Variability in the Middle Stone Age of Eastern Africa

Current Anthropology

Volumn 54, Issue SUPPL8., 2013, Pages

  Tryon, Christian A ^a   Tyler Faith, J ^b  

^a HARVARD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF QUEENSLAND   (Australia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84893330661     PISSN: 00113204     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1086/673752     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (202)

1. Ambrose, Stanley H. 1986. Hunter-gatherer adaptations to non-marginal environments: an ecological and archaeological assessment of the Dorobo model. Sprache und Geschichte in Afrika 7(2):11-42.
2. Ambrose, Stanley H. 1998. Chronology of the Later Stone Age and food production in East Africa. Journal of Archaeological Science 25:377-392.
3. Ambrose, Stanley H. 2001. Middle and Later Stone Age settlement patterns in the Central Rift Valley, Kenya: comparisons and contrasts. In Settlement dynamics in the Middle Paleolithic and Middle Stone Age. N. J. Conard, ed. Pp. 21-44. Tübingen: Kerns.
4. Ambrose, Stanley H. 2010. Coevolution of composite tool technology, constructive memory, and language: implications for the evolution of modern human behavior. Current Anthropology 51(suppl.):S135-S147.
5. Ambrose, Stanley H., and Alan Deino. 2010. Technological diversity and geochronology of Middle Stone Age industries in the Central Rift Valley, Kenya: implications for the evolution of modern human behavior. Paleoanthropology 2010:A1.
6. Ambrose, Stanley H., Philip Slater, Jeffrey Ferguson, Michael Glascock, and Ian Steele. 2012. Obsidian source survey and Late Quaternary artifact sourcing in Kenya: implications for early modern human behavior. Paleoanthropology 2012:A1-A2.
7. Anthony, Barbara. 1972. The Stillbay question. In Congrès panafricain de pré-histoire, Dakar 1967: actes de 6e session. H. J. Hugot, ed. Pp. 80-82. Paris: Les Imprimeries Réunies de Chambéry.
8. Armitage, S. J., S. A. Jasim, A. E. Marks, A. G. Parker, V. I. Usik, and H.-P. Uerpmann. 2011. The southern route "out of Africa": evidence for an early expansion of modern humans into Arabia. Science 331:453-456.
9. Assefa, Zelalem. 2006. Faunal remains from Porc-Epic: paleoecological and zooarchaeological investigations from a Middle Stone Age site in southeastern Ethiopia. Journal of Human Evolution 51:50-75.
10. Assefa, Zelalem, Y. M. Lam, and Henk K. Mienis. 2008. Symbolic use of terrestrial gastropod opercula during the Middle Stone Age at Porc-Epic Cave, Ethiopia. Current Anthropology 49:746-756.
11. Barham, Lawrence S. 2000. The Middle Stone Age of Zambia, south-central Africa. Bristol: Western Academic & Specialist Press.
12. Bar-Yosef Mayer, Daniella E., Bernard Vandermeersch, and Ofer Bar-Yosef. 2009. Shells and ochre in Middle Paleolithic Qafzeh Cave, Israel: indications for modern behavior. Journal of Human Evolution 56:307-314.
13. Basell, Laura S. 2007. An exploration of the Middle Stone Age of Eastern Africa and Excavations at Rambogo Rock Shelter, Kenya. PhD thesis, University of Cambridge.
14. Basell, Laura S. 2008. Middle Stone Age (MSA) site distributions in eastern Africa and their relationship to Quaternary environmental change, refugia and the evolution of Homo sapiens. Quaternary Science Reviews 27:2484-2498.
15. Beyin, Ammanuel. 2011. Upper Pleistocene human dispersals out of Africa: a review of the current state of the debate. International Journal of Evolutionary Biology 2011: article ID 615094, doi:10.4061/2011/615094.
16. Beyries, Sylvie, and Hughes Plisson. 1998. Pointes ou outils triangulaires? données fontionelles dan le Moustérien levantin. Paléorient 24:5-24.
17. Blome, Margaret Whiting, Andrew S. Cohen, Christian A. Tryon, Alison S. Brooks, and Joellen Russel. 2012. The environmental context for the origins of modern human diversity: a synthesis of regional variability in African climate 150,000-30,000 years ago. Journal of Human Evolution 62:563-592.
18. Boëda, Eric 1994. Le concept Levallois: variabilité des méthodes. Paris: Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique.
19. Boëda, Eric 1995. Levallois: a volumetric construction, methods, a technique. In The definition and interpretation of Levallois technology. H. L. Dibble and O. Bar-Yosef, eds. Pp. 41-68. Madison, WI: Prehistory Press.
20. Bordes, François. 1961. Typologie du paléolithique ancien et moyen. Publications de l'Institut de préhistoire de l'Université de Bordeaux, Mémoire no. 1 Bordeaux: Delmas.
21. Bordes, Jean-Guillaume, and Nicholas Teyssandier. 2012. The Upper Paleolithic nature of the Châtelperronian in south-western France: archeostratigraphic and lithic evidence. Quaternary International 259:95-101.
22. Brandt, Steven A., Erich C. Fisher, Elisabeth A. Hildebrand, Ralf Vogelsang, Stanley H. Ambrose, Joséphine Lesur, and Hong Wang. 2012. Early MIS 3 occupation of Mochena Borago Rockshelter, southwest Ethiopian highlands: implications for Late Pleistocene archaeology, paleoenvironments andmodern human dispersals. Quaternary International 274:38-54.
23. Brandt, Steven A., and Thomas H. Gresham. 1989. L'âge de la pierre en Somalie. L'Anthropologie 94:459-482.
24. Bräuer, Günter, and Michael Mehlman. 1988. Hominid molars from aMiddle Stone Age at the Mumba Rock Shelter, Tanzania. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 75:69-76.
