J., Kruse L.K., Demissie K., et al. Impact of mode of delivery on neonatal complications: trends between 1997 and 2005. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med 2009, 22(6):491-500.
3. Sherlock R.L., Anderson P.J., Doyle L.W., et al. Neurodevelopmental sequelae of intraventricular haemorrhage at 8 years of age in a regional cohort of ELBW/very preterm infants. Early Hum Dev 2005, 81(11):909-916.
4. Luu T.M., Ment L.R., Schneider K.C., et al. Lasting effects of preterm birth and neonatal brain hemorrhage at 12 years of age. Pediatrics 2009, 123(3):1037-1044.
5. Indredavik M.S., Vik T., Evensen K.A., et al. Perinatal risk and psychiatric outcome in adolescents born preterm with very low birth weight or term small for gestational age. J Dev Behav Pediatr 2010, 31(4):286-294.
6. Nosarti C., Giouroukou E., Micali N., et al. Impaired executive functioning in young adults born very preterm. J Int Neuropsychol Soc 2007, 13(4):571-581.
7. Whitaker A.H., Feldman J.F., Lorenz J.M., et al. Neonatal head ultrasound abnormalities in preterm infants and adolescent psychiatric disorders. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2011, 68(7):742-752.
8. Rushing S., Ment L.R. Preterm birth: a cost benefit analysis. Semin Perinatol 2004, 28(6):444-450.
9. McCrea H.J., Ment L.R. The diagnosis, management, and postnatal prevention of intraventricular hemorrhage in the preterm neonate. Clin Perinatol 2008, 35(4):777-792. vii.
10. Ballabh P. Intraventricular hemorrhage in premature infants: mechanism of disease. Pediatr Res 2010, 67(1):1-8.
11. Ballabh P., Braun A., Nedergaard M. The blood-brain barrier: an overview: structure, regulation, and clinical implications. Neurobiol Dis 2004, 16(1):1-13.
12. Persidsky Y., Ramirez S.H., Haorah J., et al. Blood-brain barrier: structural components and function under physiologic and pathologic conditions. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol 2006, 1(3):223-236.
13. Ballabh P., Xu H., Hu F., et al. Angiogenic inhibition reduces germinal matrix hemorrhage. Nat Med 2007, 13(4):477-485.
14. Ballabh P., Braun A., Nedergaard M. Anatomic analysis of blood vessels in germinal matrix, cerebral cortex, and white matter in developing infants. Pediatr Res 2004, 56(1):117-124.
15. Sa-Pereira I., Brites D., Brito M.A. Neurovascular unit: a focus on pericytes. Mol Neurobiol 2012, 45(2):327-347.
16. Balabanov R., Dore-Duffy P. Role of the CNS microvascular pericyte in the blood-brain barrier. J Neurosci Res 1998, 53(6):637-644.
17. Jain R.K. Molecular regulation of vessel maturation. Nat Med 2003, 9(6):685-693.
18. Armulik A., Genove G., Mae M., et al. Pericytes regulate the blood-brain barrier. Nature 2010, 468(7323):557-561.
19. Hirschi K.K., D'Amore P.A. Control of angiogenesis by the pericyte: molecular mechanisms and significance. EXS 1997, 79:419-428.
20. Gaengel K., Genove G., Armulik A., et al. Endothelial-mural cell signaling in vascular development and angiogenesis. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2009, 29(5):630-638.
21. Lindahl P., Johansson B.R., Leveen P., et al. Pericyte loss and microaneurysm formation in PDGF-B-deficient mice. Science 1997, 277(5323):242-245.
22. Braun A., Xu H., Hu F., et al. Paucity of pericytes in germinal matrix vasculature of premature infants. J Neurosci 2007, 27(44):12012-12024.
23. Stratman A.N., Davis G.E. Endothelial cell-pericyte interactions stimulate basement membrane matrix assembly: influence on vascular tube remodeling, maturation, and stabilization. Microsc Microanal 2012, 18(1):68-80.
24. Tilling T., Engelbertz C., Decker S., et al. Expression and adhesive properties of basement membrane proteins in cerebral capillary endothelial cell cultures. Cell Tissue Res 2002, 310(1):19-29.
