HTLV-1/-2 and HIV-1 co-infections: Retroviral interference on host immune status

Frontiers in Microbiology

Volumn 4, Issue DEC, 2013, Pages

  Pilotti, Elisabetta ^a   Bianchi, Maria V ^a   De Maria, Andrea ^b,c   Bozzano, Federica ^b   Romanelli, Maria G ^d   Bertazzoni, Umberto ^d   Casoli, Claudio ^a  

^a Center for Medical Research and Molecular Diagnostics   (Italy)

^b UNIVERSITY OF GENOA   (Italy)

^c UNIVERSITY OF GENOA   (Italy)

^d UNIVERSITY OF VERONA   (Italy)

Author keywords

Chemokines; Co infection; Cytokines; HIV 1; HTLV; JAK STAT; miRNA; Natural killer cells

Indexed keywords

GAMMA INTERFERON; IMMUNOGLOBULIN ENHANCER BINDING PROTEIN; INTERLEUKIN 2; INTERLEUKIN 6; JANUS KINASE; MACROPHAGE INFLAMMATORY PROTEIN 1ALPHA; MICRORNA; STAT PROTEIN; SUPPRESSOR OF CYTOKINE SIGNALING 1; TAX PROTEIN; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR ALPHA;

DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DISEASE COURSE; HUMAN; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS 1 INFECTION; HUMAN T CELL LEUKEMIA VIRUS INFECTION; IMMUNE RESPONSE; IMMUNITY; NATURAL KILLER CELL; NONHUMAN; PROTEIN EXPRESSION; REVIEW; SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION; VIRUS INTERFERENCE; VIRUS LOAD; VIRUS TRANSMISSION;

EID: 84892181236     PISSN: None     EISSN: 1664302X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2013.00372     Document Type: Review

References (186)