25. Brooks, Alison S., John E. Yellen, Lisa Nevell, and Gidon Hartman. 2006. Projectile technologies of the African MSA: implications for modern human origins. In Transitions before the transition: evolution and stability in the Middle Paleolithic and Middle Stone Age. Erella Hovers and Steven L. Kuhn, eds. Pp. 233-256. New York: Springer.
26. Brown, Francis H., and Chad R. Fuller. 2008. Stratigraphy and tephra of the Kibish Formation, southwestern Ethiopia. Journal of Human Evolution 55: 366-403.
27. Bruggeman, J. Henrich, Richard T. Buffler, Mireille M. M. Guillaume, Robert C. Walter, Rudo von Cosel, Berhane N. Ghebretensae, and Seife M. Berhe. 2004. Stratigraphy, palaeoenvironments and model for the deposition of the Abdur Reef Limestone: context for an important archaeological site from the last interglacial on the Red Sea coast of Eritrea. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 203:179-206.
28. Bulbeck, David. 2007. Where river meets sea: a parsimonious model for Homo sapiens colonization of the Indian Ocean rim and Sahul. Current Anthropology 48:315-321.
29. Clark, J. Desmond. 1988. The Middle Stone Age of East Africa and the beginnings of regional identity. Journal of World Prehistory 2:235-305.
30. Clark, J. Desmond. 1993. African and Asian perspectives on the origins of modern humans. In The origin of modern humans and the impact of chronometric dating. M. J. Aitken, C. B. Stringer, and P. A. Mellars, eds. Pp. 148-178. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
31. Clark, J. Desmond. 2001a. Ecological and behavioral implications of the siting of Middle Stone Age rockshelter and cave settlements in Africa. In Settlement dynamics of the Middle Paleolithic and Middle Stone Age. N. J. Conard, ed. Pp. 91-98. Tübingen: Kerns.
32. Clark, J. Desmond. 2001b. The earlier cultures: Middle and Earlier Stone Age, vol. 3 of Kalambo Falls prehistoric site. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
33. Clark, J. Desmond, Yonas Beyene, Giday WoldeGabriel, William K. Hart, Paul R. Renne, Henry Gilbert, Alban Defleur, et al. 2003. Stratigraphic, chronological and behavioural contexts of Pleistocene Homo sapiens from Middle Awash, Ethiopia. Nature 423:747-752.
34. Clark, J. Desmond, James L. Phillips, and Preston S. Staley. 1974. Interpretations of prehistoric technology from ancient Egyptian and other Sources. 1. Ancient Egyptian bows and arrows and their relevance for African Prehistory. Paléorient 2:323-388.
35. Clark, J. Desmond, and G. R. Prince. 1978. Use-wear on Later Stone Age microliths from Laga Oda, Haraghi, Ethiopia, and possible functional interpretations. Azania 13:101-110.
36. Clark, J. Desmond, Kenneth D. Williams, Joseph W. Michels, and Curtis A. Marean. 1984. A Middle Stone occupation site at Porc Epic Cave, Dire Dawa. African Archaeological Review 2:37-72.
37. Close, Angela E. 2002. Backed bladelets are a foreign country. In Thinking small: global perspective on microlithization. S. L. Kuhn and R. G. Elston, eds. Pp. 31-44. Archeological Papers of the American Anthropological Association, vol. 12. Washington, DC: American Anthropological Association.
38. Conard, Nicholas J. 2004. An overview of the patterns of behavioural change in Africa and Eurasia during the Middle and Late Pleistocene. In From tools to symbols: from early hominids to modern humans. F. d'Errico and L. Backwell, eds. Pp. 294-332. Witswatersrand, South Africa: Witswatersrand University Press.
39. Conard, Nicholas J. 2008. A critical view of the evidence for a southern African origin of behavioural modernity. South African Archaeological Society Goodwin Series 10:175-179.
40. Coulson, Sheila, Sigrid Staurset, and Nick Walker. 2011. Ritualized behavior in the Middle Stone Age: evidence from Rhino Cave, Tsodilo Hills, Botswana. Paleoanthropology 2011:18-61.
41. Day, Michael H., Mary D. Leakey, and Cassian Magori. 1980. A new hominid fossil skull (L.H. 18) from the Ngaloba Beds, Laetoli, northern Tanzania. Nature 284:55-56.
42. Deacon, Hilary J., and Janette Deacon. 1999. Human beginnings in South Africa: uncovering the secrets of the Stone Age. Walnut Creek, CA: Altamira.
43. Delagnes, Anne, and Lillianne Meignen. 2006. Diversity of lithic production systems during the Middle Paleolithic in France: are there any chronological trends? In Transitions before the transition: evolution and stability in the Middle Paleolithic and Middle Stone Age. Erella Hovers and Steven L. Kuhn, eds. Pp. 85-108. New York: Springer.
44. Delagnes, Anne, Chantal Tribolo, Pascal Bertran, Michel Brenet, Rémy Crassard, Jacques Jaubert, Lamya Khalidi, et al. 2012. Inland human settlement in southern Arabia 55,000 years ago: new evidence from the Wadi Surdud Middle Paleolithic site complex, western Yemen. Journal of Human Evolution 63:452-474.
45. de la Torre, Ignacio. 2004. Omo revisited: evaluating the technological skills of Pliocene hominids. Current Anthropology 45:439-465.
46. Dennell, Robin W., and Wil Roebroeks. 2005. An Asian perspective on early human dispersal from Africa. Nature 438:1099-1104.