25. Hallmann R., Horn N., Selg M., et al. Expression and function of laminins in the embryonic and mature vasculature. Physiol Rev 2005, 85(3):979-1000.
26. Forsberg E., Kjellen L. Heparan sulfate: lessons from knockout mice. J Clin Invest 2001, 108(2):175-180.
27. Gould D.B., Phalan F.C., Breedveld G.J., et al. Mutations in Col4a1 cause perinatal cerebral hemorrhage and porencephaly. Science 2005, 308(5725):1167-1171.
28. George E.L., Georges-Labouesse E.N., Patel-King R.S., et al. Defects in mesoderm, neural tube and vascular development in mouse embryos lacking fibronectin. Development 1993, 119(4):1079-1091.
29. Xu H., Hu F., Sado Y., et al. Maturational changes in laminin, fibronectin, collagen IV, and perlecan in germinal matrix, cortex, and white matter and effect of betamethasone. J Neurosci Res 2008, 86(7):1482-1500.
30. Mao Y., Schwarzbauer J.E. Fibronectin fibrillogenesis, a cell-mediated matrix assembly process. Matrix Biol 2005, 24(6):389-399.
31. Sottile J., Hocking D.C., Langenbach K.J. Fibronectin polymerization stimulates cell growth by RGD-dependent and -independent mechanisms. J Cell Sci 2000, 113(Pt 23):4287-4299.
32. Anstrom J.A., Thore C.R., Moody D.M., et al. Morphometric assessment of collagen accumulation in germinal matrix vessels of premature human neonates. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 2005, 31(2):181-190.
33. Ment L.R., Stewart W.B., Ardito T.A., et al. Beagle pup germinal matrix maturation studies. Stroke 1991, 22(3):390-395.
34. Ment L.R., Stewart W.B., Ardito T.A., et al. Indomethacin promotes germinal matrix microvessel maturation in the newborn beagle pup. Stroke 1992, 23(8):1132-1137.
35. Hawkins B.T., Davis T.P. The blood-brain barrier/neurovascular unit in health and disease. Pharmacol Rev 2005, 57(2):173-185.
36. El-Khoury N., Braun A., Hu F., et al. Astrocyte end-feet in germinal matrix, cerebral cortex, and white matter in developing infants. Pediatr Res 2006, 59(5):673-679.
37. Liedtke W., Edelmann W., Bieri P.L., et al. GFAP is necessary for the integrity of CNS white matter architecture and long-term maintenance of myelination. Neuron 1996, 17(4):607-615.
38. Trimmer P.A., Reier P.J., Oh T.H., et al. An ultrastructural and immunocytochemical study of astrocytic differentiation in vitro: changes in the composition and distribution of the cellular cytoskeleton. J Neuroimmunol 1982, 2(3-4):235-260.
39. Ribotta M.G., Menet V., Privat A. Glial scar and axonal regeneration in the CNS: lessons from GFAP and vimentin transgenic mice. Acta Neurochir Suppl 2004, 89:87-92.
40. Mu D., Jiang X., Sheldon R.A., et al. Regulation of hypoxia-inducible factor 1alpha and induction of vascular endothelial growth factor in a rat neonatal stroke model. Neurobiol Dis 2003, 14(3):524-534.
41. Perlman J.M., McMenamin J.B., Volpe J.J. Fluctuating cerebral blood-flow velocity in respiratory-distress syndrome. Relation to the development of intraventricular hemorrhage. N Engl J Med 1983, 309(4):204-209.
42. Perlman J.M., Goodman S., Kreusser K.L., et al. Reduction in intraventricular hemorrhage by elimination of fluctuating cerebral blood-flow velocity in preterm infants with respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med 1985, 312(21):1353-1357.
43. Van Bel F., Van de Bor M., Stijnen T., et al. Aetiological role of cerebral blood-flow alterations in development and extension of peri-intraventricular haemorrhage. Dev Med Child Neurol 1987, 29(5):601-614.
44. Rennie J.M., South M., Morley C.J. Cerebral blood flow velocity variability in infants receiving assisted ventilation. Arch Dis Child 1987, 62(12):1247-1251.