1. Abrahao, M. H., Lima, R. G., Netto, E., and Brites, C. (2012). Short communication: human lymphotropic virus type 1 coinfection modulates the synthesis of cytokines by peripheral blood mononuclear cells from HIV type 1-infected individuals. AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses 28, 806-808. doi: 10.1089/AID.2011.0192.
2. Ahluwalia, J. K., Khan, S. Z., Soni, K., Rawat, P., Gupta, A., Hariharan, M., et al. (2008). Human cellular microRNA hsa-miR-29a interferes with viral nef protein expression and HIV-1 replication. Retrovirology 5, 117. doi: 10.1186/1742-4690-5-117.
3. Aliya, N., Rahman, S., Khan, Z. K., and Jain, P. (2012). Cotranscriptional chromatin remodeling by small RNA species: an HTLV-1 perspective. Leuk. Res. Treatment 2012, 984754. doi: 10.1155/2012/984754.
4. Alter, G., Heckerman, D., Schneidewind, A., Fadda, L., Kadie, C. M., Carlson, J. M., et al. (2011). HIV-1 adaptation to NK-cell-mediated immune pressure. Nature 476, 96-100. doi: 10.1038/nature10237.
5. Althaus, C. F., Vongrad, V., Niederost, B., Joos, B., Di Giallonardo, F., Rieder, P., et al. (2012). Tailored enrichment strategy detects low abundant small noncoding RNAs in HIV-1 infected cells. Retrovirology 9, 27. doi: 10.1186/1742-4690-9-27.
6. Ambros, V. (2004). The functions of animal microRNAs. Nature 431, 350-355. doi: 10.1038/nature02871.
7. Araujo, A. P., Fontenelle, L. M., Padua, P. A., Maia Filho, H. S., and Araujo Ade, Q. (2002). Juvenile human T lymphotropic virus type 1-associated myelopathy. Clin. Infect. Dis. 35, 201-204. doi: 10.1086/341251.
8. Arnon, T. I., Lev, M., Katz, G., Chernobrov, Y., Porgador, A., and Mandelboim, O. (2001). Recognition of viral hemagglutinins by NKp44 but not by NKp30. Eur. J. Immunol. 31, 2680-2689. doi: 10.1002/1521-4141(200109)31:9<2680::AID-IMMU2680>3.0.CO;2-A.
9. Balistrieri, G., Barrios, C., Castillo, L., Umunakwe, T. C., Giam, C. Z., and Zhi, H., et al. (2013). Induction of CC-chemokines with antiviral function in macrophages by the human T lymphotropic virus type 2 transactivating protein, Tax2. Viral Immunol. 26, 3-12. doi: 10.1089/vim.2012.0060.
10. Baeuerle, P. A., and Henkel, T. (1994). Function and activation of NF-kappa B in the immune system. Annu. Rev. Immunol. 12,141-179. doi: 10.1146/annurev.iy.12.040194.001041.
11. Banerjee, P., Rochford, R., Antel, J., Canute, G., Wrzesinski, S., Sieburg, M., et al. (2007). Proinflammatory cytokine gene induction by human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 (HTLV-1) and HTLV-2 Tax in primary human glial cells. J. Virol. 81, 1690-1700. doi: 10.1128/JVI.01513-06.
12. Bangham, C. R. (2003). The immune control and cell-to-cell spread of human T-lymphotropic virus type 1. J. Gen. Virol. 84, 3177-3189. doi: 10.1099/vir.0.19334-0.
13. Barrios, C. S., Abuerreish, M., Lairmore, M. D., Castillo, L., Giam, C. Z., and Beilke, M. A. (2011). Recombinant human T-cell leukemia virus types 1 and 2 Tax proteins induce high levels of CC-chemokines and downregulate CCR5 in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Viral Immunol. 24, 429-439. doi: 10.1089/vim.2011.0037.
14. Bartel, D. P. (2004). MicroRNAs: genomics, biogenesis, mechanism, and function. Cell 116, 281-297. doi: 10.1016/S0092-8674(04)00045-5.
15. Bartholomew, C., Blattner, W., and Cleghorn, F. (1987). Progression to AIDS in homosexual men co-infected with HIV and HTLV-I in Trinidad. Lancet 2, 1469. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(87)91172-X.
16. Bassani, S., Lopez, M., Toro, C., Jimenez, V., Sempere, J. M., Soriano, V., et al. (2007). Influence of human T cell lymphotropic virus type 2 coinfection on virological and immunological parameters in HIV type 1-infected patients. Clin. Infect. Dis. 44, 105-110. doi: 10.1086/510076.
17. Bhattarai, N., and Stapleton, J. T. (2012). GB virus C: the good boy virus? Trends Microbiol. 20, 124-130. doi: 10.1016/j.tim.2012.01.004.
18. Beilke, M. A. (2012). Retroviral coinfections: HIV and HTLV: taking stock of more than a quarter century of research. AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses 28, 139-147. doi: 10.1089/AID.2011.0342.
19. Beilke, M. A., Theall, K. P., O'Brien, M., Clayton, J. L., Benjamin, S. M., Winsor, E. L., et al. (2004). Clinical outcomes and disease progression among patients coinfected with HIV and human T lymphotropic virus types 1 and 2. Clin. Infect. Dis. 39, 256-263. doi: 10.1086/422146.
20. Beilke, M. A., Traina-Dorge, V. L., Sirois, M., Bhuiyan, A., Murphy, E. L., Walls, J. M., et al. (2007). Relationship between human T lymphotropic virus (HTLV) type 1/2 viral burden and clinical and treatment parameters among patients with HIV type 1 and HTLV-1/2 coinfection. Clin. Infect. Dis. 44, 1229-1234. doi: 10.1086/513428.
21. Bellon, M., Lepelletier, Y., Hermine, O., and Nicot, C. (2009). Deregulation of microRNA involved in hematopoiesis and the immune response in HTLV-I adult T-cell leukemia. Blood 113, 4914-4197. doi: 10.1182/blood-2008-11-189845.
22. Bennasser, Y., Le, S. Y., Yeung, M. L., and Jeang, K. T. (2004). HIV-1 encoded candidate micro-RNAs and their cellular targets. Retrovirology 1, 43. doi: 10.1186/1742-4690-1-43.
23. Berezikov, E., Guryev, V., van de Belt, J., Wienholds, E., Plasterk, R. H., and Cuppen, E. (2005). Phylogenetic shadowing and computational identification of human microRNA genes. Cell 120, 21-24. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2004.12.031.
24. + T lymphocyte miRNA expression after exposure to HIV-1. Blood 119, 6259-6267. doi: 10.1182/blood-2011-09-379503.
25. Bisio, F., Bozzano, F., Marras, F., Di Biagio, A., Moretta, L., and De Maria, A. (2013). Successfully treated HIV-infected patients have differential expression of NK cell receptors (NKp46 and NKp30) according to AIDS status at presentation. Immunol. Lett. 152, 16-24. doi: 10.1016/j.imlet.2013.03.003.
26. Bohnlein, E., Siekevitz, M., Ballard, D. W., Lowenthal, J. W., Rimsky, L., Bogerd, H., et al. (1989). Stimulation of the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 enhancer by the human T-cell leukemia virus type I tax gene product involves the action of inducible cellular proteins. J. Virol. 63, 1578-1586.
27. Bovolenta, C., Camorali, L., Lorini, A. L., Ghezzi, S., Vicenzi, E., Lazzarin, A., et al. (1999). Constitutive activation of STATs upon in vivo human immunodeficiency virus infection. Blood 94, 4202-4209.
