Physiological arousal in autism and fragile X syndrome: Group comparisons and links with pragmatic language

American Journal on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities

Volumn 118, Issue 6, 2013, Pages 475-495

  Klusek, Jessica ^a   Martin, Gary E ^a   Losh, Molly ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA   (United States)

^b NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Arousal; ASD; Autism; Endophenotype; Fragile X syndrome; Heart rate; Pragmatic language; Social communication; Vagal tone

Indexed keywords

ADOLESCENT; AROUSAL; ARTICLE; AUTISM; AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM; CHILD; COMPARATIVE STUDY; FRAGILE X SYNDROME; HEART FUNCTION TEST; HEART RATE; HUMAN; LANGUAGE DISABILITY; LANGUAGE TEST; MALE; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PHYSIOLOGY; VAGUS NERVE;

ADOLESCENT; AROUSAL; AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM; CHILD; CHILD DEVELOPMENT DISORDERS, PERVASIVE; FRAGILE X SYNDROME; HEART FUNCTION TESTS; HEART RATE; HUMANS; LANGUAGE DISORDERS; LANGUAGE TESTS; MALE; VAGUS NERVE;

EID: 84892887916     PISSN: 19447515     EISSN: 19447558     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1352/1944.7558-118.6.475     Document Type: Article

References (133)

1. Abbeduto, L., Murphy, M. M., Kover, S. T., Karadottir, S., Amman, A., & Bruno, L. (2008). Signaling noncomprehension of language: A comparison of fragile X syndrome and Down syndrome. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 113, 214-230.
2. Abrahams, B. S., & Geschwind, D. H. (2008). Advances in autism genetics: On the threshold of a new neurobiology. Nature Reviews: Genetics, 9, 341-355.
3. Achenbach, T. M., & Rescorla, L. A. (2000). Manual for the ASEBA preschool forms and profiles. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont Department of Psychiatry.
4. Adams, C., Green, J., Gilchrist, A., & Cox, A. (2002). Conversational behaviour of children with Asperger syndrome and conduct disorder. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines, 43(5), 679-690.
5. Alive Technologies. (Copyright 2005-2009). Alive Heart Monitor: Bluetooth ECG and Activity Monitor: Alive Technologies Pty Ltd.
6. Alkon, A., Goldstein, L. H., Smider, N., Essex, M. J., Kupfer, D. J., & Boyce, W. T. (2003). Developmental and contextual influences on autonomic reactivity in young children. Developmental Psychobiology, 42(1), 64-78.
7. Althaus, M., Mulder, L. J. M., Mulder, G., Aarnoudse, C. C., & Minderaa, R. B. (1999). Cardiac adaptivity to attention-demanding tasks in children with a pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified (PDDNOS). Biological Psychiatry, 46(6), 799-809.
8. American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
9. American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
10. Bailey, D. B., Hatton, D. D., Skinner, M., & Mesibov, G. (2001). Autistic behavior, FMR1 protein, and developmental trajectories in young males with Fragile X syndrome. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 31(2), 165-174.
11. Bailey, D. B., Mesibov, G., Hatton, D. D., Clark, R. D., Roberts, J. E., & Mayhew, L. (1998). Autistic behavior in young boys with fragile X syndrome. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 28(6), 499-508.
12. Bal, E., Harden, E., Lamb, D., Vaughan Van Hecke, A., Denver, J. W., & Porges, S. W. (2010). Emotion recognition in children with autism spectrum disorders: Relation to eye gaze and autonomic state. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 40, 358-370.
13. Bar-Haim, Y., Marshall, P. J., & Fox, N. A. (2000). Developmental changes in heart period and high-frequency heart period variability from 4 months to 4 years of age. Developmental Psychobiology, 37(1), 44-56.
14. Bates, E. (1976). Language in context. New York: Academic Press.
15. Baumgardner, T. L., Reiss, A. L., Freund, L. S., & Abrams, M. T. (1995). Specification of the neurobehavioral phenotype in males with fragile X syndrome. Pediatrics, 95(5), 744-752.