45. Mullaart R.A., Hopman J.C., De Haan A.F., et al. Cerebral blood flow fluctuation in low-risk preterm newborns. Early Hum Dev 1992, 30(1):41-48.
46. Mullaart R.A., Hopman J.C., Rotteveel J.J., et al. Cerebral blood flow fluctuation in neonatal respiratory distress and periventricular haemorrhage. Early Hum Dev 1994, 37(3):179-185.
47. Coughtrey H., Rennie J.M., Evans D.H. Variability in cerebral blood flow velocity: observations over one minute in preterm babies. Early Hum Dev 1997, 47(1):63-70.
48. du Plessis A.J. Cerebrovascular injury in premature infants: current understanding and challenges for future prevention. Clin Perinatol 2008, 35(4):609-641. v.
49. Soul J.S., Hammer P.E., Tsuji M., et al. Fluctuating pressure-passivity is common in the cerebral circulation of sick premature infants. Pediatr Res 2007, 61(4):467-473.
50. Wong F.Y., Leung T.S., Austin T., et al. Impaired autoregulation in preterm infants identified by using spatially resolved spectroscopy. Pediatrics 2008, 121(3):e604-e611.
51. Caicedo A., De Smet D., Naulaers G., et al. Cerebral tissue oxygenation and regional oxygen saturation can be used to study cerebral autoregulation in prematurely born infants. Pediatr Res 2011, 69(6):548-553.
52. Tsuji M., Saul J.P., du Plessis A., et al. Cerebral intravascular oxygenation correlates with mean arterial pressure in critically ill premature infants. Pediatrics 2000, 106(4):625-632.
53. Alderliesten T., Lemmers P.M., Smarius J.J., et al. Cerebral oxygenation, extraction, and autoregulation in very preterm infants who develop peri-intraventricular hemorrhage. J Pediatr 2013, 162(4):698-704.e2.
54. Weindling A.M., Wilkinson A.R., Cook J., et al. Perinatal events which precede periventricular haemorrhage and leukomalacia in the newborn. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1985, 92(12):1218-1223.
55. Muller A.M., Morales C., Briner J., et al. Loss of CO2 reactivity of cerebral blood flow is associated with severe brain damage in mechanically ventilated very low birth weight infants. Eur J Paediatr Neurol 1997, 1(5-6):157-163.
56. Watkins A.M., West C.R., Cooke R.W. Blood pressure and cerebral haemorrhage and ischaemia in very low birthweight infants. Early Hum Dev 1989, 19(2):103-110.
57. Miall-Allen V.M., de Vries L.S., Whitelaw A.G. Mean arterial blood pressure and neonatal cerebral lesions. Arch Dis Child 1987, 62(10):1068-1069.
58. Lightburn M.H., Gauss C.H., Williams D.K., et al. Cerebral blood flow velocities in extremely low birth weight infants with hypotension and infants with normal blood pressure. J Pediatr 2009, 154(6):824-828.
59. Ghazi-Birry H.S., Brown W.R., Moody D.M., et al. Human germinal matrix: venous origin of hemorrhage and vascular characteristics. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 1997, 18(2):219-229.
60. Stonestreet B.S., McKnight A.J., Sadowska G., et al. Effects of duration of positive-pressure ventilation on blood-brain barrier function in premature lambs. J Appl Physiol 2000, 88(5):1672-1677.
61. Van de Bor M., Van Bel F., Lineman R., et al. Perinatal factors and periventricular-intraventricular hemorrhage in preterm infants. Am J Dis Child 1986, 140(11):1125-1130.
62. Wigglesworth J.S., Keith I.H., Girling D.J., et al. Hyaline membrane disease, alkali, and intraventricular haemorrhage. Arch Dis Child 1976, 51(10):755-762.
63. Dykes F.D., Lazzara A., Ahmann P., et al. Intraventricular hemorrhage: a prospective evaluation of etiopathogenesis. Pediatrics 1980, 66(1):42-49.
64. Crowther C.A., Crosby D.D., Henderson-Smart D.J. Vitamin K prior to preterm birth for preventing neonatal periventricular haemorrhage. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2010, (1). CD000229.