28. Bovolenta, C., Pilotti, E., Mauri, M., Panzeri, B., Sassi, M., Dall'Aglio, P., et al. (2002a). Retroviral interference on STAT activation in individuals coinfected with human T cell leukemia virus type 2 and HIV-1. J. Immunol. 169, 4443-4449.
29. Bovolenta, C., Pilotti, E., Mauri, M., Turci, M., Ciancianaini, P., Fisicaro, P., et al. (2002b). Human T-cell leukemia virus type 2 induces survival and proliferation of CD34(+) TF-1 cells through activation of STAT1 and STAT5 by secretion of interferon-gamma and granulocyte macrophage-colony-stimulating factor. Blood 99, 224-231. doi: 10.1182/blood.V99.1.224.
30. Boxus, M., Twizere, J. C., Legros, S., Dewulf, J. F., Kettmann, R., and Willems, L. (2008). The HTLV-1 Tax interactome. Retrovirology 5, 76. doi: 10.1186/1742-4690-5-76.
31. Bozzano, F., Costa, P., Passalacqua, G., Dodi, F., Ravera, S., Pagano, G., et al. (2009). Functionally relevant decreases in activatory receptor expression on NK cells are associated with pulmonary tuberculosis in vivo and persist after successful treatment. Int. Immunol. 21, 779-791. doi: 10.1093/intimm/dxp046.
32. Bozzano, F., Marras, F., Biassoni, R., and De Maria, A. (2012). Natural killer cells in hepatitis C virus infection. Expert Rev. Clin. Immunol. 8, 775-788. doi: 10.1586/eci.12.71.
33. Bozzano, F., Picciotto, A., Costa, P., Marras, F., Fazio, V., Hirsch, I., et al. (2011). Activating NK cell receptor expression/function (NKp30,NKp46,DNAM-1) during chronic viraemic HCV infection is associated with the outcome of combined treatment. Eur. J. Immunol. 41, 2905-2914. doi: 10.1002/eji.201041361.
34. Briggs, N. C., Battjes, R. J., Cantor, K. P., Blattner, W. A., Yellin, F. M., Wilson, S., et al. (1995). Seroprevalence of human T cell lymphotropic virus type II infection, with or without human immunodeficiency virus type 1 coinfection, among US intravenous drug users. J. Infect. Dis. 172, 51-58. doi: 10.1093/infdis/172.1.51.
35. Brites, C., Alencar, R., Gusmao, R., Pedroso, C., Netto, E. M., Pedral-Sampaio, D., et al. (2001). Co-infection with HTLV-1 is associated with a shorter survival time for HIV-1-infected patients in Bahia, Brazil. AIDS 15, 2053-2055. doi: 10.1097/00002030-200110190-00023.
36. Brites, C., Oliveira, A. S., and Netto, E. M. (2005). Coinfection with HIV and human T lymphotropic virus type 1: what is the real impact on HIV disease? Clin. Infect. Dis. 40, 329-330; author reply 330-331. doi: 10.1086/426690.
37. Brito-Melo, G. E. A., Martins-Filho, O. A., Carneiro-Proietti, A. B. F., Catalan-Soares, B., Ribas, J. G., Thorum, G. W., et al. (2002). Phenotypic study of peripheral blood leucocytes in HTLV-I-infected individuals from Minas Gerais, Brazil. Scand. J. Immunol. 55, 621-628. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-3083.2002.01087.x.
38. Brown, D. A., Nelson, F. B., Reinherz, E. L., and Diamond, D. J. (1991). The human interferon-gamma gene contains an inducible promoter that can be transactivated by tax I and II. Eur. J. Immunol. 21, 1879-1885. doi: 10.1002/eji.1830210815.
39. Carissimi, C., Fulci, V., and Macino, G. (2009). MicroRNAs: novel regulators of immunity. Autoimmun. Rev. 8, 520-524. doi: 10.1016/j.autrev.2009.01.008.
40. Caron, C., Rousset, R., Beraud, C., Moncollin, V., Egly, J. M., and Jalinot, P. (1993). Functional and biochemical interaction of the HTLV-I Tax1 transactivator with TBP. EMBO J. 12, 4269-4278.
41. Casoli, C., Pilotti, E., and Bertazzoni, U. (2007). Molecular and cellular interactions of HIV-1/HTLV coinfection and impact on AIDS progression. AIDS Rev. 9, 140-149.
42. Casoli, C., Re, M. C., Monari, P., Furlini, G., Tosi, G., Gradozzi, C., et al. (1998). Human T-cell leukemia virus type II directly acts on CD34+ hematopoietic precursors by increasing their survival potential envelope-associated HLA class II molecules reverse this effect. Blood 91, 2296-2304. doi: 10.1128/JVI.77.22.12152.
43. Casoli, C., Vicenzi, E., Cimarelli, A., Magnani, G., Ciancianaini, P., Cattaneo, E., et al. (2000). HTLV-II down-regulates HIV-1 replication in IL-2-stimulated primary PBMC of coinfected individuals through expression of MIP-1alpha. Blood 95, 2760-2769.
44. Cesaire, R., Dehee, A., Lezin, A., Desire, N., Bourdonne, O., Dantin, F., et al. (2001). Quantification of HTLV type I and HIV type I DNA load in coinfected patients: HIV type 1 infection does not alter HTLV type I proviral amount in the peripheral blood compartment. AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses 17, 799-805. doi: 10.1089/088922201750251990.
45. Charoenthongtrakul, S., Zhou, Q., Shembade, N., Harhaj, N. S., and Harhaj, E. W. (2011). Human T cell leukemia virus type 1 Tax inhibits innate antiviral signaling via NF-kappaB-dependent induction of SOCS1. J. Virol. 85, 6955-6962. doi: 10.1128/JVI.00007-11.
46. Chavance, M., Neisson-Vernant, C., Quist, D., Monplaisir, N., Armengaud, B., and Chout, R. (1995). HIV/HTLV-I coinfection and clinical grade at diagnosis. J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr. Hum. Retrovirol. 8, 91-95. doi: 10.1097/00042560-199501000-00013.
47. Chen, C. Z., Li, L., Lodish, H. F., and Bartel, D. P. (2004). MicroRNAs modulate hematopoietic lineage differentiation. Science 303, 83-86. doi: 10.1126/science.1091903.
48. Chen, J., Petrus, M., Bryant, B. R., Phuc Nguyen, V., Stamer, M., Goldman, C. K., et al. (2008). Induction of the IL-9 gene by HTLV-I Tax stimulates the spontaneous proliferation of primary adult T-cell leukemia cells by a paracrine mechanism. Blood 111, 5163-5172. doi: 10.1182/blood-2007-09-113654.
49. Clemens, K. E., Piras, G., Radonovich, M. F., Choi, K. S., Duvall, J. F., DeJong, J., et al. (1996). Interaction of the human T-cell lymphotropic virus type 1 tax transactivator with transcription factor IIA. Mol. Cell. Biol. 16, 4656-4664.
50. Clerici, M., and Shearer, G. M. (1993). A TH1 → TH2 switch is a critical step in the etiology of HIV infection. Immunol. Today 14, 107-111. doi: 10.1016/0167-5699(93)90208-90203.
51. Clerici, M., and Shearer, G. M. (1994). The Th1-Th2 hypothesis of HIV infection: new insights. Immunol. Today 15, 575-581. doi: 10.1016/0167-5699(94)90220-90228.
52. Cobb, B. S., Hertweck, A., Smith, J., O'Connor, E., Graf, D., Cook, T., et al. (2006). A role for Dicer in immune regulation. J. Exp. Med. 203, 2519-2527. doi: 10.1084/jem.20061692.
53. + T cells. Science 270, 1811-1815. doi: 10.1126/science.270.5243.1811.