47. d'Errico, Francesco. 2003. The invisible frontier: a multiple species model for the origin of behavioral modernity. Evolutionary Anthropology 12:188-202.
48. d'Errico, Francesco, and Chris B. Stringer. 2011. Evolution, revolution or saltation scenario for the emergence of modern cultures? Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 366:1060-1069.
49. Diez-Martín, Fernando, Manuel Domínguez-Rodrigo, Policarpo Sánchez, Audax Z. P. Mabulla, Antonio Tarriño, Rebeca Barba, Mary E. Prendergast, and Luis de Luque. 2009. The Middle to Later Stone Age technological transition in East Africa: new data from Mumba Rockshelter Bed V (Tanzania) and their implications for the origin of modern human behavior. Journal of African Archaeology 7:147-173.
50. Domínguez-Rodrigo, Manuel, Fernando Díez-Martin, Audax Mabulla, Luis Luque, Luis Alcalá, Antonio Tarriño, Jose A. López-Sáez, Rebecca Barba, and Pastory Bushozi. 2007. The archaeology of the Middle Pleistocene deposits of Lake Eyasi, Tanzania. Journal of African Archaeology 5:47-78.
51. Domínguez-Rodrigo, Manuel, Audax Mabulla, Luis Luque, JeroenW. Thompson, William J. Rink, Pastory Bushozi, Fernando Díez-Martin, and Luis Alcala. 2008. A new archaic Homo sapiens fossil from Lake Eyasi, Tanzania. Journal of Human Evolution 54:899-903.
52. Donahue, Randolph E., Michael L. Murphy, and Lawrency H. Robbins. 2002-2004. Lithic microwear analysis of Middle Stone Age artifacts from White Paintings Rock Shelter, Botswana. Journal of Field Archaeology 29:155-163.
53. Douze, Katja. 2008. Le Early Middle Stone Age en Ethiopie: le contexte de Gademotta: analyse technologique du site ETH-72-6. Mémoire de Master 2, Université de Toulouse II, Le Mirail.
54. Eren, Metin I., Fernando Diez-Martin, and Manuel Domínguez-Rodrigo. 2013. An empirical test of the relative frequency of bipolar reduction in Beds VI, V, and III at Mumba Rockshelter, Tanzania: implications for the East African Middle to Late Stone Age transition. Journal of Archaeological Science 40:248-256.
55. Eren, Metin I., and Stephen J. Lycett. 2012. Why Levallois? a morphometric comparison of experimental "preferential" Levallois flakes versus debitage flakes. PLoS ONE 7:29723.
56. Faith, J. Tyler, Jonah N. Choiniere, Christian A. Tryon, Daniel J. Peppe, and David L. Fox. 2011. Taxonomic status and paleoecology of Rusingoryx atopocranion (Mammalia, Artiodactyla), an extinct Pleistocene bovid from Rusinga Island, Kenya. Quaternary Research 75:697-707.
57. Faith, J. Tyler, Manuel Domínguez-Rodrigo, Adam D. Gordon. 2009. Longdistance carcass transport at Olduvai Gorge? a quantitative examination of Bed I skeletal element abundances. Journal of Human Evolution 56:247-256.
58. Faith, J. Tyler, Richard Potts, Thomas W. Plummer, Laura C. Bishop, Curtis A. Marean, and Christian A. Tryon. 2012. New perspectives on middle Pleistocene change in the large mammal faunas of East Africa: Damaliscus hypsodon sp. nov. (Mammalia, Artiodactyla) from Lainyamok, Kenya. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 361/362:84-93.
59. Faith, J. Tyler, Christian A. Tryon, Daniel J. Peppe, and David L. Fox. 2013. The fossil history of Grévy's zebra (Equus grevyi) in equatorial East Africa. Journal of Biogeography 40:359-369.
60. Féblot-Augustins, Jehanne. 1990. Exploitation des matières premières dans l'Acheuléen d'Afrique: perspectives comportementales. Paléo 2:27-42.
61. Féblot-Augustins, Jehanne. 1993. Mobility strategies in the Late Middle Paleolithic of central Europe and western Europe: elements of stability and variability. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 12:211-265.
62. Gabel, Creighton. 1984. Notes on the history of archaeology in sub-Saharan Africa. Boston University African Studies Center Working Papers, no. 86. Boston: Boston University African Studies Center.
63. Gliganic, Luke A., Zenobia Jacobs, Richard G. Roberts, Manuel Domínguez-Rodrigo, and Audax Z. P. Mabulla. 2011. New ages for Middle and Later Stone Age deposits at Mumba Rockshelter, Tanzania: optically stimulated luminescence dating of quartz and feldspar grains. Journal of Human Evolution 62:533-547.
64. Goodwin, Astley J. H., and Clarence van Riet Lowe. 1929. The Stone Age cultures of South Africa. Annals of the South Africa Museum 27:1-289.
65. Gossa, Tegenu, Yonatan Sahle, and Agazi Negash. 2012. A reassessment of the Middle and Later Stone Age lithic assemblages from Aladi Springs, southern Afar Rift, Ethiopia. Azania 47:210-222.
66. Gresham, Thomas H. 1984. An investigation of an Upper Pleistocene archaeological site in northern Somalia. MA thesis, University of Georgia, Athens.
67. Grubb, Peter, Oliver Sandrock, Ottmar Kullmer, Thomas M. Kaiser, and Friedemann Schrenk. 1999. Relationships between eastern and southern African mammal faunas. In African biogeography, climate change, and early hominid evolution. T. Bromage and F. Schrenk, eds. Pp. 253-267. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
68. Gunz, Phillipp, Fred L. Bookstein, Philipp Mitteroecker, Andrea Stadlmayr, Horst Seidler, and Gerhard W. Weber. 2009. Early modern human diversity suggests subdivided population structure and a complex out-of-Africa scenario. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 106:6094-6098.