16. Belser, R. C., & Sudhalter, V. (1995). Arousal difficulties in males with fragile X syndrome: A preliminary report. Developmental Brain Dysfunction, 8(4), 270-279.
17. Belser, R. C., & Sudhalter, V. (2001). Conversational characteristics of children with fragile X syndrome: Repetitive speech. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 106(1), 28-38.
18. Betancur, C. (2011). Etiological heterogeneity in autism spectrum disorders: More than 100 genetic and genomic disorders and still counting. Brain Research, 1380, 42-77.
19. Blair, C., & Peters, R. (2003). Physiological and neurocognitive correlates of adaptive behavior in preschool among children in Head Start. Developmental Neuropsychology, 24(1), 479-497.
20. Boccia, M. L., & Roberts, J. E. (2000). Behavior and autonomic nervous system function as assessed via heart activity: The case of hyperarousal in boys with fragile X syndrome. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, and Computers, 32(1), 5-10.
21. Calkins, S. D., & Keane, S. P. (2004). Cardiac vagal regulation across the preschool period: Stability, continuity, and implications for childhood adjustment. Developmental Psychobiology, 45(3), 101-112.
22. Capps, L., Kehres, J., & Sigman, M. (1998). Conversational abilities among children with autism and developmental delay. Autism, 2, 325-344.
23. Capps, L., Losh, M., & Thurber, C. (2000). The frog ate a bug and made his mouth sad: Narrative competence in children with autism. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 28, 193-204.
24. Carrow-Woolfolk, E. (1999). CASL: Comprehensive assessment of spoken language. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Services.
25. CDC. (2012). Prevalence of autism spectrum disorders-Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring Network, 14 sites, United States, 2008. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report: Surveillance Summaries, 61, 1-19.
26. Chambers, A. S., & Allen, J. J. (2002). Vagal tone as an indicator of treatment response in major depression. Psychophysiology, 39, 861-864.
27. Chapman, R. S. (2000). Children's language learning: An interactionist perspective. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 41(1), 33-54.
28. Cohen, D., Pichard, N., & Tordjman, S. (2005). Specific genetic disorders and autism: Clinical contribution towards their identification. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 35(1), 103.
29. Cohen, I. L. (1995). A theoretical analysis of the role of hyperarousal in the learning and behavior of fragile X males. Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews, 1(4), 286-291.
30. Cordeiro, L., Ballinger, E., Hagerman, R., & Hessl, D. (2011). Clinical assessment of DSM-IV anxiety disorders in fragile X syndrome: Prevalence and characterization. Journal of Neurodevelopmental Disorders, 3, 57-67.
31. Corona, R., Dissanayake, C., Arbelle, S., Wellington, P., & Sigman, M. (1998). Is affect aversive to young children with autism? Behavioral and cardiac responses to experimenter distress. Child Development, 69(6), 1494-1502.
32. Darnell, J. C., & Klann, E. (2013). The translation of translational control by FMRP: Therapeutic targets for FXS. Nature Neuroscience. doi:10.1038/nn.3379
33. Darnell, J. C., Van Driesche, S. J., Zhang, C., Hung, K. Y., Mele, A., Fraser, C. E., ... Darnell, R. B. (2011). FMRP stalls ribosomal translocation on mRNAs linked to synaptic function and autism. Cell, 146(2), 247-261.
34. Dawson, G., & Lewy, A. (1989). Arousal, attention, and the socioemotional impairments of individuals with autism. In G. Dawson (Ed.), Autism: Nature, diagnosis, and treatment (pp. 49-74). New York: Guilford Press.
35. Devlin, B., & Scherer, S. W. (2012). Genetic architecture in autism spectrum disorder. Current Opinion in Genetics & Development, 22(3), 229-237. doi:10.1016/j.gde.2012.03. 002
36. Dickinson, D., & McCabe, A. (1991). The acquisition and development of language: A social interactionist account of language and literacy development. In J. F. Kavanagh (Ed.), The language continuum: From infancy to literacy. Communicating by language (Vol. 13, pp. 1-40). Parkton, MD: York Press.