54. Colgin, M. A., and Nyborg, J. K. (1998). The human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 oncoprotein Tax inhibits the transcriptional activity of c-Myb through competition for the CREB binding protein. J. Virol. 72, 9396-9399. doi: 10.1128/MCB.21.21.7391-7402.2001.
55. Corey, L. (2007). Synergistic copathogens: HIV-1 and HSV-2. N. Engl. J. Med. 356, 854-856. doi: 10.1056/NEJMe068302.
56. Creery, D., Weiss, W., Lim, W. T., Aziz, Z., Angel, J. B., and Kumar, A. (2004). Down-regulation of CXCR-4 and CCR-5 expression by interferon-gamma is associated with inhibition of chemotaxis and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) replication but not HIV entry into human monocytes. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 137, 156-165. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2249.2004.02495.x.
57. Curtale, G., Citarella, F., Carissimi, C., Goldoni, M., Carucci, N., Fulci, V., et al. (2010). An emerging player in the adaptive immune response: microRNA-146a is a modulator of IL-2 expression and activation-induced cell death in T lymphocytes. Blood 115, 265-273. doi: 10.1182/blood-2009-06-225987.
58. De Maria, A., Fogli, M., Costa, P., Murdaca, G., Puppo, F., Mavilio, D., et al. (2003). The impaired NK cell cytolytic function in viremic HIV-1 infection is associated with a reduced surface expression of natural cytotoxicity receptors (NKp46, NKp30 and NKp44). Eur. J. Immunol. 33, 2410-2418. doi: 10.1002/eji.200324141.
59. Della Chiesa, M., Falco, M., Podest, M., Locatelli, F., Moretta, L., Frassoni, F., et al. (2011). Phenotypic and functional heterogeneity of human NK cells developing after umbilical cord blood transplantation: a role for human cytomegalovirus? Blood 119, 399-410. doi: 10.1182/blood-2011-08-372003.
60. Dezzutti, C. S., Sasso, D. R., Rudolph, D. L., and Lal, R. B. (1998). Down-regulation of interleukin-10 expression and production is associated with spontaneous proliferation by lymphocytes from human T lymphotropic virus type II-infected persons. J. Infect. Dis. 177, 1489-1496. doi: 10.1086/515311.
61. Du, T., and Zamore, P. D. (2007). Beginning to understand microRNA function. Cell Res. 17, 661-663. doi: 10.1038/cr.2007.67.
62. Easley, R., Carpio, L., Guendel, I., Klase, Z., Choi, S., Kehn-Hall, K., et al. (2010). Human T-lymphotropic virus type 1 transcription and chromatin-remodeling complexes. J. Virol. 84, 4755-4768. doi: 10.1128/JVI.00851-09.
63. Fantry, L., De Jonge, E., Auwaerter, P. G., and Lederman, H. M. (1995). Immunodeficiency and elevated CD4 T lymphocyte counts in two patients coinfected with human immunodeficiency virus and human lymphotropic virus type I. Clin. Infect. Dis. 21, 1466-1468. doi: 10.1093/clinids/21.6.1466.
64. Faraoni, I., Antonetti, F. R., Cardone, J., and Bonmassar, E. (2009). miR-155 gene: a typical multifunctional microRNA. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1792, 497-505. doi: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2009.02.013.
65. Fazi, F., Rosa, A., Fatica, A., Gelmetti, V., De Marchis, M. L., Nervi, C., et al. (2005). A minicircuitry comprised of microRNA-223 and transcription factors NFI-A and C/EBPalpha regulates human granulopoiesis. Cell 123, 819-831. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2005.09.023.
66. Fogli, M., Costa, P., Murdaca, G., Setti, M., Mingari, M. C., Moretta, L., et al. (2004). Significant NK cell activation associated with decreased cytolytic function in peripheral blood of HIV-1-infected patients. Eur. J. Immunol. 34, 2313-2321. doi: 10.1002/eji.200425251.
67. Franchini, G., and Streicher, H. (1995). Human T-cell leukaemia virus. Baillieres Clin. Haematol. 8, 131-148. doi: 10.1016/S0950-3536(05)80235-5.
68. Fujihara, K., Itoyama, Y., Yu, F., Kubo, C., and Goto, I. (1991). Cellular immune surveillance against HTLV-I infected T lymphocytes in HTLV-I associated myelopathy/tropical spastic paraparesis (HAM/TSP). J. Neurol. Sci. 105, 99-107. doi: 10.1016/0022-510X(91)90125-Q.
69. Gachon, F., Thebault, S., Peleraux, A., Devaux, C., and Mesnard, J. M. (2000). Molecular interactions involved in the transactivation of the human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 promoter mediated by Tax and CREB-2 (ATF-4). Mol. Cell. Biol. 20, 3470-3481. doi: 10.1128/MCB.20.10.3470-3481.2000.
70. Gazit, R., Gruda, R., Elboim, M., Arnon, T. I., Katz, G., Achdout, H., et al. (2006). Lethal influenza infection in the absence of the natural killer cell receptor gene Ncr1. Nat. Immunol. 7, 517-523. doi: 10.1038/ni1322.
71. George, S. L., Varmaz, D., and Stapleton, J. T. (2006). GB virus C replicates in primary T and B lymphocytes. J. Infect. Dis. 193, 451-454. doi: 10.1086/499435.
72. Giacomo, M., Franco, E. G., Claudio, C., Carlo, C., Anna, D. A., Anna, D., et al. (1995). Human T-cell leukemia virus type II infection among high risk groups and its influence on HIV-1 disease progression. Eur. J. Epidemiol. 11, 527-533. doi: 10.1007/BF01719304.
73. + T cells: frequency and immunodominance hierarchy. J. Infect. Dis. 189, 2294-2298. doi: 10.1086/420832.
74. Gordon, S. N., Weissman, A. R., Cecchinato, V., Fenizia, C., Ma, Z. M., Lee, T. H., et al. (2010). Preexisting infection with human T-cell lymphotropic virus type 2 neither exacerbates nor attenuates simian immunodeficiency virus SIVmac251 infection in macaques. J. Virol. 84, 3043-3058. doi: 10.1128/JVI.01655-1659.
75. Gotuzzo, E., Escamilla, J., Phillips, I. A., Sanchez, J., Wignall, F. S., and Antigoni, J. (1992). The impact of human T-lymphotrophic virus type I/II infection on the prognosis of sexually acquired cases of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Arch. Intern. Med. 152, 1429-1432. doi: 10.1001/archinte.1992.00400190063012.
76. Goubau, P., Desmyter, J., Ghesquiere, J., and Kasereka, B. (1992). HTLV-II among pygmies. Nature 359, 201. doi: 10.1038/359201a0.
77. Grassmann, R., and Jeang, K. T. (2008). The roles of microRNAs in mammalian virus infection. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1779, 706-711. doi: 10.1016/j.bbagrm.2008.05.005.
78. Grossman, W. J., Kimata, J. T., Wong, F. H., Zutter, M., Ley, T. J., and Ratner, L. (1995). Development of leukemia in mice transgenic for the tax gene of human T-cell leukemia virus type I. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 92, 1057-1061. doi: 10.1073/pnas.92.4.1057.
79. Guma, M., Angulo, A., Vilches, C., Gomez-Lozano, N., Malats, N., and Lopez-Botet, M. (2004). Imprint of human cytomegalovirus infection on the NK cell receptor repertoire. Blood 104, 3664-3671. doi: 10.1182/blood-2004-05-2058.