65. Beverley D.W., Pitts-Tucker T.J., Congdon P.J., et al. Prevention of intraventricular haemorrhage by fresh frozen plasma. Arch Dis Child 1985, 60(8):710-713.
66. Van de Bor M., Briet E., Van Bel F., et al. Hemostasis and periventricular-intraventricular hemorrhage of the newborn. Am J Dis Child 1986, 140(11):1131-1134.
67. Lupton B.A., Hill A., Whitfield M.F., et al. Reduced platelet count as a risk factor for intraventricular hemorrhage. Am J Dis Child 1988, 142(11):1222-1224.
68. Shirahata A., Nakamura T., Shimono M., et al. Blood coagulation findings and the efficacy of factor XIII concentrate in premature infants with intracranial hemorrhages. Thromb Res 1990, 57(5):755-763.
69. Bilguvar K., DiLuna M.L., Bizzarro M.J., et al. COL4A1 mutation in preterm intraventricular hemorrhage. J Pediatr 2009, 155(5):743-745.
70. Debus O., Koch H.G., Kurlemann G., et al. Factor V Leiden and genetic defects of thrombophilia in childhood porencephaly. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 1998, 78(2):F121-F124.
71. Gopel W., Gortner L., Kohlmann T., et al. Low prevalence of large intraventricular haemorrhage in very low birthweight infants carrying the factor V Leiden or prothrombin G20210A mutation. Acta Paediatr 2001, 90(9):1021-1024.
72. Ryckman K.K., Feenstra B., Shaffer J.R., et al. Replication of a genome-wide association study of birth weight in preterm neonates. J Pediatr 2012, 160(1):19-24.e4.
73. Gopel W., Hartel C., Ahrens P., et al. Interleukin-6-174-genotype, sepsis and cerebral injury in very low birth weight infants. Genes Immun 2006, 7(1):65-68.
74. Adcock K., Hedberg C., Loggins J., et al. The TNF-alpha -308, MCP-1 -2518 and TGF-beta1 +915 polymorphisms are not associated with the development of chronic lung disease in very low birth weight infants. Genes Immun 2003, 4(6):420-426.
75. Harteman J.C., Groenendaal F., van Haastert I.C., et al. Atypical timing and presentation of periventricular haemorrhagic infarction in preterm infants: the role of thrombophilia. Dev Med Child Neurol 2012, 54(2):140-147.
76. Vinukonda G., Dummula K., Malik S., et al. Effect of prenatal glucocorticoids on cerebral vasculature of the developing brain. Stroke 2010, 41(8):1766-1773.
77. Jain R.K. Normalization of tumor vasculature: an emerging concept in antiangiogenic therapy. Science 2005, 307(5706):58-62.
78. Winkler F., Kozin S.V., Tong R.T., et al. Kinetics of vascular normalization by VEGFR2 blockade governs brain tumor response to radiation: role of oxygenation, angiopoietin-1, and matrix metalloproteinases. Cancer Cell 2004, 6(6):553-563.
79. Meadow W.L., Bell A., Sunstein C.R. Statistics, not memories: what was the standard of care for administering antenatal steroids to women in preterm labor between 1985 and 2000α. Obstet Gynecol 2003, 102(2):356-362.
80. Roberts D., Dalziel S. Antenatal corticosteroids for accelerating fetal lung maturation for women at risk of preterm birth. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2006, (3). CD004454.
81. Shankaran S., Bauer C.R., Bain R., et al. Relationship between antenatal steroid administration and grades III and IV intracranial hemorrhage in low birth weight infants. The NICHD Neonatal Research Network. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1995, 173(1):305-312.
82. Cambonie G., Mesnage R., Milesi C., et al. Betamethasone impairs cerebral blood flow velocities in very premature infants with severe chronic lung disease. J Pediatr 2008, 152(2):270-275.
83. Lohle M., Muller T., Wicher C., et al. Betamethasone effects on fetal sheep cerebral blood flow are not dependent on maturation of cerebrovascular system and pituitary-adrenal axis. J Physiol 2005, 564(Pt 2):575-588.
84. Brownfoot F.C., Crowther C.A., Middleton P. Different corticosteroids and regimens for accelerating fetal lung maturation for women at risk of preterm birth. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2008, (4). CD006764.
