The implications of sensitization and kindling for chronic fatigue syndrome

Encephalitis, Encephalomyelitis and Encephalopathies: Symptoms, Causes and Potential Complications

Volumn , Issue , 2013, Pages 73-93

  Jason, Leonard A ^a   Sorenson, Matthew ^a   Evans, Meredyth ^a   Brown, Abigail ^a   Flores, Samantha ^a   Sunnquist, Madison ^a   Schafer, Charles ^a  

^a DEPAUL UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Chronic fatigue syndrome; Kindling; Limbic hypothalamic pituitary axis; Myalgic encephalomyeltits; Sensitization

Indexed keywords

EID: 84892031904     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: None     Document Type: Chapter

References (115)

1. Adams, G.R., Zaldivar, F.P., Nance, D.M., & Cooper, D.M. (2011). Exercise and leukocyte interchange among central circulation, lung, spleen, and muscle. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 14, 14.
2. Arnett, S.V., Alleva, L.M., Korossy-Horwood, R., & Clark, I.A. (2011). Chronic fatigue syndrome-A neuroimmunological model. Medical Hypotheses, doi: 10.1016/j.mehy.2011.03.030.
3. Arnold, M. C., Papanicolaou, D. A., O'Grady, J. A., Lotsikas, A., Dale, J. K., Straus, S., et al. (2002). Using an interleukin-6 challenge to evaluate neuropsychological performance in chronic fatigue syndrome. Psychological Medicine, 32, 1075-1089.
4. Arnsten, A. F. T. (2009). Stress signalling pathways that impair preforntal cortex structure and function. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 10, 410-422.
5. Badawy, A. B., Morgan, C. J., Llewelyn, M. B., Selwyn R. J. Albuquerque, S. R. J., & Farmer, A. (2005). Heterogeneity of serum tryptophan concentration and availability to the brain in patients with the chronic fatigue syndrome. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 19, 385-391.
6. Bakheit, A M., Behan, P.O., Dinan, T.G., & O'Keane, V.,(1992). Possible upregulation of hypothalantic 5-hydroxytryptamine receptors in patients with postviral fatigue syndrome. British Medical Journal, 304, 1010-12.
7. Baram, T. Z., & Hatalski, C. G. (1998). Neuropeptide-mediated excitability: A key triggering mechanism for seizure generation in the developing brain. Trends in Neuroscience, 21, 471-476.
8. Baraniuk, J. N., Casado, B., Maibach, H., Clauw, D. J., Pannell, L. K., & Hess, S. S. (2005). A Chronic fatigue syndrome-related proeome in human cerebrospinal fluid. BMC Neurology, 1, 5:22. PMCID: PMC1326206
9. Bennett, G.J. (2000) Update on the neurophysiology of pain transmission and modulation: focus on the NMDA-receptor. Journal of Pain Symptom Management, 19, S2-S6.
10. Berkovic, S. F., Howell, R. A., Hay, D. A., & Hopper, J. L. (1998). Epilepsies in twins: genetics of the major epilepsy syndromes. Annals of Neurology, 43, 435-445.
11. Billiot, K. M., Budzynski, T. H., & Andrasik, F. (1997). EEG patterns and chronic fatigue syndrome. Journal of Neurotherapy, 2(2), 20-30 (available at http://www.snrjnt. org/JournalNT/JNT(2-2)4.html).
12. Biswal, B., Kunwar,P. and Natelson,B.H. (2011) Cerebral blood flow is reduced in chronic fatigue syndrome as assessed by arterial spin labeling. Journal of the Neurologic Sciences, 301, 9-11.
13. Blanco, I., Béritze, N., Argüelles, M., Cárcaba, V., Fernández, F., Janciauskiene, S., Oikonomopoulou, K., de Serres, F. J., Fernández-Bustillo, E., & Hollenberg, M. D. (2010). Abnormal overexpression of mastocytes in skin biopsies of fibromyalgia patients. Clinical Rheumatology. (Epub ahead of print).