80. + NK cells in response to human cytomegalovirus-infected fibroblasts. Blood 107, 3624-3631. doi: 10.1182/blood-2005-09-3682.
81. Guma, M., Cabrera, C., Erkizia, I., Bofill, M., Clotet, B., Ruiz, L., et al. (2006b). Human cytomegalovirus infection is associated with increased proportions of NK cells that express the CD94/NKG2C receptor in aviremic HIV-1-positive patients. J. Infect. Dis. 194, 38-41. doi: 10.1086/504719.
82. Han, Y., and Siliciano, R. F. (2007). Keeping quiet: microRNAs in HIV-1 latency. Nat. Med. 13, 1138-1140. doi: 10.1038/nm1007-1138.
83. Harrison, L. H., Quinn, T. C., and Schechter, M. (1997). Human T cell lymphotropic virus type I does not increase human immunodeficiency virus viral load in vivo. J. Infect. Dis. 175, 438-440. doi: 10.1093/infdis/175.2.438.
84. Harrod, R., Tang, Y., Nicot, C., Lu, H. S., Vassilev, A., Nakatani, Y., et al. (1998). An exposed KID-like domain in human T-cell lymphotropic virus type 1 Tax is responsible for the recruitment of coactivators CBP/p300. Mol. Cell. Biol. 18, 5052-5061.
85. Hershow, R. C., Galai, N., Fukuda, K., Graber, J., Vlahov, D., Rezza, G., et al. (1996). An international collaborative study of the effects of coinfection with human T-lymphotropic virus type II on human immunodeficiency virus type 1 disease progression in injection drug users. J. Infect. Dis. 174, 309-317. doi: 10.1093/infdis/174.2.309.
86. Hollsberg, P. (1999). Mechanisms of T-cell activation by human T-cell lymphotropic virus type I. Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 63, 308-333.
87. Houzet, L., and Jeang, K. T. (2011). MicroRNAs and human retroviruses. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1809, 686-693. doi: 10.1016/j.bbagrm.2011.05.009.
88. Houzet, L., Yeung, M. L., de Lame, V., Desai, D., Smith, S. M., and Jeang, K. T. (2008). MicroRNA profile changes in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) seropositive individuals. Retrovirology 5, 118. doi: 10.1186/1742-4690-5-118.
89. + TREG cells by targeting AC9 mRNA. EMBO Rep. 10, 180-185. doi: 10.1038/embor.2008.224.
90. + T lymphocytes. Nat. Med. 13, 1241-1247. doi: 10.1038/nm1639.
91. Ivanovska, I., Ball, A. S., Diaz, R. L., Magnus, J. F., Kibukawa, M., Schelter, J. M., et al. (2008). MicroRNAs in the miR-106b family regulate p21/CDKN1A and promote cell cycle progression. Mol. Cell. Biol. 28, 2167-2174. doi: 10.1128/MCB.01977-07.
92. Johnnidis, J. B., Harris, M. H., Wheeler, R. T., Stehling-Sun, S., Lam, M. H., Kirak, O., et al. (2008). Regulation of progenitor cell proliferation and granulocyte function by microRNA-223. Nature 451, 1125-1129. doi: 10.1038/nature06607.
93. + T cells from peripheral blood of HIV-1-infected individuals contain only one HIV DNA molecule. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 108, 11199-11204. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1107729108.
94. Kannangara, S., DeSimone, J. A., and Pomerantz, R. J. (2005). Attenuation of HIV-1 infection by other microbial agents. J. Infect. Dis. 192, 1003-1009. doi: 10.1086/432767.
95. Kashanchi, F., and Brady, J. N. (2005). Transcriptional and post-transcriptional gene regulation of HTLV-1. Oncogene 24, 5938-5951. doi: 10.1038/sj.onc.1208973.
96. Khakoo, S. I., Thio, C. L., Martin, M. P., Brooks, C. R., Gao, X., Astemborski, J., et al. (2004). HLA and NK cell inhibitory receptor genes in resolving hepatitis C virus infection. Science 305, 872-874. doi: 10.1126/science.1097670.
97. Kincaid, R. P., Burke, J. M., and Sullivan, C. S. (2012). RNA virus microRNA that mimics a B-cell oncomiR. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 109, 3077-3082. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1116107109.
98. Klase, Z., Kale, P., Winograd, R., Gupta, M. V., Heydarian, M., Berro, R., et al. (2007). HIV-1 TAR element is processed by Dicer to yield a viral micro-RNA involved in chromatin remodeling of the viral LTR. BMC Mol. Biol. 8:63. doi: 10.1186/1471-2199-8-63.
99. Klase, Z., Winograd, R., Davis, J., Carpio, L., Hildreth, R., Heydarian, M., et al. (2009). HIV-1 TAR miRNA protects against apoptosis by altering cellular gene expression. Retrovirology 6, 18. doi: 10.1186/1742-4690-6-18.
100. Klase, Z. A., Sampey, G. C., and Kashanchi, F. (2013). Retrovirus infected cells contain viral microRNAs. Retrovirology 10:15. doi: 10.1186/1742-4690-10-15.
101. Knapp, S., Warshow, U., Hegazy, D., Brackenbury, L., Guha, I. N., Fowell, A., et al. (2010). Consistent beneficial effects of killer cell immunoglobulin-like receptor 2DL3 and group 1 human leukocyte antigen-C following exposure to hepatitis C virus. Hepatology 51, 1168-1175. doi: 10.1002/hep.23477.
102. Kowalski, M., Potz, J., Basiripour, L., Dorfman, T., Goh, W. C., Terwilliger, E., et al. (1987). Functional regions of the envelope glycoprotein of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. Science 237, 1351-1355. doi: 10.1126/science.3629244.
103. Kubota, S., Furuta, R. A., Hatanaka, M., and Pomerantz, R. J. (1998). Modulation of HTLV-I gene expression by HIV-1 Rev through an alternative RxRE-independent pathway mediated by the RU5 portion of the 5'-LTR. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 243, 79-85. doi: 10.1006/bbrc.1997.8065.
104. Lal, A., Navarro, F., Maher, C. A., Maliszewski, L. E., Yan, N., O'Day, E., et al. (2009). miR-24 inhibits cell proliferation by targeting E2F2, MYC, and other cell-cycle genes via binding to "seedless" 3'UTR microRNA recognition elements. Mol. Cell. 35, 610-625. doi: 10.1016/j.molcel.2009.08.020.
105. Lasky, L. A., Nakamura, G., Smith, D. H., Fennie, C., Shimasaki, C., Patzer, E., et al. (1987). Delineation of a region of the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 gp120 glycoprotein critical for interaction with the CD4 receptor. Cell 50, 975-985. doi: 10.1016/0092-8674(87)90524-1.
106. Leung, K., and Nabel, G. J. (1988). HTLV-1 transactivator induces interleukin-2 receptor expression through an NF-kappa B-like factor. Nature 333, 776-778. doi: 10.1038/333776a0.
107. + T cells induces expansion of peripheral T cells and decreased CCR5 expression in HIV infection. Nat. Med. 8, 47-53. doi: 10.1038/nm0102-47.
108. Lewis, M. J., Gautier, V. W., Wang, X. P., Kaplan, M. H., and Hall, W. W. (2000). Spontaneous production of C-C chemokines by individuals infected with human T lymphotropic virus type II (HTLV-II) alone and HTLV-II/HIV-1 coinfected individuals. J. Immunol. 165, 4127-4132.