37. Diehl, J. J., Bennetto, L., & Young, E. C. (2006). Story recall and narrative coherence of highfunctioning children with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 34(1), 83-98.
38. Dissanayake, C., Bui, Q., Bulhak-Paterson, D., Huggins, R., & Loesch, D. Z. (2009). Behavioural and cognitive phenotypes in idiopathic autism versus autism associated with fragile X syndrome. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50(3), 290-299.
39. Dunn, L. M., & Dunn, D. M. (1997). Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.
40. Dunn, L. M., & Dunn, D. M. (2007). Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test, Fourth Edition. San Antonio, TX: Pearson Assessments.
41. Feldman, R., & Eidelman, A. I. (2003). Skin-toskin contact (Kangaroo Care) accelerates autonomic and neurobehavioural maturation in preterm infants. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 45(4), 274-281.
42. Geller, E. (1998). An investigation of communication breakdowns and repairs in verbal autistic children. British Journal of Developmental Disabilties, 44, 71-85.
43. Ghaziuddin, M., & Leonore, G. (1996). Pedantic speaking style differentiates asperger syndrome from high-functioning autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 26, 585-595.
44. Goodwin, M. S., Groden, J., Velicer, W. F., Lipsitt, L. P., Baron, M. G., Hofmann, S. G., & Groden, G. (2006). Cardiovascular arousal in individuals with autism. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 21(2), 100-123.
45. Gotham, K., Pickles, A., & Lord, C. (2009). Standardizing ADOS scores for a measure of severity in autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 39, 693-705.
46. Gotham, K., Risi, S., Dawson, G., Tager-Flusberg, H., Joseph, R., Carter, A., ... Lord, C. (2008). A replication of the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS) revised algorithms. Journal of the America Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 47(6), 642-651.
47. Gotham, K., Risi, S., Pickles, A., & Lord, C. (2007). The Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule: Revised algorithms for improved diagnostic validity. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37(4), 613-627.
48. Hagerman, R. (2002). The physical and behavioral phenotype. In R. J. Hagerman & P. J. Hagerman (Eds.), Fragile X syndrome: Diagnosis, treatment, and research (3rd ed.), (pp. 3-87). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
49. Hagerman, R. (2004). Physical and behavioural phenotype. In D. Dew-Hughes (Ed.), Educating children with fragile X syndrome: A multiprofessional view. London: Routledge.
50. Hagerman, R., Au, J., & Hagerman, P. (2011). FMR1 premutation and full mutation molecular mechanisms related to autism. Journal of Neurodevelopmental Disorders, 3, 211-224.
51. Hagerman, R., & Hagerman, P. (Eds.). (2002). Fragile X syndrome: Diagnosis, treatment, and research (3rd ed.). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
52. Hagerman, R., Hoem, G., & Hagerman, P. (2010). Fragile X and autism: Intertwined at the molecular level leading to targeted treatments. Molecular Autism, 1(1), 12.
53. Hagerman, R. J., Jackson, A. W., Levitas, A., Rimland, B., Braden, M., Opitz, J. M., & Reynolds, J. F. (1986). An analysis of autism in fifty males with the fragile X syndrome. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 23(1-2), 359-374.
54. Hall, S. S., Lightbody, A. A., Huffman, L. C., Lazzeroni, L. C., & Reiss, A. L. (2009). Physiological correlates of social avoidance behavior in children and adolsecents with fragile X syndrome. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 48(3), 320-329.
55. Hall, S. S., Lightbody, A. A., & Reiss, A. L. (2008). Compulsive, self-injurious, and autistic behavior in children and adolescents with fragile X syndrome. American Journal of Mental Retardation, 113(1), 44-53.
56. Harris, S. W., Hessl, D., Goodlin-Jones, B. L., Ferranti, J., Bacalman, S., Barbato, I., ... Abbeduto, L. (2008). Autism profiles of males with fragile X syndrome. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 113(6), 427-438.
57. Heilman, K. J., Bal, E., Bazhenova, O. V., Sorokin, Y., Perlman, S. B., Hanley, M. C., & Porges, S. W. (2008). Physiological responses to social and physical challenges in children: Quantifying mechanisms supporting social engagement and mobilization behaviors. Developmental Psychobiology, 50(2), 171-182.