69. Habgood, Phillip J., and Natalie R. Franklin. 2008. The revolution that didn't arrive: a review of Pleistocene Sahul. Journal of Human Evolution 55:187-222.
70. Haile-Selassie, Yohannes, Berhane Asfaw, and Tim D. White. 2004. Hominid cranial remains from Upper Pleistocene deposits at Aduma, Middle Awash, Ethiopia. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 123:1-10.
71. Hammer, Michael F., August E. Woerner, Fernando L. Mendez, Joseph C. Watkins, and Jeffrey D. Wall. 2011. Genetic evidence for archaic admixture in Africa. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 108: 15123-15128.
72. Hauck, Thomas C. 2011. The Mousterian sequence of Hummal and its tentative placement in the Levantine Middle Paleolithic. In The Lower and Middle Paleolithic in the Middle East and neighboring regions. J.-M. Le Tensorer, R. Jagher, and M. Otte, eds. Pp. 309-323. Études et recherches archéologiques de l'Université de Liège 126. Liège: Centre de recherches archéologiques de l'Université de Liège.
73. Henshilwood, Christopher S., and Curtis W. Marean. 2003. The origin of modern human behavior: critique of the models and their test implications. Current Anthropology 44:627-651.
74. Hovers, Erella. 2009. The lithic assemblages of Qafzeh Cave. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
75. Hovers, Erella, and Anna Belfer-Cohen. 2006. "Now you see it, now you don't": modern human behavior in the Middle Paleolithic. In Transitions before the transition: evolution and stability in the Middle Paleolithic and Middle Stone Age. Erella Hovers and Steven L. Kuhn, eds. Pp. 295-304. New York: Springer.
76. Hovers, Erella, Shimon Ilani, Ofer Bar-Yosef, and Bernard Vandermeersch. 2003. An early case of color symbolism: ochre use by early modern humans at Qafzeh Cave. Current Anthropology 44:491-522.
77. Hublin, Jean-Jacques, Anee-Marie Tillier, and Jacques Tixier. 1987. L'humérus d'enfant Moustérien (Homo 4) du Jeble Irhoud (Maroc) dans son contexte archéologique. Bulletin et Mémoire de la Société d'Anthropologie de Paris 4: 115-142.
78. Inskeep, Raymond R. 1962. The age of the Kondoa rock paintings in the light of recent excavations at Kisese II Rock Shelter. In Actes du IVe Congress panafricain de préhistoire et l'étude du quaternaire. G. Mortelmans and J. Nenquin, eds. Pp. 249-256. Tervuren: Musée Royal de l'Afrique Centrale.
79. Isaac, Glynn L., Harry V. Merrick, and Charles M. Nelson. 1972. Stratigraphic and archaeological studies in the Lake Nakuru basin, Kenya. Palaeoecology of Africa and the Surrounding Islands 6:225-234.
80. Jenkins, Kirsten, J. Tyler Faith, Christian A. Tryon, Daniel J. Peppe, Sheila Nightingale, Julian A. Ogondo, Cara Roure Johnson, and Steve Driese. 2012. New excavations of a Late Pleistocene bonebed and associatedMSAartifacts, Rusinga Island, Kenya. Paleoanthropology 2012:A17.
81. Johnson, Cara Roure, and Sally McBrearty. 2010. 500,000 year old blades from the Kapthurin Formation, Kenya. Journal of Human Evolution 58:193-200.
82. Keeley, Lawrence H. 1982. Hafting and retooling: effects on the archaeological record. American Antiquity 47:798-809.
83. Kelly, Alison J. 1996. Intraregional and interregional variability in the East Turkana (Kenya) and Kenyan Middle Stone Age. PhD thesis, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ.
84. Kelly, Robert L. 1995. The foraging spectrum. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press.
85. Kingdon, Jonathon. 1981. Where have the colonists come from? a zoogeographical examination of some mammalian isolates in eastern Africa. African Journal of Ecology 19:115-124.
86. Klein, Richard G. 2009. The human career. 3rd edition. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
87. Kuhn, Steven L. 2004. Upper Paleolithic raw material economies at Üçaǧi{dotless}zli{dotless} cave, Turkey. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 23:431-448.
88. Kuhn, Steven L., and Erella Hovers. 2006. General introduction. In Transitions before the transition: evolution and stability in the Middle Paleolithic and Middle Stone Age. Erella Hovers and Steven L. Kuhn, eds. Pp. 1-12. New York: Springer.
89. Kuhn, Steven L., and Mary C. Stiner. 2001. The antiquity of hunter-gatherers. In Hunter-gatherers: an interdisciplinary perspective. C. Panter-Brick, R. H. Layton, and P. Rowley-Conwy, eds. Pp. 99-142. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
90. Kuhn, Steven L., and Mary C. Stiner. 2007. Body ornamentation as information technology: towards and understanding of the significance of early beads. In Rethinking the human revolution: new behavioural and biological perspectives on the origin and dispersal of modern humans. Paul Mellars, Katie Boyle, Ofer Bar-Yosef, and Chris Stringer, eds. Pp. 45-54. Cambridge: McDonald Institute.
91. Kurashina, Hiro. 1978. An examination of prehistoric lithic technology in east-central Ethiopia. PhD dissertation, University of California.
92. Lachance, Joseph, Benjamin Vernot, Clara C. Elbers, Bart Ferwerda, Alain Froment, Jean-Marie Bodo, Godfrey Lema, et al. 2012. Evolutionary history and adaptation from high-coverage whole-genome sequences of diverse African hunter-gatherers. Cell 150:457-469.