109. Li, J., Wang, K., Chen, X., Meng, H., Song, M., Wang, Y., et al. (2012). Transcriptional activation of microRNA-34a by NF-kappa B in human esophageal cancer cells. BMC Mol. Biol. 13:4. doi: 10.1186/1471-2199-13-4.
110. Li, Q. J., Chau, J., Ebert, P. J., Sylvester, G., Min, H., Liu, G., et al. (2007). miR-181a is an intrinsic modulator of T cell sensitivity and selection. Cell 129, 147-161. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2007.03.008.
111. Lichtfuss, G. F., Cheng, W-J., Farsakoglu, Y., Paukovics, G., Rajasuriar, R., Velayudham, P., et al. (2012). Virologically suppressed HIV patients show activation of NK cells and persistent innate immune activation. J. Immunol. 189, 149-1499. doi: 10.4049/jimmunol.1200458.
112. Lisco, A., Vanpouille, C., and Margolis, L. (2009). Coinfecting viruses as determinants of HIV disease. Curr. HIV/AIDS Rep. 6, 5-12. doi: 10.1007/s11904-009-0002-3.
113. Liu, S., Yang, Y., and Wu, J. (2011). TNFalpha-induced up-regulation of miR-155 inhibits adipogenesis by down-regulating early adipogenic transcription factors. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 414, 618-624. doi: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2011.09.131.
114. Loffler, D., Brocke-Heidrich, K., Pfeifer, G., Stocsits, C., Hackermuller, J., Kretzschmar, A. K., et al. (2007). Interleukin-6 dependent survival of multiple myeloma cells involves the Stat3-mediated induction of microRNA-21 through a highly conserved enhancer. Blood 110, 1330-1333. doi: 10.1182/blood-2007-03-081133.
115. + (natural killer) lymphoproliferative disease of granular lymphocytes. Blood 90, 1977-1981.
116. Lukiw, W. J. (2012). NF-small ka, cyrillicB-regulated micro RNAs (miRNAs) in primary human brain cells. Exp. Neurol. 235, 484-490. doi: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2011.11.022.
117. Magnani, G., Elia, G., Casoli, C., Calzetti, C., Degli Antoni, A., and Fiaccadori, F. (1995). HTLV-II does not adversely affect the natural history of HIV-1 infection in intravenous drug users. Infection 23, 63. doi: 10.1007/BF01710063.
118. Magri, M. C., Brigido, L. F., Morimoto, H. K., and Caterino-de-Araujo, A. (2013). Human T cell lymphotropic virus type 2a strains among HIV type 1-coinfected patients from Brazil have originated mostly from Brazilian Amerindians. AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses 29, 1010-1018. doi: 10.1089/AID.2013.0014.
119. Magri, M. C., Brigido, L. F., Rodrigues, R., Morimoto, H. K., Ferreira, J. L., and Caterino de Araujo, A. (2012). Phylogenetic and similarity analysis of HTLV-1 isolates from HIV-coinfected patients from the south and southeast regions of Brazil. AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses 28, 110-114. doi: 10.1089/AID.2011.0117.
120. Mandelboim, O., Lieberman, N., Lev, M., Paul, L., Arnon, T. I., Bushkin, Y., et al. (2001). Recognition of haemagglutinins on virus-infected cells by NKp46 activates lysis by human NK cells. Nature 409, 1055-1060. doi: 10.1038/35059110.
121. Margolis, L. (2003). Cytokines: strategic weapons in germ warfare? Nat. Biotechnol. 21, 15-16. doi: 10.1038/nbt0103-15.
122. Mariner, J. M., Lantz, V., Waldmann, T. A., and Azimi, N. (2001). Human T cell lymphotropic virus type I Tax activates IL-15R alpha gene expression through an NF-kappa B site. J. Immunol. 166, 2602-2609.
123. + Lin-derived immature NK cells in vitro by Mycobacterium bovis bacillus Calmette-Guerin (BCG). Eur. J. Immunol. 42, 2459-2470. doi: 10.1002/eji.201242375.
124. Marras, F., Bozzano, F., and De Maria, A. (2011). Involvement of activating NK cell receptors and their modulation in pathogen immunity. J. Biomed. Biotechnol. 2011, 152430. doi: 10.1155/2011/152430.
125. Marras, F., Nicco, E., Bozzano, F., Di Biagio, A., Dentone, C., Pontali, E., et al. (2013). Natural killer cells in HIV controller patients express an activated effector phenotype and do not up-regulate NKp44 on IL-2 stimulation. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 110, 11970-11975. doi:10.1073/pnas.1302090110.
126. Merkerova, M., Belickova, M., and Bruchova, H. (2008). Differential expression of microRNAs in hematopoietic cell lineages. Eur. J. Haematol. 81, 304-310. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0609.2008.01111.x.
127. Migone, T. S., Lin, J. X., Cereseto, A., Mulloy, J. C., O'Shea, J. J., Franchini, G., et al. (1995). Constitutively activated Jak-STAT pathway in T cells transformed with HTLV-I. Science 269, 79-81. doi: 10.1126/science.7604283.
128. Miranda, K. C., Huynh, T., Tay, Y., Ang, Y. S., Tam, W. L., Thomson, A. M., et al. (2006). A pattern-based method for the identification of microRNA binding sites and their corresponding heteroduplexes. Cell 126, 1203-1217. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2006.07.031.
129. Morimoto, H. K., Caterino De Araujo, A., Morimoto, A. A., Reiche, E. M., Ueda, L. T., Matsuo, T., et al. (2005). Seroprevalence and risk factors for human T cell lymphotropic virus type 1 and 2 infection in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients attending AIDS referral center health units in Londrina and other communities in Parana, Brazil. AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses 21, 256-262. doi: 10.1089/aid.2005.21.256.
130. Mulloy, J. C., Migone, T. S., Ross, T. M., Ton, N., Green, P. L., Leonard, W. J., et al. (1998). Human and simian T-cell leukemia viruses type 2 (HTLV-2 and STLV-2(pan-p)) transform T cells independently of JAK/STAT activation. J. Virol. 72, 4408-4412.
131. Muntasell, A., Vilches, C., Angulo, A., and López-Botet, M. (2013). Adaptive reconfiguration of the human NK-cell compartment in response to cytomegalovirus: a different perspective of the host-pathogen interaction. Eur. J. Immunol. 43, 1133-1141. doi: 10.1002/eji.201243117.
132. + T cells are in vivo reservoir for human T-cell lymphotropic virus type I. Immunobiology 98, 1858-1861. doi: 10.1182/blood.V98.6.1858.
133. Nathans, R., Chu, C. Y., Serquina, A. K., Lu, C. C., Cao, H., and Rana, T. M. (2009). Cellular microRNA and P bodies modulate host-HIV-1 interactions. Mol. Cell. 34, 696-709. doi: 10.1016/j.molcel.2009.06.003.
134. Ndhlovu, L. C., Snyder-Cappione, J. E., Carvalho, K. I., Leal, F. E., Loo, C. P., Bruno, F. R., et al. (2009). Lower numbers of circulating natural killer T (NK T) cells in individuals with human T lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1) associated neurological disease. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 158, 294-299. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2249.2009.04019.x.