14. Broderick, G., Fuite, J., Kreitz, A., Vernon, S.D., Klimas, N., & Fletcher, M. A. (2010). A formal analysis of cytokine networks in Chronic Fatigue Syndrome. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity. 2010 May 4. [Epub ahead of print]
15. Capuron, L, Pagnoni, G., Demetrashvili, M.F., Lawson, D.H., Fornwalt, F.B., Woolwine, B., Berns, G.S., Nemeroff, C.B., & Miller, A.H. Basal ganglia hypermetabolism and symptoms of fatigue during Interferon-α therapy. (2007), Neuropsychopharmacology, 32, 2384-2392.
16. Clark, I.A., Alleva, L.M., Vissel, B. (2010). The roles of TNF in brain dysfunction and disease. Pharmacology & Therapeutics, 128, 519-548.
17. Cleare, A. J., Bearn, J., Allain, T., McGregor, A., Wessely, S., Murray, R. M., et al. (1995). Contrasting neuroendocrine responses in depression and chronic fatigue syndrome. Journal of Affective Disorders, 34, 283-289.
18. Cleare, A. J., Messa, C., Rabiner, E. A, & Grasby, P. M. (2005). Brain 5-HT1A receptor binding in chronic fatigue syndrome measured using positron emission tomography and [11C]WAY-100635. Biological Psychiatry, 57(3), 239-246.
19. Cook, D. B., O'Connor, P. J., Lange, G., & Steffener, J. (2007). Functional neuroimaging correlates of mental fatigue induced by cognition among chronic fatigue syndrome patients and controls. NeuroImage, 36(1), 108-122.
20. Cooper, D.M., Radom-Aizik, S., Schwindt, C., & Zaldivar, Jr. F. (2006). Dangerous exercise: Lessons learned from dysregulated inflammatory response to physical activity. Journal of Applied Physiology, 103, 700-709.
21. Costa, D.C., Tannock, C., & Brostoff, J. (1995) Brainstem perfusion is impaired in chronic fatigue syndrome. QJM: An International Journal of Medicine, 88, 767-773
22. de Lange, F. P., Kalkman, J. S., Bleijenberg, G., Hagoort, P., van der Meer J. W. M., & Toni, I. (2005). Gray matter volume reduction in the chronic fatigue syndrome. NeuroImage, 26, 777-781.
23. Diers, M., Yilmaz, P., Rance, M., Thieme, K., Gracely, R.H., Rolko, C., Schley, M.T., Kiessling, U., Wang, H. & Flor. H.(2012). Treatment-related changes in brain activation in patients with fibromyalgia syndrome. Experimental Brain Researc. 2012 Mar 17. [Epub ahead of print]
24. Doi, T., Ueda, Y., Nagatomo, K., & Willmore, L. J. (2009). Role of Glutamate and GABA Transporters in development of Pentylenetetrazol-Kindling. Neurochemistry Research, 34(7), 1324-1331. DOI 10.1007/s11064-009-9912-0.
25. Donati, F., Fagioli, L., Komaroff, A. L., & Duffy, F. H. (1994, Oct.). Quantified EEG findings in patients with chronic fatigue syndrome. Paper presented at the American Association for Chronic Fatigue Syndrome, Ft. Lauderdale, Florida.
26. Duffy, F. H., McAnulty, G. B., McCreary, M., Albert, M. S., Cucharal, G., Shatzberg, A. F., et al. (2009, March). Electroencephalographic data distinguish patients with CFS from healthy and depressed controls. Paper presented at the 9th International Association of CFS/ME, Reno, N.V.