93. Leakey, Louis S. B. 1931. The Stone Age cultures of Kenya Colony. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
94. Leakey, Louis S. B. 1936. Stone Age Africa: an outline of prehistory in Africa. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
95. Leakey, Louis S. B. 1943. The industries of the Gorgora Rock Shelter, Lake Tana. Journal of the East Africa Natural History Society 17:199-203.
96. Leakey, Margaret, Philip V. Tobias, John E. Martyn, and Richard E. F. Leakey. 1969. An Acheulean industry with prepared core technique and the discovery of a contemporary hominid mandible at Lake Baringo, Kenya. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 3:48-76.
97. Leakey, Mary D. 1983. Africa's vanishing art: the rock paintings of Tanzania. New York: Doubleday.
98. Leakey, Mary D. 1984. Disclosing the past: an autobiography. New York: McGraw-Hill.
99. Leakey, Mary D., Richard L. Hay, D. L. Thurber, R. Protsch, and R. Berger. 1972. Stratigraphy, archaeology, and age of the Ndutu and Naisiusiu Beds, Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania. World Archaeology 3:328-341.
100. Leakey, Mary D., and Louis S. B. Leakey. 1950. Excavations at the Njoro River Cave. Oxford: Clarendon.
101. Lehmann, Thomas. 2009. Phylogeny and systematics of the Orycteropodidae (Mammalia, Tubulidentata). Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 155: 649-702.
102. Lieberman, Daniel E., and Ofer Bar-Yosef. 2005. Apples and oranges: morphological versus behavioral transitions in the Pleistocene. In Interpreting the past: essays on human, primate and mammal evolution. D. E. Lieberman, R. J. Smith, and J. Kelley, eds. Pp. 275-296. Boston: Brill Academic.
103. Lycett, Stephen J. 2007. Why is there a lack of Mode 3 Levallois technologies in East Asia? a phylogenetic test of the Movius-Schick hypothesis. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 26:541-575.
104. Lycett, Stephen J., and N. von Cramon-Taubadel. 2008. Acheulean variability and hominin dispersals: a model-bound approach. Journal of Archaeological Science 35:553-562.
105. Mabulla, Audax Z. P. 1990. Preliminary report on an archaeological survey of the Ndutu Beds, Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania. Nyame Akuma 33:20-25.
106. MacInnes, Donald G. 1956. Fossil Tubulidentata from East Africa. FossilMammals of Africa 10:1-38.
107. Marean, Curtis W. 1990. Late Quaternary paleoenvironments and faunal exploitation in East Africa. PhD dissertation, University of California.
108. Marean, Curtis W. 1992. Implications of late Quaternary mammalian fauna from Lukenya Hill (south-central Kenya) for paleoenvironmental change and faunal extinctions. Quaternary Research 37:239-255.
109. Marean, Curtis W. 1997. Hunter-gatherer foraging strategies in tropical grasslands: model-building and testing in the East African Middle and Later Stone Age. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 16:189-225.
110. Marean, Curtis W., and Dianne Gifford-Gonzalez. 1991. Late Quaternary extinct ungulates of East Africa and palaeoenvironmental implications. Nature 350:418-420.
111. Marks, Anthony E., and Nicholas J. Conard. 2008. Technology vs. typology: the case for and against a transition from the MSA to the LSA at Mumba Cave, Tanzania. In Space and time: which diachronies, which synchronies, which scales? typology vs technology. T. Aubry, F. Almeida, A. C. Araújo, and M. Tiffagom, eds. Pp. 123-131. BAR International Series 1831. Oxford: Archaeopress.
112. McBrearty, Sally. 1981. Songhor: a Middle Stone Age site in western Kenya. Quaternaria 23:171-190.
113. McBrearty, Sally. 1986. The archaeology of the Muguruk Site, Western Kenya. PhD dissertation, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign.
114. McBrearty, Sally. 1988. The Sangoan-Lupemban and Middle Stone Age sequence at the Muguruk site, western Kenya. World Archaeology 19:379-420.
115. McBrearty, Sally. 1999. Archaeology of the Kapthurin Formation. In Late Cenozoic environments and hominid evolution: a tribute to Bill Bishop. P. Andrews and P. Banham, eds. Pp. 143-156. London: Geological Society.
116. McBrearty, Sally, and Alison S. Brooks. 2000. The revolution that wasn't: a new interpretation of the origin of modern human behavior. Journal of Human Evolution 39:453-563.
117. McBrearty, Sally, and Christian A. Tryon. 2006. From Acheulian to Middle Stone Age in the Kapthurin Formation, Kenya. In Transitions before the transition: evolution and stability in the Middle Paleolithic and Middle Stone Age. E. Hovers and S. L. Kuhn, eds. Pp. 257-277. New York: Springer.
118. McDougall, Ian, Francis H. Brown, and John G. Fleagle. 2005. Stratigraphic placement and age of modern humans from Kibish, Ethiopia. Nature 433: 733-736.
119. McPherron, Shannon P., ed. 2007. Tools versus cores: alternative approaches to stone tool analysis. Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars.
120. Mehlman, Michael J. 1987. Provenience, age and associations of archaic Homo sapiens crania from Lake Eyasi, Tanzania. Journal of Archaeological Science 14:133-162.
121. Mehlman, Michael J. 1989. Late Quaternary archaeological sequences in northern Tanzania. PhD dissertation, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign.
122. Mehlman, Michael J. 1991. Context for the emergence of modern man in eastern Africa: some new Tanzanian evidence. In Cultural beginnings: approaches to understanding early hominid lifeways in the African savanna. J. Desmond Clark, ed. Pp. 177-196. Monographien (Romisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum, Forschunginstitut fur Vorund Fruhgeschichte), vol. 19. Bonn: Habelt.