135. Nicot, C., Mahieux, R., Opavsky, R., Cereseto, A., Wolff, L., Brady, J. N., et al. (2000). HTLV-I Tax transrepresses the human c-Myb promoter independently of its interaction with CBP or p300. Oncogene 19, 2155-2164. doi: 10.1038/sj.onc.1203536.
136. Nimer, S. D., Gasson, J. C., Hu, K., Smalberg, I., Williams, J. L., Chen, I. S., et al. (1989). Activation of the GM-CSF promoter by HTLV-I and-II tax proteins. Oncogene 4, 671-676.
137. Norris, P. J., Hirschkorn, D. F., DeVita, D. A., Lee, T-H., and Murphy, E. L. (2010). Human T cell leukemia virus type 1 infection drives spontaneous proliferation of natural killer cells. Virulence 1, 19-28. doi: 10.4161/viru.1.1.9868.
138. O'Garra, A. (1998). Cytokines induce the development of functionally heterogeneous T helper cell subsets. Immunity 8, 275-283. doi: 10.1016/S1074-7613(00)80533-6.
139. Oguariri, R. M., Dai, L., Adelsberger, J. W., Rupert, A., Stevens, R., Yang, J., et al. (2013). Interleukin-2 inhibits HIV-1 replication in some human T cell lymphotrophic virus-1-infected cell lines via the induction and Incorporation of APOBEC3G into the virion. J. Biol. Chem. 288, 17812-17822. doi: 10.1074/jbc.M113.468975.
140. Ouellet, D. L., Plante, I., Landry, P., Barat, C., Janelle, M. E., Flamand, L., et al. (2008). Identification of functional microRNAs released through asymmetrical processing of HIV-1 TAR element. Nucleic Acids Res. 36, 2353-2365. doi: 10.1093/nar/gkn076.
141. Pahl, H. L., and Baeuerle, P. A. (1995). Expression of influenza virus hemagglutinin activates transcription factor NF-kappa B. J. Virol. 69. 1480-1484.
142. Page, J. B., Lai, S. H., Chitwood, D. D., Klimas, N. G., Smith, P. C., and Fletcher, M. A. (1990). HTLV-I/II seropositivity and death from AIDS among HIV-1 seropositive intravenous drug users. Lancet 335, 1439-1441. doi: 10.1016/0140-6736(90)91456-K.
143. Pagliuca, A., Williams, H., Salisbury, J., and Mufti, G. J. (1990). Prodromal cutaneous lesions in adult T-cell leukaemia/lymphoma. Lancet 335, 733-734. doi: 10.1016/0140-6736(90)90854-X.
144. Pedroso, C., Netto, E. M., Weyll, N., and Brites, C. (2011). Coinfection by HIV-1 and human lymphotropic virus type 1 in Brazilian children is strongly associated with a shorter survival time. J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr. 57(Suppl. 3), S208-S211. doi: 10.1097/QAI.0b013e31821e9baf.
145. Petitdemange, C., Becquart, P., Wauquier, N., Béziat, V., Debré, P., Leroy, E. M., et al. (2011). Unconventional repertoire profile is imprinted during acute chikungunya infection for natural killer cells polarization toward cytotoxicity. PLoS Pathog. 7:e1002268. doi: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1002268.
146. Pichler, K., Schneider, G., and Grassmann, R. (2008). MicroRNA miR-146a and further oncogenesis-related cellular microRNAs are dysregulated in HTLV-1-transformed T lymphocytes. Retrovirology 5:100. doi: 10.1186/1742-4690-5-100.
147. Pilotti, E., Elviri, L., Vicenzi, E., Bertazzoni, U., Re, M. C., Allibardi, S., et al. (2007). Postgenomic up-regulation of CCL3L1 expression in HTLV-2-infected persons curtails HIV-1 replication. Blood 109, 1850-1856. doi: 10.1182/blood-2006-07-036046.
148. Pinto, M. T., Rodrigues, E. S., Malta, T. M., Azevedo, R., Takayanagui, O. M., Valente, V. B., et al. (2012). HTLV-1/2 seroprevalence and coinfection rate in Brazilian first-time blood donors: an 11-year follow-up. Rev. Inst. Med. Trop. Sao Paulo 54, 123-129. doi: 10.1590/S0036-46652012000300002.
149. Poli, G., Biswas, P., and Fauci, A. S. (1994). Interferons in the pathogenesis and treatment of human immunodeficiency virus infection. Antiviral Res. 24, 221-233. doi: 10.1016/0166-3542(94)90069-8.
150. Proietti, F. A., Carneiro-Proietti, A. B., Catalan-Soares, B. C., and Murphy, E. L. (2005). Global epidemiology of HTLV-I infection and associated diseases. Oncogene 24, 6058-6068. doi: 10.1038/sj.onc.1208968.
151. Rahman, S., Quann, K., Pandya, D., Singh, S., Khan, Z. K., and Jain, P. (2012). HTLV-1 Tax mediated downregulation of miRNAs associated with chromatin remodeling factors in T cells with stably integrated viral promoter. PLoS ONE 7:e34490. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0034490.
152. Ruggero, K., Corradin, A., Zanovello, P., Amadori, A., Bronte, V., Ciminale, V., et al. (2010). Role of microRNAs in HTLV-1 infection and transformation. Mol. Aspects Med. 31, 367-382. doi: 10.1016/j.mam.2010.05.001.
153. Sampey, G. C., Van Duyne, R., Currer, R., Das, R., Narayanan, A., and Kashanchi, F. (2012). Complex role of microRNAs in HTLV-1 infections. Front. Genet. 3:295. doi: 10.3389/fgene.2012.00295.
154. Scarlatti, G., Tresoldi, E., Bjorndal, A., Fredriksson, R., Colognesi, C., Deng, H. K., et al. (1997). In vivo evolution of HIV-1 co-receptor usage and sensitivity to chemokine-mediated suppression. Nat. Med. 3, 1259-1265. doi: 10.1038/nm1197-1259.
155. Schechter, M., Harrison, L. H., Halsey, N. A., Trade, G., Santino, M., Moulton, L. H., et al. (1994). Coinfection with human T-cell lymphotropic virus type I and HIV in Brazil. Impact on markers of HIV disease progression. JAMA 271, 353-357. doi: 10.1001/jama.1994.03510290035033.
156. Schopman, N. C., Willemsen, M., Liu, Y. P., Bradley, T., van Kampen, A., Baas, F., et al. (2012). Deep sequencing of virus-infected cells reveals HIV-encoded small RNAs. Nucleic Acids Res. 40, 414-427. doi: 10.1093/nar/gkr719.
157. Shibata, D., Brynes, R. K., Rabinowitz, A., Hanson, C. A., Slovak, M. L., Spira, T. J., et al. (1989). Human T-cell lymphotropic virus type I (HTLV-I)-associated adult T-cell leukemia-lymphoma in a patient infected with human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1). Ann. Intern. Med. 111, 871-875. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-111-11-871.
158. Siebenlist, U., Franzoso, G., and Brown, K. (1994). Structure, regulation and function of NF-kappa B. Annu. Rev. Cell Biol. 10, 405-455. doi: 10.1146/annurev.cb.10.110194.002201.
159. Stewart, S. A., Feuer, G., Jewett, A., Lee, F. V., Bonavida, B., and Chen, I. S. Y. (1996). HTLV-I gene expression in adult T-cell leukemia cells elicits an NK cell response in vitro and correlates with cell rejection in SCID mice. Virology 226, 167-175. doi: 10.1006/viro.1996.0643.