27. Embers, M. E., Barthold, S. W., Borda, J. T., Bowers, L., Doyle, L., Hodzic, E., Jacobs, M. B., Hasenkampf, N. R., Martin, D. S., Narasimhan, S., Phillippi-Falkenstein, K. M., Purcell, J. E., Ratterree, M. S., & Philipp, M. T. (2012). Persistence of Borrelia burgdorferi in Rhesus macaques following antibiotic treatment of disseminated infection. PLoS ONE, 7(1), 1-12. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0029914
28. Fischler, B., D'Haenen, H., Cluydts, R. et al. (1996) Comparison of 99m Tc HMPAO SPECT scan between chronic fatigue syndrome, major depression and healthy controls: an exploratory study of clinical correlates of regional cerebral blood flow. Neuropsychobiology 34, 175-183.
29. Flor-Henry, P., Lind, J.C., & Koles, Z.J. (2009). EEG source analysis of chronic fatigue syndrome. Psychiatric Research. PMID: 20006474.
30. Fluge, Ø., Bruland, O., Risa, K., Storstein, A., Kristoffersen, E.K., et al. (2011) Benefit from B-Lymphocyte Depletion Using the Anti-CD20 Antibody Rituximab in Chronic Fatigue Syndrome. A Double-Blind and Placebo-Controlled Study. PLoS ONE 6(10): e26358. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0026358
31. Fuller, R.W. (1991). Role of serotonin in therapy of depression and related disorders. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 52 Suppl:52-7.
32. Girdano, D. A., Everly, Jr., G. S., & Dusek, D. E. (1990). Controlling stress and tension. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
33. Glass, J. M., Lyden, A. K., Petzke, F., Stein, P., Whalen, G., Ambrose, K., et al. (2004). The effect of brief exercise cessation on pain, fatigue, and mood symptom development in healthy, fit individuals. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 57, 391-398.
34. Goddard, G. V. (1967). Development of epileptic seizures through brain stimulation at low intensity. Nature, 214, 1020-1021.
35. Gupta, A. (2002). Unconscious amygdalar fear conditioning in a subset of chronic fatigue syndrome patients. Medical Hypotheses, 59, 727-735.
36. Haug, K., W., Warnstedt, M., Alekov, A.K., Sander, T., Ramirez, A., Poser, B., Maljevic, S., Hebeisen, S., Kubisch, C., Rebstock, J., Horvath, S., Hallmann, K., Dullinger, J.S., Rau, B., Haverkamp, F., Beyenburg, S., Schulz, H., Janz, D., Geise, B., Muller-Newen, G., Propping, P., Elger, C.E., Fahlke, C., Lerche, H., & Heils, A., (2003). Mutations in clcn2 encoding a voltage-gated chloride channel are associated with idiopathic generalized epilepsies.Nature Genetics, 33. doi: 10.1038/ng1121
37. Hausler, M., Ramaekers, V. T., Doenges, M., Schweizer, K., Ritter, K. & Schaade, L. (2002). Neurological complications of acute and persistent Epstein-Barr Virus infection in paediatric patients. Journal of Medical Virology, 68, 253-263.
38. Hilty, L., Jäncke, L., Luechinger, R., Boutellier, U., & Lutz, K. (2010). Limitation of Physical Performance in a Muscle Fatiguing Handgrip Exercise Is Mediated by Thalamo-Insular Activity. Human Brain Mapping, 32: 2151-2160.
39. Hilty, L., Langer, N., Pascual-Marqui, R., Boutellier, U., & Lutz, K. (2011). Fatigue-induced increase in intracortical communication between mid/anterior insular and motor cortex during cycling exercise. European Journal of Neuroscience, 34: 2035-2042.
40. Hilty, L., Lutz, K., Maurer, K., Rodenkirch, T., Spengler, C. M., Boutellier, U., Jäncke, L. & Amann, M. (2011). Spinal opioid receptor-sensitive muscle afferents contribute to the fatigue-induced increase in intracortical inhibition in healthy humans. Experimental Physiology, 96: 505-517.