123. Mellars, Paul. 2006a. Archaeology and the dispersal of modern humans in Europe: deconstructing the "Aurignacian. " Evolutionary Anthropology 15: 167-182.
124. Mellars, Paul. 2006b. Going east: new genetic and archaeological perspectives on the modern human colonization of Eurasia. Science 313:796-800.
125. Mellars, Paul. 2006c. Why did modern human populations disperse from Africa ca. 60,000 years ago? a new model. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 103:9381-9386.
126. Mercader, Julio. 2002. Forest people: the role of African rainforests in human evolution and dispersal. Evolutionary Anthropology 11:117-124.
127. Mercader, Julio. 2009. Mozambican grass seed consumption during the Middle Stone Age. Science 326:1680-1683.
128. Mercader, Julio, and Alison S. Brooks. 2001. Across forests and savannas: Later Stone Age assemblages from Ituri and Semliki, Democratic Republic of Congo. Journal of Anthropological Research 57:197-217.
129. Mercier, Norbert, Hélène Valladas, Laurence Froget, Jean-Louis Joron, Pierre M. Vermeersch, Phillip Van Peer, and Jan Moeyersons. 1999. Thermoluminescence dating of a Middle Paleolithic occupation at Sodmein Cave, Red Sea mountains (Egypt). Journal of Archaeological Science 26:1339-1345.
130. Merrick, Harry V. 1975. Change in Later Pleistocene lithic industries in eastern Africa. PhD dissertation, University of California.
131. Merrick, Harry V., Francis H. Brown, and William P. Nash. 1994. Use and movement of obsidian in the Early and Middle Stone Ages of Kenya and northern Tanzania. In Society, culture, and technology in Africa, vol. 11 (supplement). S. T. Childs, ed. Pp. 29-44. Philadelphia: MASCA.
132. Miller, Sheryl F. 1979. Lukenya Hill, GvJm 46, excavation report. Nyame Akuma 14:31-34.
133. Monnier, Gilliane. 2006. The Lower/Middle Paleolithic periodization in western Europe: an evaluation. Current Anthropology 47:709-744.
134. Morgan, Leah E., and Paul R. Renne. 2008. Diachronous dawn of Africa's Middle Stone Age: new 40Ar/39Ar ages from the Ethiopian Rift. Geology 36: 967-970.
135. Mulvaney, Derek J., and Johan Kamminga. 1999. Prehistory of Australia. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press.
136. Negash, Agazi, Francis H. Brown, and Barbara Nash. 2011. Varieties and sources of artefactual obsidian in the Middle Stone Age of the Middle Awash, Ethiopia. Archaeometry 53:661-673.
137. Newcomer, Michael H., and François Hivernel-Guerre. 1974. Nucleus sur éclat: technologie et utilisation par différentes cultures préhistoriques. Bulletin de la Societe Préhistorique Française 71:119-128.
138. O'Brien, Terence P. 1939. The prehistory of Uganda protectorate. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
139. Omi, Giichi, ed. 1984. Mtongwe: an interim report of the East and Northeast African Prehistory Project 1982. Matsumoto, Japan: Shinshu University.
140. Omi, Giichi, ed. 1986. Mtongwe: an interim report of the East and Northeast African Prehistory Project 1984. Matsumoto, Japan: Shinshu University.
141. Omi, Giichi, ed. 1988. Mtongwe and Mgonga: an interim report of the East and Northeast African Prehistory Project 1986. Matsumoto, Japan: Shinshu University.
142. Omi, Giichi, ed. 1991. An interim report of the East and Northeast African Prehistory Project 1988/1989. Matsumoto, Japan: Shinshu University.
143. Pearson, Osbjorn M. 2000. Postcranial remains and the origin of modern humans. Evolutionary Anthropology 9:229-247.
144. Pearson, Osbjorn M. 2008. Statistical and biological definitions of "anatomically modern" humans: suggestions for a unified approach to modern morphology. Evolutionary Anthropology 17:38-48.
145. Pickford, Martin, and Herbert Thomas. 1984. An aberrant new bovid (Mammalia) in subrecent deposits from Rusinga Island, Kenya. Proceedings of the Koninklijke Akademie des Wetenschappen B 87:441-452.
146. Pleurdeau, David. 2004. Gestion des matières premières et comportements techniques dans le Middle Stone Age africain: les assemblages lithiques de la grotte du Porc Épic (Dire Dawa, Ethiopie). BAR International Series 1317. Oxford: Archaeopress.
147. Prugnolle, Franck, Andrea Manica, and François Balloux. 2005. Geography predicts neutral genetic diversity of human populations. Current Biology 15:159-160.
148. Robertshaw, Peter, ed. 1990. A history of African archaeology. London: James Currey.
149. Rodgers, William A., Charles F. Owen, and Katherine M. Homewood. 1982. Biogeography of East African forest mammals. Journal of Biogeography 9: 41-54.
150. Rose, Jeffrey. 2004. The question of Upper Pleistocene connections between East Africa and South Arabia. Current Anthropology 45:551-555.
151. Rose, Jeffrey. 2007. The Arabian Corridor Migration Model: archaeological evidence for hominin dispersals into Oman during the Middle and Upper Pleistocene. Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies 37:219-237.
152. Rose, Jeffrey I., Vitaly I. Usik, Anthony E. Marks, Yamandu H. Hilbert, Christopher S. Galletti, Ash Parton, Jean Marie Geiling, Victor Černý, Mike W. Morley, and Richard G. Roberts. 2011. The Nubian Complex of Dhofar, Oman: an African Middle Stone Age industry in southern Arabia. PLoS ONE 6:e28239.