160. Sun, S. C., and Yamaoka, S. (2005). Activation of NF-kappaB by HTLV-I and implications for cell transformation. Oncogene 24, 5952-5964. doi: 10.1038/sj.onc.1208969.
161. Suzuki, T., Hirai, H., and Yoshida, M. (1994). Tax protein of HTLV-1 interacts with the Rel homology domain of NF-kappa B p65 and c-Rel proteins bound to the NF-kappa B binding site and activates transcription. Oncogene 9, 3099-3105.
162. Tillmann, H. L., Heiken, H., Knapik-Botor, A., Heringlake, S., Ockenga, J., Wilber, J. C., et al. (2001). Infection with GB virus C and reduced mortality among HIV-infected patients. N. Engl. J. Med. 345, 715-24. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa010398.
163. Tomita, M. (2012). Important roles of cellular MICRORNA miR-155 in leukemogenesis by human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 infection. ISRN Microbiol. 2012, 978607. doi: 10.5402/2012/978607.
164. Tosi, G., Pilotti, E., Mortara, L., De Lerma Barbaro, A., Casoli, C., and Accolla, R. S. (2006). Inhibition of human T cell leukemia virus type 2 replication by the suppressive action of class II transactivator and nuclear factor Y. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 103, 12861-12866. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0601589103.
165. Townson, J. R., Barcellos, L. F., and Nibbs, R. J. (2002). Gene copy number regulates the production of the human chemokine CCL3-L1. Eur. J. Immunol. 32, 3016-3026. doi: 10.1002/1521-4141(2002010)32:10<3016::AID-IMMU3016>3.0.CO;2-D.
166. Triboulet, R., Mari, B., Lin, Y. L., Chable-Bessia, C., Bennasser, Y., Lebrigand, K., et al. (2007). Suppression of microRNA-silencing pathway by HIV-1 during virus replication. Science 315, 1579-1582. doi: 10.1126/science.1136319.
167. Tulius Silva, M., de Melo Espindola, O., Bezerra Leite, A. C., and Araujo, A. (2009). Neurological aspects of HIV/human T lymphotropic virus coinfection. AIDS Rev. 11, 71-78.
168. Van Asten, L., and Prins, M. (2004). Infection with concurrent multiple hepatitis C virus genotypes is associated with faster HIV disease progression. AIDS 18. 2319-2324. doi: 10.1097/00002030-200411190-00013.
169. Van Duyne, R., Guendel, I., Klase, Z., Narayanan, A., Coley, W., Jaworski, E., et al. (2012). Localization and sub-cellular shuttling of HTLV-1 tax with the miRNA machinery. PLoS ONE 7:e40662. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0040662.
170. + T cell effector function in response to an intracellular pathogen. J. Immunol. 172, 130-137.
171. Vankayalapati, R., Wizel, B., Weis, S. E., Safi, H., Lakey, D. L., Mandelboim, O., et al. (2002). The NKp46 receptor contributes to NK cell lysis of mononuclear phagocytes infected with an intracellular bacterium. J. Immunol. 168, 3451-3457.
172. Vidal-Castineira, J. R., Lopez-Vazquez, A., Diaz-Pena, R., Alonso-Arias, R., Martinez-Borra, J., Perez, R., et al. (2010). Effect of killer immunoglobulin-like receptors in the response to combined treatment in patients with chronic hepatitis C virus infection. J. Virol. 84, 475-481. doi: 10.1128/jvi.01285-1289.
173. Visconti, A., Visconti, L., Bellocco, R., Binkin, N., Colucci, G., Vernocchi, L., et al. (1993). HTLV-II/HIV-1 coinfection and risk for progression to AIDS among intravenous drug users. J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndr. 6, 1228-1237.
174. Vivier, E., Raulet, D. H., Moretta, A., Caligiuri, M. A., Zitvogel, L., Lanier, L. L., et al. (2011). Innate or adaptive immunity? The example of natural killer cells. Science 331, 44-49. doi: 10.1126/science.1198687.
175. Vrielink, H., and Reesink, H. W. (2004). HTLV-I/II prevalence in different geographic locations. Transfus. Med. Rev. 18, 46-57. doi: 10.1016/j.tmrv.2003.10.004.
176. Wang, D. J., Legesse-Miller, A., Johnson, E. L., and Coller, H. A. (2012). Regulation of the let-7a-3 promoter by NF-kappaB. PLoS ONE 7:e31240. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0031240.
177. Wang, X., Ye, L., Hou, W., Zhou, Y., Wang, Y. J., Metzger, D. S., et al. (2009). Cellular microRNA expression correlates with susceptibility of monocytes/macrophages to HIV-1 infection. Blood 113, 671-674. doi: 10.1182/blood-2008-09-175000.
178. Wang, X., Ye, L., Zhou, Y., Liu, M. Q., Zhou, D. J., and Ho, W. Z. (2011). Inhibition of anti-HIV microRNA expression: a mechanism for opioid-mediated enhancement of HIV infection of monocytes. Am. J. Pathol. 178, 41-47. doi: 10.1016/j.ajpath.2010.11.042.
179. Wu, X-M., Osoegawa, M., Yamasaki, K., Kawano, Y., Ochi, H., Horiuchi, I., et al. (2000). Flow cytometric differentiation of Asian and Western types of multiple sclerosis, HTLV-1-associated myelopathy/tropical spastic paraparesis (HAM/TSP) and hyperglycemic myelitis by analyses of memory CD4 positive T cell subsets and NK cell subsets. J. Neurol. Sci. 177, 24-31. doi: 10.1016/S0022-510X(00)00322-1.
180. Xiao, G., Cvijic, M. E., Fong, A., Harhaj, E. W., Uhlik, M. T., Waterfield, M., et al. (2001). Retroviral oncoprotein Tax induces processing of NF-kappaB2/p100 in T cells: evidence for the involvement of IKKalpha. EMBO J. 20, 6805-6815. doi: 10.1093/emboj/20.23.6805.
181. Xu, X., Kang, S. H., Heidenreich, O., Okerholm, M., O'Shea, J. J., and Nerenberg, M. I. (1995). Constitutive activation of different Jak tyrosine kinases in human T cell leukemia virus type 1 (HTLV-1) tax protein or virus-transformed cells. J. Clin. Invest. 96, 1548-1555. doi: 10.1172/JCI118193.
182. Yamagishi, M., Nakano, K., Miyake, A., Yamochi, T., Kagami, Y., Tsutsumi, A., et al. (2012). Polycomb-mediated loss of miR-31 activates NIK-dependent NF-?B pathway in adult T cell leukemia and other cancers. Cancer Cell 21, 121-135. doi: 10.1016/j.ccr.2011.12.015.
183. Yasunaga, J., and Matsuoka, M. (2011). Molecular mechanisms of HTLV-1 infection and pathogenesis. Int. J. Hematol. 94, 435-442. doi: 10.1007/s12185-011-0937-931.
184. Yin, M. J., Christerson, L. B., Yamamoto, Y., Kwak, Y. T., Xu, S., Mercurio, F., et al. (1998). HTLV-I Tax protein binds to MEKK1 to stimulate IkappaB kinase activity and NF-kappaB activation. Cell 93, 875-884. doi: 10.1016/S0092-8674(00)81447-6.
185. Yin, M. J., Paulssen, E. J., Seeler, J. S., and Gaynor, R. B. (1995). Protein domains involved in both in vivo and in vitro interactions between human T-cell leukemia virus type I tax and CREB. J. Virol. 69, 3420-3432.
186. Zheng, Z., and Zucker-Franklin, D. (1992). Apparent ineffectiveness of natural killer cells vis-à-vis retrovirus-infected targets. J. Immunol. 148, 3679-3685.