41. Hollingsworth, K. G., Hodgson, T., MacGowan, G. A., Blamire, A. M. & Newton, J. L. (2011), Impaired cardiac function in chronic fatigue syndrome measured using magnetic resonance cardiac tagging. Journal of Internal Medicine. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2796.2011.02429.x
42. Jason, L.A., Benton, M., Torres-Harding, S., & Muldowney, K. (2009). The impact of energy modulation on physical functioning and fatigue severity among patients with ME/CFS. Patient Education and Counseling, 77, 237-241. PMCID: PMC2767446
43. Jason, L.A., Sorenson, M., Porter, N., & Belkairous, N. (2011). An etiological model for Myalgic Encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome. Neuroscience & Medicine, 2, 14-27. doi:10.4236/nm.2011.21003 Retrieved from http://www.scirp.org/journal/nm/
44. Jason, L.A., Sorenson, M., Porter, N., Brown, M., Lerch, A., Mikovits, J., Roberts, L. J., Sebally, K., Alkazemi, D., & Kubow, S. (2011). Increased HDAC is associated with hypocortisolism in older adults. Manuscript submitted for publication.
45. Jason, L.A., Sorenson, M., Porter, N., Brown, M., Lerch, A., Van der Eb, C., & Mikovits J. (2010). Possible genetic dysregulation in pediatric CFS. Psychology, 1, 247-251.
46. Jason, L.A., Torres-Harding, S., Brown, M., Sorenson, M., Donalek, J., Corradi, K., Maher, K., & Fletcher, M.A. (2008). Predictors of change following participation in nonpharmacologic interventions for CFS. Tropical Medicine and Health, 36, 23-32. Retrieved from http://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/tmh/36/1/23/_pdf
47. Jason, L.A., Torres-Harding, S., Maher, K., Reynolds, N., Brown, M., Sorenson, M., Donalek, J., Corradi, K., Fletcher, M.A., & Lu, T. (2007). Baseline cortisol levels predict treatment outcomes in chronic fatigue syndrome non-pharmacologic clinical trial. Journal of Chronic Fatigue Syndrome, 14, 39-59. doi: 10.1080/10573320802092039
48. Johnson, C. (2006) Fibromyalgia: A brain disorder? Retrieved on 6/24/2011 at: http://aboutmecfs.org.violet.arvixe.com/Rsrch/FibromyalgiaICNS.aspx
49. Johnson, C. (2011). Light on ME/CFS I: Bad Reception: A Key to ME Uncovered? The Light Gene Expression Studies. Phoenix Rising website. Retrieved on Jan. 22, 2012 from http://phoenixrising.me/archives/5790
50. Johnson, C. (2010). Proteins on the Brain: Spinal Tapping for ME/CFS. Phoenix Rising website. Retrieved on April 9, 2010 from http://www.aboutmecfs.org/News/Brain Proteome Mar10.aspx.
51. Kaufman, M. P., & Hayes, S. G. (2002).The exercise pressor reflex. Clinical Autonomic Research, 12, 429-439.
52. Kavelaars, A., Kuis, W., Knook, L., Sinnema, G., & Heijnen, C. J. (2000). Disturbed neuroendocrine-immune interactions in chronic fatigue syndrome. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 85, 692-696.
53. Kennedy, G., Spence, V. A., McLaren, M., Hill, A., Underwood, C. & Belch, J. (2005). Oxidative stress levels are raised in chronic fatigue syndrome and are associated with clinical symptoms. Free Radical Biology & Medicine, 39, 584-589.
54. Kishi, A., Natelson, B.H., Togo, F., Struzik, Z.R., Rapoport, D.M., & Yamamoto, Y. (2010). Sleep stage transitions in chronic fatigue syndrome patients with or without fibromyalgia. Proceedings of the International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society, 1,5391-4.
55. Kuratsune, H. & Watanabe, Y. (2007). Chronic fatigue syndrome. In Y. Watanabe, B. Evengard, B. H. Natelson, L. A. Jason, & H. Kuratsune (Eds.). Fatigue Science for Human Health. (pp.67-88). Tokyo: Springer.