153. Sharon, Gonen, 2007. Acheulian large flake industries: technology, chronology, and significance. Oxford: Archaeopress.
154. Shea, John J. 2006a. The Middle Paleolithic of the Levant: recursion and convergence. In Transitions before the transition: evolution and stability in the Middle Paleolithic and Middle Stone Age. E. Hovers and S. L. Kuhn, eds. Pp. 189-212. New York: Springer.
155. Shea, John J. 2006b. The origins of lithic projectile point technology: evidence from Africa, the Levant, and Europe. Journal of Archaeological Science 33:823-846.
156. Shea, John J. 2008. The Middle Stone Age archaeology of the Lower Omo Valley Kibish Formation: excavations, lithic assemblages, and inferred patterns of early Homo sapiens behavior. Journal of Human Evolution 55:448-485.
157. Shea, John J. 2011a. The archaeology of an illusion: the Middle-Upper Paleolithic transition in the Levant. In The Lower and Middle Palaeolithic in the Middle East and neighboring regions. J.-M. Le Tensorer, R. Jagher, and M. Otte, eds. Pp. 169-182. Études et recherches archéologiques de l'Université de Liège 126. Liège: Centre de recherches archéologiques de l'Université de Liège.
158. Shea, John J. 2011b. Homo sapiens is as Homo sapiens was: behavioral variability vs. "behavioral modernity" in Paleolithic archaeology. Current Anthropology 52:1-35.
159. Slimak, Ludovic. 2008. The Neronian and the historical structure of cultural shifts from Middle to Upper Paleolithic in Mediterranean France. Journal of Archaeological Science 35:2204-2214.
160. Slimak, Ludovic, John I. Svendsen, Jan Mangerud, Hugues Plisson, Herbjørn P. Heggen, Alexis Brugère, and Pavel Y. Pavlov. 2011. Late Mousterian persistence near the arctic circle. Science 332:841-845.
161. Slimak, Ludovic, John I. Svendsen, Jan Mangerud, Hugues Plisson, Herbjørn P. Heggen, Alexis Brugère, and Pavel Y. Pavlov. 2012. Response to "Comment on late Mousterian persistence near the arctic circle. " Science 335:167.
162. Soares, Pedro, Farida Alshamali, Joana B. Pereira, Verónica Fernandes, Nuno M. Silva, Carla Alfonso, Marta D. Costa, et al. 2012. The expansion of mtDNA haplogroup L3 within and out of Africa. Molecular Biology and Evolution 29:915-927.
163. Soriano, Sylvain, Michel Rasse, Chantal Tribolo, and Eric Huysecom. 2010. Ounjougou: a long Middle Stone Age sequence in the Dogon country (Mali). In West African archaeology: new developments, new perspectives. P. Allsworth-Jones, ed. Pp. 1-14. BAR International Series 2164. Oxford: Archaeopress.
164. Taborin, Yves. 2003. La mer et les premiers hommes modernes. In Échanges et diffusion dans la préhistoire méditerranéenne. B. Vandermeersch, ed. Pp. 113-122. Paris: Éditions du comité des travaux historiques et scientifiques.
165. Thackeray, Anne I. 1989. Changing fashions in the Middle Stone Age: the stone artefact sequence from Klasies River main site, South Africa. African Archaeological Review 7:33-57.
166. Thompson, Jessica C. 2005. The impact of post-depositional processes on bone surface modification frequencies: a corrective strategy and its application to the Loiyangalani site, Serengeti Plain, Tanzania. Journal of Taphonomy 3:67-89.
167. Trinkaus, Erik. 2005. Early modern humans. Annual Review of Anthropology 34:207-230.
168. Tryon, Christian A. 2003. The Acheulian to Middle Stone Age transition: tephrostratigraphic context for archaeological change in the Kapthurin Formation, Kenya. PhD dissertation, University of Connecticut.
169. Tryon, Christian A. 2006. "Early" Middle Stone Age lithic technology of the Kapthurin Formation (Kenya). Current Anthropology 47:367-375.
170. Tryon, Christian A., J. Tyler Faith, Daniel J. Peppe, David L. Fox, Kieran P. McNulty, Kirsten Jenkins, Holly Dunsworth, and William Harcourt-Smith. 2010. The Pleistocene archaeology and environments of the Wasiriya Beds, Rusinga Island, Kenya. Journal of Human Evolution 59:657-671.
171. Tryon, Christian A., J. Tyler Faith, Daniel J. Peppe, William F. Keegan, Kristen N. Keegan, Kirsten H. Jenkins, Sheila Nightingale, et al. Forthcoming. Sites on the landscape: paleoenvironmental context of late Pleistocene archaeological sites from the Lake Victoria Basin, equatorial East Africa. Quaternary International.
172. Tryon, Christian A., and Sally McBrearty. 2006. Tephrostratigraphy of the Bedded Tuff Member (Kapthurin Formation, Kenya) and the nature of archaeological change in the later Middle Pleistocene. Quaternary Research 65:492-507.
173. Tryon, Christian A., Sally McBrearty, and Pierre-Jean Texier. 2005. Levallois lithic technology from the Kapthurin Formation, Kenya: Acheulian origin and Middle Stone Age diversity. African Archaeological Review 22:199-229.
174. Tryon, Christian A., Daniel J. Peppe, J. Tyler Faith, Alex Van Plantinga, Sheila Nightingale, Julian A. Ogondo, and David L. Fox. 2012. Middle Stone Age artifacts and associated fauna from Rusinga and Mfangano islands, Lake Victoria, Kenya. Azania 47:14-38.