58. Heilman, K. J., Harden, E. R., Zageris, D. M., Berry-Kravitz, E., & Porges, S. W. (2011). Autonomic regulation in fragile X syndrome. Developmental Psychobiology, 53, 785-795.
59. Iossifov, I., Ronemus, M., Levy, D., Wang, Z., Hakker, I., Rosenbaum, J., ... Wigler, M. (2012). De Novo gene disruptions in children on the autistic spectrum. Neuron, 74(2), 285-299.
60. Jansen, L., Gispen-de Wied, C., Wiegant, V., Westenberg, H., Lahuis, B., & van Engeland, H. (2006). Autonomic and neuroendocrine responses to a psychosocial stressor in adults with autistic spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 36(7), 891-899. doi:10.1007/s10803-006-0124- z
61. Jansen, L. M. C., Gispen-de Wied, C. C., van der Gaag, R.-J., & van Engeland, H. (2003). Differentiation between autism and multiple complex developmental disorder in response to psychosocial stress. Neuropsychopharmacology, 28(3), 582-590.
62. Kelly, D., Brown, C. C., & Shaffer, J. W. (1970). A comparison of physiological and psychological measurements of anxious patients and normal controls. Psychophysiology, 6, 429-441.
63. Keysor, C. S., Mazzocco, M. M., McLeod, D. R., & Hoehn-Saric, R. (2002). Physiological arousal in females with fragile X or Turner syndrome. Developmental Psychobiology, 41(2), 133-146.
64. Klusek, J., Losh, M., & Martin, G. E. (2012). Sex differences and within-family associations in the broad autism phenotype. Autism: International Journal of Research and Practice, Advance online publication. doi:10.1177/1362361312464529
65. Kok, B. E., & Fredrickson, B. L. (2010). Upward spirals of the heart: Autonomic flexibility, as indexed by vagal tone, reciprocally and prospectively predicts positive emotions and social connectedness. Biological Psychology, 85(3), 432-436.
66. Landa, R. (2000). Social language use in Asperger syndrome and high-functioning autism. In K. Ami, F. Volkmar, & S. S. Sparrow (Eds.), Asperger Syndrome (pp. 403-417). New York: Guilford Press.
67. Landa, R. (2011). Pragmatic Rating Scale for School-Age Children. Unpublished manuscript.
68. Landa, R., Piven, J., Wzorek, M. M., Gayle, J. O., Chase, G. A., & Folstein, S. E. (1992). Social language use in parents of autistic individuals. Psychological Medicine, 22(1), 245-254.
69. Lee, H. K. (2005). The effect of infant massage on weight gain, physiological and behavioral responses in premature infants. Taehan Kanho Hakhoe Chi, 35, 1452-1460.
70. Levine, T. P., Sheinkopf, S. J., Pescosolido, M., Rodino, A., Elia, G., & Lester, B. (2012). Physiologic arousal to social stress in children with autism spectrum disorders: A pilot study. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 6(1), 177-183.
71. Lord, C., Rutter, M., DeLavore, P. C., & Risi, S. (2001). Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule. Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services.
72. Losh, M., & Capps, L. (2003). Narrative ability in high-functioning children with autism or Asperger's syndrome. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 33(3), 239-251.
73. Losh, M., Childress, D., Lam, K., & Piven, J. (2008). Defining key features of the broad autism phenotype: A comparison across parents of multiple- and single-incidence autism families. American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 147B(4), 424-433.
74. Losh, M., Klusek, J., Martin, G. E., Sideris, J., Parlier, M., & Piven, J. (2012). Defining genetically meaningful language and personality traits in relatives of individuals with fragile X syndrome and relatives of individuals with autism. American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 159B, 660-668.
75. Losh, M., Martin, G. E., Klusek, J., Hogan-Brown, A. L., & Sideris, J. (2012). Social communication and theory of mind in boys with autism and fragile X syndrome. Frontiers in Psychology, 3, 1-12.