56. LeDoux, J. (1998). The emotional brain. The mysterious underpinnings of emotional life. New York: Simon & Schuster.
57. Lerner AM, Beqaj S, Fitzgerald JT Gill K, Gill C, & Edington D. (2010). Subset-directed antiviral treatment of 142 herpesvirus patients with chronic fatigue syndrome. Virus Adaptation and Treatment. 2010. 2:1-11.
58. Libbey, J.E., Kennett, N.J., Wilcox, K.S., White, H.S., & Fujinami, R.S. (2011). Interleukin-6, Produced by Resident Cells of the Central Nervous System and Infiltrating Cells, Contributes to the Development of Seizures following Viral Infection. Journal of Virology, 85(14):6913-6922.
59. Light, A. R., Bateman, L., Jo, D., Hughen, R.W., VanHaitsma, T.A., White, A. T., & Light, K. C. (2011). Gene expression alternations at baseline and following moderate exercise in patients with chronic fatigue syndrome and Fibromyalgia Syndrome. Journal of Internal Medicine, 271, 64-81.
60. Light, A. R., White, A. T., Hughen, R. W., & Light, K. C. (2009). Moderate exercise increases expression for sensory, adrenergic, and immune genes in chronic fatigue syndrome patients but not in normal subjects. The Journal of Pain, 10(10), 1099-1112. doi:10.1016/j.pain.2009.06.003
61. Loescher, W., & Ebert, U. (1996) The role of the Piriform Cortex in kindling. Progress in Neurobiology, 50, 427-482.
62. Low, P.A., Novak, V., Spies,J.M., Novak,P. & Petty,G.W. (1999) Cerebrovascular regulation in the postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome (POTS). Am J Med.Sci. 317, 124-133.
63. Luo, Z.D., Cizkova, D. (2000) The role of nitric oxide in nociception. Current Review of Pain, 4, 459-466.
64. MacHale,S.M., Lawrie,S.M., Cavanagh,J.T. et al. (2000) Cerebral perfusion in chronic fatigue syndrome and depression. Br.J Psychiatry 176, 550-556.
65. Maier, S. F., Watkins, L. R., & Fleshner, M. (1994). Psychoneuroimmunology. The interface between behavior, brain, and immunity. American Psychologist, 49, 1004-1017.
66. Martinez-Lavin, M., & Solano, C. (2009). Dorsal root ganglia, sodium channels, and fibromyalgia sympathetic pain. Medical Hypothesis, 72, 64-66.
67. McEwen, B.S., & Kalia, M. (2010). The role of corticosteroids and stress in chronic pain conditions. Metabolism, 59 Suppl 1:S9-15.
68. Meeus, M., & Nijs, J. (2007). Central sensitization: a biopsychosocial explanation for chronic widespread pain in patients with fibromyalgia and chronic fatigue syndrome. Clinical Rheumatology, 26(4), 465-473.
69. Meeus, M., Nijs, J., Huybrechts, S., & Truijen, S. (2010). Evidence for generalized hyperalgesia in chronic fatigue syndrome: a case control study Clinical Rheumatology (2010) 29:393-398.
70. Mendell LM, Wall PD (1965) Responses of single dorsal cord cells to peripheral cutaneous unmyelinated fibres. Nature, 206, 97-99.
71. Minor, T. R. & Hunter, A. M. (2002). Stressor controllability and learned helplessness research in the United States: Sensitization and fatigue processes. Integrative Physiological & Behavioral Science, 37, 44-58.
72. Morriss, R.K., Robson, M.J., & Deakin, J.F.W. (2002). Neuropsychological performance and noradrenaline function in chronic fatigue syndrome under conditions of high arousal. Psychopharmacology, 163, 166-173.
73. Napadow, V., Kim, J., Clauw, D. J., & Harris, R. E. (31 January, 2012). Decreased intrinsic brain connectivity is associated with reduced clinical pain in fibromyalgia. Arthritis & Rheumatism. doi: 10.1002/art.34412
74. Nasralla, M., Haier, J., & Nicolson, G.L. (1999) Multiple mycoplasmal infections detected in blood of patients with chronic fatigue syndrome and/or fibromyalgia syndrome. European Journal of ClinicalMicrobiology & Infectious Diseases, 18, 859-865.