175. Tryon, Christian A., Neil T. Roach, and M. Amelia V. Logan. 2008. TheMiddle Stone Age of the northern Kenyan Rift: age and context of new archaeological sites from the Kapedo Tuffs. Journal of Human Evolution 55:652-664.
176. Vallois, Henri. V. 1951. La mandibule humaine fossile de la Grotte du Porc-Epic près Diré-Daoua (Abyssinie). L'Anthropologie 55:231-238.
177. Vanhaeren, Marian, Francesco d'Errico, Chris Stringer, Sarah L. James, Jonathan A. Todd, and Henk K. Mienis. 2006. Middle Paleolithic shell beads in Israel and Algeria. Science 1785-1788.
178. Van Peer, Philip. 1992. The Levallois reduction strategy. Madison, WI: Prehistory Press.
179. Van Peer, Philip. 1998. The Nile Corridor and the out-of-Africa model: an examination of the archaeological record. Current Anthropology 39(suppl.):S115-S140.
180. Van Peer, Philip, Veerle Rots, and Pierre M. Vermeersch. 2008. A wasted effort at the quarry: wear analysis and interpretation of an MSA lanceolate point from Taramsa-8, Egypt. Paleoanthropology 2008:234-250.
181. Vermeersch, Pierre M. 2001. "Out of Africa" from an Egyptian point of view. Quaternary International 75:103-112.
182. Vermeersch, Pierre M., Philip Van Peer, Jan Moeyersons, and Wim Van Neer. 1994. Sodmein Cave site, Red Sea mountains (Egypt). Sahara 6:31-40.
183. Villa, Paola, Anne Delagnes, and Lyn Wadley. 2005. A Late Middle Stone Age artifact assemblage from Sibudu (KwaZulu-Natal): comparisons with the European Middle Paleolithic. Journal of Archaeological Science 32:399-422.
184. Villa, Paola, and Michel Lenoir. 2006. Hunting weapons of the Middle Stone Age and Middle Paleolithic: spear points from Sibudu, Rose Cottage, and Bouheben. South African Humanities 18:89-122.
185. Villa, Paola, and Sylvain Soriano. 2010. Hunting weapons of Neanderthals and early modern humans in South Africa: similarities and differences. Journal of Anthropological Research 66:5-38.
186. Villa, Paola, Sylvain Soriano, Nicholas Teyssandier, and Sarah Wurz. 2010. The Howiesons Poort and MSA III at Klasies River main site, Cave 1A. Journal of Archaeological Science 37:630-655.
187. Walter, Robert, Richard T. Buffler, J. Henrich Bruggemann, Mireille M. M. Guillaume, Seife M. Berhe, Berhane Negassi, Yoseph Libeskal, et al. 2000. Early human occupation of the Red Sea coast of Eritrea during the last interglacial. Nature 405:65-69.
188. Waweru, Veronica N. 2007. Middle Stone Age technology at Cartwright's Site, Kenya. PhD dissertation, University of Connecticut.
189. Wayland, E. J. 1934. Rifts, rivers, rain and early man in Uganda. Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland 64:333-352.
190. Wayland, E. J., and M. C. Burkitt. 1932. The Magosian culture of Uganda. Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland 62:369-390.
191. Wendorf, Fred, and Romauld Schild. 1974. A Middle Stone Age sequence from the Central Rift Valley, Ethiopia. Warsaw: Institute of the History ofMaterial Culture, Polish Academy of Sciences.
192. Wendorf, Fred, and Romauld Schild. 1993. Probable functions of Mousterian points and convergent sidescrapers in the Middle Stone Age of Ethiopia. Quaternaria Nova 3:39-51.
193. White, Frank. 1983. The vegetation of Africa, a descriptive memoir to accompany the UNESCO/AETFAT/UNSO vegetation map of Africa. Paris: UNESCO.
194. White, Mark, and Paul Pettitt. 1995. Technology of early Palaeolithic western Europe: innovation, variability, and a unified framework. Lithics 16:27-40.
195. White, Mark J., Nick M. Ashton, and Beccy Scott. 2011. The emergence, diversity, and significance of the Mode 3 (prepared core) technologies. In The ancient human occupation of Britain. N. M. Ashton, S. G. Lewis, and C. B. Stringer, eds. Pp. 53-66. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
196. White, Tim D. 1986. Cut marks on the Bodo cranium: a case of prehistoric defleshing. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 69:503-509.
197. White, Tim D., Berhane Asfaw, David DeGusta, Henry Gilbert, Gary D. Richards, Gen Suwa, and F. Clark Howell. 2003. Pleistocene Homo sapiens from Middle Awash, Ethiopia. Nature 423:742-747.
198. Wronski, Torsten, and Bernhard Hausdorf. 2008. Distribution patterns of land snails in Ugandan rain forests support the existence of Pleistocene forest refugia. Journal of Biogeography 35:1759-1768.
199. Wurz, Sarah. 2002. Variability in the Middle Stone Age lithic sequence, 115,000-60,000 years ago at Klasies River, South Africa. Journal of Archaeological Science 29:1001-1015.
200. Wurz, Sarah. 2013. Technological trends in the Middle Stone Age of South Africa between MIS 7 and MIS 3. Current Anthropology 54(suppl. 8):S305-S319.
201. Yellen, John E., Alison S. Brooks, David M. Helgren, Martha Tappen, Stanley H. Ambrose, Raymond Bonnefille, James K. Feathers, et al. 2005. The archaeology of Aduma Middle Stone Age sites in the Awash Valley, Ethiopia. Paleoanthropology 10:25-100.
202. Zwyns, Nicolas, Wil Roebroeks, Shannon P. McPherron, Adam Jagich, and Jean-Jacques Hublin. 2012. Comment on "A Late Mousterian persistence near the arctic circle. " Science 335:167.