76. Loveland, K. A., McEvoy, R. E., & Tunali, B. (1990). Narrative story telling in autism and Down's syndrome. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 8, 9-23.
77. MacCulloch, M. J., & Williams, C. (1971). On the nature of infantile autism. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 47(3), 295-314.
78. Mandell, D. S., Morales, K. H., Marcus, S. C., Stahmer, A. C., Doshi, J., & Polsky, D. E. (2008). Psychotropic medication use among medicaid-enrolled children with autism spectrum disorders. Pediatrics, 121(3), 441-448.
79. Martin, G. E., Roberts, J. E., Helm-Estabrooks, N., Sideris, J., Vanderbilt, J., & Moskiwitz, L. (2012). Perseveration in the connected speech of boys with fragile X syndrome with and without autism spectrum disorder. American Journal on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 117(5), 384-399.
80. Martin, I., & McDonald, S. (2003). Weak coherence, no theory of mind, or executive dysfunction? Solving the puzzle of pragmatic language disorders. Brain and Language, 85(3), 451-466.
81. Mathewson, K. J., Drmic, I. E., Jetha, M. K., Bryson, S. E., Goldberg, J. O., Hall, G. B., ... Schmidt, L. A. (2011). Behavioral and cardiac responses to emotional stroop in adults with autism spectrum disorders: Influence of medication. Autism Research, 4(2), 98-108. doi:10.1002/aur.176
82. McDuffie, A., Abbeduto, L., Lewis, P., Kover, S., Kim, J., Weber, A., & Brown, W. T. (2010). Autism spectrum disorder in children and adolescents with fragile X syndrome: Withinsyndrome differences and age-related changes. American Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 115(5), 307-326.
83. McLeod, D. R., Hoehn-Saric, R., Zimmerli, W. D., de Souza, E. B., & Oliver, L. K. (1990). Treatment effects of alprazolam and imipramine: Physiological versus subjective changes in patients with generalized anxiety disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 28, 849-861.
84. McTear, M., & Conti-Ramsden, G. (1992). Pragmatic disability in children. London: Whurr.
85. Merenstein, S. A., Sobesky, W. E., Taylor, A. K., Riddle, J. E., Tran, H. X., & Hagerman, R. J. (1996). Molecular-clinical correlations in males with an expanded FMR1 mutation. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 64(2), 388-394.
86. Miller, L. J., McIntosh, D. N., McGrath, J., Shyu, V., Lampe, M., Taylor, A. K., ... Hagerman, R. J. (1999). Electrodermal responses to sensory stimuli in individuals with fragile X syndrome: A preliminary report. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 83, 268-279.
87. Ming, X., Julu, P. O., Brimacombe, M., Connor, S., & Daniels, M. L. (2005). Reduced cardiac parasympathetic activity in children with autism. Brain and Development, 27, 509-516.
88. Miu, A. C., Heilman, R. M., & Miclea, M. (2009). Reduced heart rate variability and vagal tone in anxiety: Trait versus state, and the effects of autogenic training. Autonomic Neuroscience, 145, 99-103.
89. Morgan, C. N., Roy, M., & Chance, P. (2003). Psychiatric comorbidity and medication use in autism: A community survey. Psychiatric Bulletin, 27(10), 378-381. doi:10.1192/pb.02-031
90. O'Brien, P., & Oyebode, F. (2003). Psychotropic medication and the heart. Advances in Psychiatric Treatment, 9(6), 414-423. doi:10.1192/apt.9.6.414
91. Patriquin, M. A., Scarpa, A., Friedman, B. H., & Porges, S. W. (2011). Respiratory sinus arrhythmia: A marker for positive social functioning and receptive language skills in children with autism spectrum disorders. Developmental Psychobiology, E-pub ahead of print. doi:10.1002/dev.21002
92. Paul, R., Dykens, E., Leckman, J. F., Watson, M., Breg, W. R., & Cohen, D. J. (1987). A comparison of language characteristics of mentally retarded adults with fragile X syndrome and those with nonspecific mental retardation and autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 17(4), 457-468.