85. Wapner R., Jobe A.H. Controversy: antenatal steroids. Clin Perinatol 2011, 38(3):529-545.
86. Feldman D.M., Carbone J., Belden L., et al. Betamethasone vs dexamethasone for the prevention of morbidity in very-low-birthweight neonates. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2007, 197(3):284.e1-284.e4.
87. Baud O., Foix-L'Helias L., Kaminski M., et al. Antenatal glucocorticoid treatment and cystic periventricular leukomalacia in very premature infants. N Engl J Med 1999, 341(16):1190-1196.
88. Lee B.H., Stoll B.J., McDonald S.A., et al. Adverse neonatal outcomes associated with antenatal dexamethasone versus antenatal betamethasone. Pediatrics 2006, 117(5):1503-1510.
89. Shankaran S., Cepeda E.E., Ilagan N., et al. Pharmacokinetic basis for antenatal dosing of phenobarbital for the prevention of neonatal intracerebral hemorrhage. Dev Pharmacol Ther 1986, 9(3):171-177.
90. Shankaran S., Cepeda E.E., Ilagan N., et al. Antenatal phenobarbital for the prevention of neonatal intracerebral hemorrhage. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1986, 154(1):53-57.
91. Thorp J.A., Ferrette-Smith D., Gaston L.A., et al. Combined antenatal vitamin K and phenobarbital therapy for preventing intracranial hemorrhage in newborns less than 34 weeks' gestation. Obstet Gynecol 1995, 86(1):1-8.
92. Thorp J.A., Parriott J., Ferrette-Smith D., et al. Antepartum vitamin K and phenobarbital for preventing intraventricular hemorrhage in the premature newborn: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Obstet Gynecol 1994, 83(1):70-76.
93. Kaempf J.W., Porreco R., Molina R., et al. Antenatal phenobarbital for the prevention of periventricular and intraventricular hemorrhage: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, multihospital trial. J Pediatr 1990, 117(6):933-938.
94. Mitani M., Matsuda Y., Shimada E., et al. Short- and long-term outcomes in babies born after antenatal magnesium treatment. J Obstet Gynaecol Res 2011, 37(11):1609-1614.
95. Basu S.K., Chickajajur V., Lopez V., et al. Immediate clinical outcomes in preterm neonates receiving antenatal magnesium for neuroprotection. J Perinat Med 2012, 40(2):185-189.
96. Perlman J.M., Risser R.C., Gee J.B. Pregnancy-induced hypertension and reduced intraventricular hemorrhage in preterm infants. Pediatr Neurol 1997, 17(1):29-33.
97. Coyle M.G., Oh W., Stonestreet B.S. Effects of indomethacin on brain blood flow and cerebral metabolism in hypoxic newborn piglets. Am J Physiol 1993, 264(1 Pt 2):H141-H149.
98. Coyle M.G., Oh W., Petersson K.H., et al. Effects of indomethacin on brain blood flow, cerebral metabolism, and sagittal sinus prostanoids after hypoxia. Am J Physiol 1995, 269(4 Pt 2):H1450-H1459.
99. Zuckerman S.L., Mirro R., Armstead W.M., et al. Indomethacin reduces ischemia-induced alteration of blood-brain barrier transport in piglets. Am J Physiol 1994, 266(6 Pt 2):H2198-H2203.
100. Schmidt B., Davis P., Moddemann D., et al. Long-term effects of indomethacin prophylaxis in extremely-low-birth-weight infants. N Engl J Med 2001, 344(26):1966-1972.
101. Ment L.R., Oh W., Ehrenkranz R.A., et al. Low-dose indomethacin and prevention of intraventricular hemorrhage: a multicenter randomized trial. Pediatrics 1994, 93(4):543-550.
102. Fowlie P.W., Davis P.G. Prophylactic indomethacin for preterm infants: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2003, 88(6):F464-F466.
103. Ment L.R., Vohr B.R., Makuch R.W., et al. Prevention of intraventricular hemorrhage by indomethacin in male preterm infants. J Pediatr 2004, 145(6):832-834.
104. Ohlsson A., Roberts R.S., Schmidt B., et al. Male/female differences in indomethacin effects in preterm infants. J Pediatr 2005, 147(6):860-862.