75. Natelson, B.H., Weaver, S.A., Tseng, C.L., & Ottenweller, J.E. (2005). Spinal fluid abnormalities in patients with chronic fatigue syndrome. Clinical and Diagnostic Laboratory Immunology, 12, 52-55.
76. Neary, J.P., Roberts, A.D.W., Leavins, N., Harrison, M.F., Croll, J.C., & Sexsmith,J.R. (2008). Prefrontal cortex oxygenation during incremental exercise in chronic fatigue syndrome. Clinical Physiology and Functional Imaging, doi: 10.1111/j.1475-097X.2008.00822.x
77. Nijs, J., Meeus, M., Van Oosterwijck, J., Roussel, N., De Kooning, M., Ickmans, K., & Matic, M. (2011). Treatment of central sensitization in patients with 'unexplained' chronic pain: what options do we have? Expert Opinion Pharmacotherapy, 12(7), 1087-98.
78. Nijs, J., Van de Velde, B., & De Meirleir, K. (2005). Does nitric oxide trigger central sensitisation? Medical Hypotheses, 64, 558-562.
79. Ocon, A.J., Medow, M.S., Taneja,I., Clarke,D. and Stewart,J.M. (2009) Decreased upright cerebral blood flow and cerebral autoregulation in normocapnic postural tachycardia syndrome. Am.J.Physiol Heart Circ.Physiol 297, H664-H673.
80. Pall, M. (2007). Explaining "unexplained illnesses": Disease paradigm for chronic fatigue syndrome, Multiple Chemical Sensitivity, Fibromyalgia, Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, Gulf War Syndrome and others. Bighamton, N.Y.: Haworth Press.
81. Pall, M.L., & Satterle, J.D. (2001). Elevated nitric oxide/peroxynitrite mechanism for the common etiology of multiple chemical sensitivity, chronic fatigue syndrome, and posttraumatic stress disorder. Annals New York Academy Sciences, 933, 323-329.
82. Panerai, R. B., Moody, M., Eames, P. J., & Potter, J. F. (2005). Cerebral blood velocity during mental activation: Interpretation with different models of the passive pressurevelocity relationship. Journal of Applied Physiology, 99, 2352-2362.
83. Peckerman, A., Chemitiganti, R., Zhao, C., Dahl, K., Natelson, B. H., Zuckler, L., et al. (2003). Left ventricular function in chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS): Data from nuclear ventriculography studies of responses to exercise and portural stress. FASEB, 17(F Suppl: Part 2), A853.
84. Plata-Salamán, C.R., Ilyin, S.E., Turrin, N.P., Gayle, D., Flynn, M.C., Romanovitch, A.E., Kelly,M.E., Bureau, Y., Anisman, H., & McIntyre, D.C. (2000). Kindling modulates the IL-1beta system, TNF-alpha, TGF-beta1, and neuropeptide mRNAs in specific brain regions. Molecular Brain Research, 75(2, 248-258.
85. Puri, B.K., Jakeman, P.M., Agour, M., Gunatilake, K.D.R., Fernando, K.A.C.,Gurusinghe, A.I., Treasaden, I. H., Waldman, A.D., & Gishen, P. (2001). Regional grey and White matter volumetric changes in myalgic encephalomyelitis (chronic fatigue syndrome): a Voxel based morphometry 3-T MRI study. British Journal of Radiology, doi:10.1259/bjr/93889091
86. Razumovsky, A.Y., DeBusk,K., Calkins,H. et al. (2003) Cerebral and systemic hemodynamics changes during upright tilt in chronic fatigue syndrome. J Neuroimaging 13, 57-67.