93. Pieretti, M., Zhang, F. P., Fu, Y. H., Warren, S. T., Oostra, B. A., & Caskey, C. T. (1991). Absence of expression of the FMR-1 gene in fragile X syndrome. Cell, 66, 817-822.
94. Porges, S. W. (2007). The polyvagal perspective. Biological Psychology, 74(2), 116-143.
95. Porges, S. W., & Bohrer, R. E. (1990). Analyses of periodic processes in psychophysiological research. In J. T. Cacioppo & L. G. Tassinary (Eds.), Principles of psychophysiology: Physical, social, and inferential elements (pp. 708-753). New York: Cambridge University Press.
96. Porges, S. W., & Furman, S. A. (2011). The early development of the autonomic nervous system provides a neural platform for social behavior: A polyvagal perspective. Infant and Child Development, 20(1), 106-118.
97. Porges, S. W., Macellaio, M., Stanfill, S. D., McCue, K., Lewis, G. F., Harden, E. R., ... Heilman, K. J. (2013). Respiratory sinus arrhythmia and auditory processing in autism: Modifiable deficits of an integrated social engagement system? International Journal of Psychophysiology, E-pub ahead of print(0). doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2012. 11.009
98. Prutting, C. A. (1982). Pragmatics as social competence. Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Disorders, 47(2), 123-134.
99. Rechlin, T. (1995). Effects of psychopharmacologic therapy on heart rate variation. Nervenarzt, 66, 678-685.
100. Reiss, A. L., & Dant, C. C. (2003). The behavioral neurogenetics of fragile X syndrome: Analyzing gene-brain-behavior relationships in child developmental psychopathologies. Development and Psychopathology, 15, 927-968.
101. Roberts, J., Miranda, M., Boccia, M., Janes, H., Tonnsen, B., & Hatton, D. (2011). Treatment effects of stimulant medication in young boys with fragile X syndrome. Journal of Neurodevelopmental Disorders, 3(3), 175-184. doi:10.1007/s11689-011-9085-4
102. Roberts, J. E., Boccia, M. L., Bailey, D. B., Hatton, D. D., & Skinner, M. (2001). Cardiovascular indices of physiological arousal in boys with fragile X syndrome. Developmental Psychobiology, 39(2), 107-123.
103. Roberts, J. E., Boccia, M. L., Hatton, D. D., Skinner, M. L., & Sideris, J. (2006). Temperament and vagal tone in boys with fragile X syndrome. Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 27(3), 193-201.
104. Roberts, J. E., Martin, G. E., Moskowitz, L., Harris, A. A., Foreman, J., & Nelson, L. (2007). Discourse skills of boys with fragile X syndrome in comparison to boys with Down syndrome. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 50, 475-492.
105. Roberts, J. E., Mazzocco, M. M., Murphy, M. M., & Hoehn-Saric, R. (2008). Arousal modulation in females with fragile X or Turner syndrome. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38, 20-27.
106. Roberts, J. E., Tonnsen, B., Robinson, A., & Shinkareva, S. V. (2012). Heart activity and autistic behavior in infants and toddlers with fragile X syndrome. American Journal on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 117(2), 90-102.
107. Rogers, S. J., Wehner, D. E., & Hagerman, R. (2001). The behavioral phenotype in fragile X: Symptoms of autism in very young children with fragile X syndrome, idiopathic autism, and other developmental disorders. Journal of Developmental Behavioral Pediatrics, 22(6), 409-417.
108. Roid, G. H., & Miller, L. J. (1997). Leiter International Performance Scale-Revised. Wood Dale, IL: Stoelting.
109. Ross, D. E. (2002). Replacing faulty conversational exhanges for children with autism by establishing a functionally equivalent alternative response. Eduation and Training in Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities, 37(4), 343-362.
110. Rubin, K. H., & Burgess, K. B. (Eds.). (1991). Social withdrawal and anxiety. New York: Oxford University Press.
111. Schuler, A., & Prizant, B. (1985). Echolalia. In E. Schopler & G. Mesibov (Eds.), Communication problems in autism (pp. 163-184). New York: Plenum Press.
112. Sigman, M., Dissanayake, C., Corona, R., & Espinosa, M. (2003). Social and cardiac responses in young children with autism. Autism, 7(2), 205-216.