105. Ment L.R., Vohr B., Oh W., et al. Neurodevelopmental outcome at 36 months' corrected age of preterm infants in the Multicenter Indomethacin Intraventricular Hemorrhage Prevention Trial. Pediatrics 1996, 98(4 Pt 1):714-718.
106. Ment L.R., Vohr B., Allan W., et al. Outcome of children in the indomethacin intraventricular hemorrhage prevention trial. Pediatrics 2000, 105(3 Pt 1):485-491.
107. Fowlie P.W., Davis P.G. Prophylactic intravenous indomethacin for preventing mortality and morbidity in preterm infants. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2002, (3). CD000174.
108. Fowlie P.W., Davis P.G., McGuire W. Prophylactic intravenous indomethacin for preventing mortality and morbidity in preterm infants. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2010, (7). CD000174.
109. Dani C., Bertini G., Pezzati M., et al. Prophylactic ibuprofen for the prevention of intraventricular hemorrhage among preterm infants: a multicenter, randomized study. Pediatrics 2005, 115(6):1529-1535.
110. Van Overmeire B., Allegaert K., Casaer A., et al. Prophylactic ibuprofen in premature infants: a multicentre, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2004, 364(9449):1945-1949.
111. Bedard M.P., Shankaran S., Slovis T.L., et al. Effect of prophylactic phenobarbital on intraventricular hemorrhage in high-risk infants. Pediatrics 1984, 73(4):435-439.
112. Donn S.M., Roloff D.W., Goldstein G.W. Prevention of intraventricular haemorrhage in preterm infants by phenobarbitone. A controlled trial. Lancet 1981, 2(8240):215-217.
113. Anwar M., Kadam S., Hiatt I.M., et al. Phenobarbitone prophylaxis of intraventricular haemorrhage. Arch Dis Child 1986, 61(2):196-197.
114. Morgan M.E., Massey R.F., Cooke R.W. Does phenobarbitone prevent periventricular hemorrhage in very low-birth-weight babiesα: a controlled trial. Pediatrics 1982, 70(2):186-189.
115. Kuban K.C., Leviton A., Krishnamoorthy K.S., et al. Neonatal intracranial hemorrhage and phenobarbital. Pediatrics 1986, 77(4):443-450.
116. Cooke R.W., Morgan M.E. Prophylactic ethamsylate for periventricular haemorrhage. Arch Dis Child 1984, 59(1):82-83.
117. Benson J.W., Drayton M.R., Hayward C., et al. Multicentre trial of ethamsylate for prevention of periventricular haemorrhage in very low birthweight infants. Lancet 1986, 2(8519):1297-1300.
118. Fish W.H., Cohen M., Franzek D., et al. Effect of intramuscular vitamin E on mortality and intracranial hemorrhage in neonates of 1000 grams or less. Pediatrics 1990, 85(4):578-584.
119. Brion L.P., Bell E.F., Raghuveer T.S. Vitamin E supplementation for prevention of morbidity and mortality in preterm infants. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2003, (4). CD003665.
120. Cools F., Offringa M. Neuromuscular paralysis for newborn infants receiving mechanical ventilation. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2005, (2). CD002773.
121. Mohamed M.A., Aly H. Transport of premature infants is associated with increased risk for intraventricular haemorrhage. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2010, 95(6):F403-F407.
122. Anderson G.D., Bada H.S., Shaver D.C., et al. The effect of cesarean section on intraventricular hemorrhage in the preterm infant. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1992, 166(4):1091-1099. [discussion: 1099-101].
123. Wadhawan R., Vohr B.R., Fanaroff A.A., et al. Does labor influence neonatal and neurodevelopmental outcomes of extremely-low-birth-weight infants who are born by cesarean deliveryα. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2003, 189(2):501-506.
124. Szymonowicz W., Yu V.Y., Walker A., et al. Reduction in periventricular haemorrhage in preterm infants. Arch Dis Child 1986, 61(7):661-665.
125. Henderson-Smart D.J., Cools F., Bhuta T., et al. Elective high frequency oscillatory ventilation versus conventional ventilation for acute pulmonary dysfunction in preterm infants. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2007, (3). CD000104.