87. Robinson, M., Gray, S. R., Watson, M. S., Kennedy, G., Hill, A., Belch, J. J., et al. (2009). Plasma IL-6, its soluble receptors and F-isoprostanes at rest and during exercise in chronic fatigue syndrome. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 13, 1-9. doi: 10.1111/j.1600-0838.2009.00895.x
88. Rohleder, N., Schommer, N.C., Hellhammer, D.H., Engel, R., & Kirschbaum, C. (2001). Sex differences in glucocorticoid sensitivity of proinflammatory cytokine production after psychosocial stress. Psychosomatic Medicine, 63, 966-972.
89. Saade, N.E., Kafrouni, A.I., Saab, C.Y., Atweh, S.F., & Jabbur, S.J. (1999). Chronic thalamotomy increases pain-related behavior in rats. Pain, 83, 401-409.
90. Sabri, O., Owega, A., Schreckenberger, M., Sturz, L., Fimm, B., Kunert, P., Meyer, P.T., Sander, D., & Klingelhofer, J. (2003). A truly simultaneous combination of functional Transcranial Doppler Sonography and H2 15O PET adds fundamental new information on differences in cognitive activation between Schizophrenics and healthy control subjects The Journal of Nuclear Medicine, 44, 671-681.
91. Schondorf, R., Benoit, J. & Stein,R. (2005) Cerebral autoregulation is preserved in postural tachycardia syndrome. J.Appl.Physiol 99, 828-835.
92. Schwartz, R.B., Komaroff, A.L., Garada, B.M. et al. (1994) SPECT imaging of the brain: comparison of findings in patients with chronic fatigue syndrome, AIDS dementia complex, and major unipolar depression. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 162, 943-951.
93. Shandra, A. A., Godlevsky, L. S., Vastyanov, R. S., Oleinik, A. A., Konovalenko, V. L., Rapoport, E. N., et al. (2002). The role of TNF-alpha in amygdala kindled rats. Neuroscience Research, 42, 147-153.
94. Sherlin, L., Budzynski, T., Kogan-Budzynski, H., Congedo, M., Fischer, M. E., & Buchwald, D. (2006). Low-resolution brain tomography (LORETA) of monozygotic twins disconcordant for chronic fatigue syndrome. NeuroImage, 34(4), 1438-1442.
95. Shungu, D. C., Weiduschat, N., Murrough, J. W., Mao, X., Pillemer, S., Dyke, J. P., Medow, M. S., Natelson, B. H., Stewart, J. M., & Mather, S. J. (2012). Increased ventricular lactate in chronic fatigue syndrome. III. Relationships to cortical glutathione in clinical symptoms implicate oxidative stress in disorder pathophysiology. NMR in Biomedicine. doi: 10.1002/nbm.2772
96. Smith, A. K., White, P. D., Aslakson, E., Vollmer-Conna, U., & Rajeevan, M. S. (2006). Polymorphisms in genes regulating the HPA axis associated with empirically delineated classes of unexplained chronic fatigue. Pharmacogenomics, 7, 387-394.
97. Sorenson, M., Porter, N., Jason, L.A., Lerch, A. & Matthews, H. (2011). IL-8 increased in patients with CFS. Manuscript submitted for publication.
98. Spath, M. Welzel D, & Farber L. (2000). Treatment of chronic fatigue syndrome with 5-HT3 receptor antagonists--preliminary results. Scandinavian Journal of Rheumatology. Supplement, 113, 72-77.
99. Spitzer, A.R., & Broadman, M. (2010). Treatment of the narcoleptiform sleep disorder in chronic fatigue syndrome and fibromyalgia with sodium oxybate. Pain Practice, 10, 54-9.
100. Tanaka, H., Matsushima,R., Tamai,H. & Kajimoto,Y. (2002) Impaired postural cerebral hemodynamics in young patients with chronic fatigue with and without orthostatic intolerance. J Pediatr. 140, 412-417.