113. Silke, B., Campbell, C., & King, D. (2002). The potential cardiotoxicity of antipsychotic drugs as assessed by heart rate variability. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 16(4), 355-360.
114. Sudhalter, V., & Belser, R. C. (2001). Conversational characteristics of children with fragile X syndrome: Tangential language. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 106(5), 389-400.
115. Sudhalter, V., Cohen, I. L., Silverman, W., & Wolf-Schein, E. G. (1990). Conversational analyses of males with fragile X, Down syndrome, and autism: Comparison of the emergence of deviant language. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 94(4), 431-441.
116. Suess, P. E., & Bornstein, M. H. (2000). Task-totask vagal regulation: Relations with language and play in 20-month-old children. Infancy, 1(3), 303-322.
117. Tager-Flusberg, H. (1995). Once upon a ribbit: Stories narrated by autistic children. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 13, 45-59.
118. Tager-Flusberg, H., & Anderson, M. (1991). The development of contingent discourse ability in autistic children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 32, 1123-1134.
119. Tager-Flusberg, H., Paul, R., & Lord, C. (2005). Language and communication in autism. In F. Volkmar, R. Paul, & A. Klin (Eds.), Handbook on autism and pervasive developmental disorders (3rd ed.) (pp. 335-364). New York: Wiley.
120. Toichi, M., & Kamio, Y. (2003). Paradoxical autonomic response to mental tasks in autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 33(4), 417-426.
121. Tyrer, P. L., & Alexander, J. (1980). Awareness of cardiac function in ancious, phobic, and hypochandriacal patients. Psychological Medicine, 10, 171-174.
122. Valdovinos, M., Parsa, R., & Alexander, M. (2009). Results of a nation-wide survey evaluating psychotropic medication use in fragile X syndrome. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities, 21(1), 23-37.
123. Van Hecke, A. V., Lebow, J., Elgiz, B., Damon, L., Harden, E., Kramer, A., ... Porges, S. W. (2009). Electroencephalogram and heart rate regulation to familiar and unfamiliar people in children with autism spectrum disorders. Child Development, 80(4), 1118-1133.
124. van Steensel, F., Bögels, S., & Perrin, S. (2011). Anxiety disorders in children and adolescents with autistic spectrum disorders: A metaanalysis. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 14(3), 302-317.
125. Volden, J. (2004). Conversational repair in speakers with autism spectrum disorder. International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders, 39(2), 171-189.
126. Watson, L., Roberts, J., Baranek, G., Mandulak, K., & Dalton, J. (2012). Behavioral and physiological responses to child-directed speech of children with autism spectrum disorders or typical development. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 42(8), 1616-1629.
127. Watson, L. R., Baranek, G. T., Roberts, J. E., David, F. J., & Perryman, T. Y. (2010). Behavioral and physiological responses to child-directed speech as predictors of communication outcomes in children with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 53(4), 1052-1064.
128. Wechsler, D. (1999). Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence (WASI). UK: Pearson Assessment.
129. White, S. W., Oswald, D., Ollendick, T., & Scahill, L. (2009). Anxiety in children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorders. Clinical Psychology Review, 29(3), 216-229. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2009.01.003
130. Williams, K. T. (1997). Expressive Vocabulary Test. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.
131. Wolf-Schein, E. G., Sudhalter, V., Cohen, I. L., Fisch, G. S., Hanson, D., Pfadt, A. G., ... Brown, W. T. (1987). Speech-language and the fragile X syndrome: Initial findings. ASHA, 29(7), 35-38.
132. Woodard, C. R., Goodwin, M. S., Zelazo, P. R., Aube, D., Scrimgeour, M., Ostholthoff, T., & Brickley, M. (2012). A comparison of autonomic, behavioral, and parent-report measures of sensory sensitivity in young children with autism. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 6(3), 1234-1246.
133. Zajac, D. J., Harris, A. A., Roberts, J. E., & Martin, G. E. (2009). Direct magnitude estimation of articulation rate in boys with fragile X syndrome. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 52, 1370-1379. Development Development Development