101. Tzartos, J. S., Khan, G., Vossenkamper, A., Cruz-Sadaba, M., Lonardi, S., Sefia, E., Meager, A., Elia, A., Middeldorp, J. M., Clemens, M., Farrell, P. J., Giovannoni, G., & Meier, U. C. (3 January, 2012). Association of innate immune activation with latent Epstein-Barr virus in active MS lesions. Neurology 78(1), 15-23. doi: 10.1212/WNL.0b013e31823ed057
102. Van Wilgen, P., & Keizer, D. (March 2012). The sensitization model to explain how chronic pain exists without tissue damage. Pain Management Nursing 13(1), 60-65. doi: 10.1014/j.pmn.2012.03.001
103. Vargas-Alarcon, G., Alvarez-Leon, E., Fragoso, J. M., Vargas, A., Martinez, A., Vallejo, M., & Martinez-Lavin, M. (2012). A SCN9A gene-encoded dorsal root ganglia sodium channel polymorphism associated with severe fibromyalgia. BMC Musculoskeletal Disorders, 13 (23). doi: 10.1186/1471-2474-13-23
104. Vassallo, C. M., Feldman, E., Peto, T., Castell, L., Sharpley, A. L., & Cowen, P. J. (2001). Decreased tryptophan availability but normal post-synaptic 5-HT receptor sensitivity in chronic fatigue syndrome. Psychological Medicine, 31, 585-591.
105. Vecchiet, L., Montanari, G., Pizzigallo, E., Iezzi, S., de Bigontina, P., Dragani, L., Vecchiet, J., & Giamberardino, M.A. (1996) Sensory characterization of somatic parietal tissues in humans with chronic fatigue syndrome. Neuroscience Letters 208, 117-120.
106. Vollmer-Conna, U., Fazou, C., Cameron, B., Li, H., Brennan, C., Luck, L., et al. (2004). Production of pro-inflammatory cytokines correlates with symptoms of acute sickness behaviour in humans. Psychological Medicine, 34, 1-9.
107. Vollmer-Conna U., Piraino B. F., Cameron, B., Davenport, T., Hickie I, Wakefield, D., et al. (2008). Cytokine polymorphisms have a synergistic effect on severity of the acute sickness response to infection. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 47, 1418-25.
108. Watkins, L.R., & Maier, S.F. (1999) Implications of immune-to-brain communication for sickness and pain. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 96, 7710-7713.
109. Wedeen, V.J., Rosene, D.L., Wang, R., Dai, G., Mortazavi, F., Hagmann, P., Kaas, J.H., Tseng, W.Y.(2012). The geometric structure of the brain fiber pathways. Science, 335(6076), 1628-34.
110. Whiteside, A., Hansen, S., & Chaudhuri A. (2004). Exercise lowers pain threshold in chronic fatigue syndrome. Pain, 109, 497-499.
111. Willis, W.D. Jr. (1997) Nociceptive functions of thalamic neurons. In: M. Steriade, E.G. Jones, D.A. McCormick (Eds.). Thalamus: experimental and clinical aspects. (pp. 373-424). Elsevier Science: Oxford.
112. Wyller, V. B., Eriksen, H. R., & Malterud, K. (2009). Can sustained arousal explain the chronic fatigue syndrome. Behavioral and Brain Functions, 5:10. doi:10.1187/1744-9081-5-10.
113. Yamamoto, S., Ouchi, Y., Onoe, H., Yoshikawa, E., Tsukada, H., Takahashi, H., et al. (2004). Reduction of serotonin transporters of patients with chronic fatigue syndrome. Brain Imaging, 15, 2571-2574.
114. Yoshiuchi, K., Farkas, J. and Natelson, B.H. (2006) Patients with chronic fatigue syndrome have reduced absolute cortical blood flow. Clinical Physiology and Functional Imaging, 26, 83-86.
115. Yuan, Z., Rezai-Zadeh, N., Zhang, X., & Seto, E. (2009). Histone Deacetylase Activity Assay. In S. Chellappan (ed.), Chromatin Protocols (2nd ed.), pp. 279-293. Springer.