Multiple Emulsion Stability: Pressure Balance and Interfacial Film Strength

Multiple Emulsions: Technology and Applications

Volumn , Issue , 2007, Pages 1-27

  Jiao, Jim ^a   Burgess, Diane J ^b  

^a PFIZER INC   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CONNECTICUT   (United States)

Author keywords

Hydrophobic and hydrophilic emulsifiers; Interfacial dilational and shear rheology; Osmotic pressure and internal aqueous phase

Indexed keywords

EID: 84889626119     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1002/9780470209264.ch1     Document Type: Chapter

References (165)

1. Annianson EAG, Wall SN. 1974. Kinetics of step-wise micelle association. J Phys Chem 78(10):1024-1030.
2. Aronson MP, Petko MF. 1993. Highly concentrated water-in-oil emulsions:Influence of electrolyte on their properties and stability. J Colloid Interface Sci 159(1):134-149.
3. Abraham SM, Vieth RF, Burgess DJ. 1996. Novel technology for the preparation of sterile alginate-poly-lysine microcapsules in a bioreactor. Pharm Dev Tech 1(1):63-68.
4. Addison CC, Hutchinson SK. 1949. The properties of freshly forced surface. Part XI. Factors influencing surface activity and adsorption rates in aqueous-alcohol solutions . J Chem Soc 61:3387-3395.
5. Adeyeye CM, Price JC. 1990. Effect of dextrose in the internal aqueous phase on formation and stability of W/O/W multiple emulsions. Drug Dev Ind Pharm 16(6):1053-1071.
6. Adeyeye CM, Price JC. 1991. Effect of non-ionic surfactant concentration and type on the formation and stability W/O/W multiple emulsions:microscopic and conductometric evaluations. Drug Dev Ind Pharm 17(5):725-736.
7. Attwood D, Florence AT. 1983. Surfactant system:The Chemistry, Pharmacy and Biology. London:Chapman and Hall, pp 469-650.
8. Banwan AA, Abumalooh A, Sallam E, Abukalaf A, Jawan O. 1985. A sustained release drug delivery system using calcium alginate beads. Drug Dev Ind Pharm 11(2):239-256.
9. Banker GS, Rhodes T. 1979. Modern Pharmaceutics. New York:Marcel Dekker, pp 329-359.
10. Becher P. 1965. In:Emulsions:Theory and Practice, 2nd ed. New York:Reinhold, p 2.
11. Benoy CH, Elson LA, Schneider R. 1972. Multiple emulsions, a suitable vehicle to provide sustained release of cancer chemotherapeutic agents. Br J Pharmacol 45(1):135-136.
12. Binks BP, Clint JH, Fletcher PDI, Rippon S. 1998. Kinetics of swelling of oil-in-water emulsions. Langmuir 14:5402.
13. Binks BP, Clint JH, Fletcher PDI, Rippon S. 1999. Kinetics of swelling of oil-in-water emulsion stabilized by different surfactants. Langmuir 15:4495.
14. Biswas B, Haydon DA. 1962. The coalescence of droplets stabilized by viscoelastic adsorbed films. Kolloid Z 185:31.
15. Blake JR. 1996. Cavitation and bubble dynamics. J Fluid Mech 316:376-377.
16. Bodmeiser R, Chen H, Paeratakul O. 1989. A novel approach to the oral delivery of micro or nanoparticles. Pharm Res 6(5):413-417.
17. Boyd J, Parkinson C, Sherman P. 1972. Factors affecting emulsion stability and HLB concept. J Colloid Interface Sci 41(2):359-370.
18. Brodin AF, Kavaliunas DR, Frank SG. 1978. Prolonged drug release from multiple emulsions. Acta Pharm Suec 15:1-10.
19. Brodin AF. 1978. Drug release from oil-water-oil (O/W/O) multiple emulsion systems. Acta Pharm Suec 15:111-113.
20. Bungenberg de Jong MG. 1949. In:Colloid Science. II. Reversible Systems, Kruyt GR, eds. New York:Elsevier, pp 335-432.
21. Burbage AS, Davis SS. 1979. The characterization of multiple (W/O/W) emulsions using a radiotracer technique. J Pharm Pharmacol 31:6.
22. Burgess DJ, Yoon JK. 1993. Interfacial tension studies on surfactant systems at the aqueous/perfluorocarbon interface. Colloid Surf B 1:283-293.
23. Burgess DJ. 1993. In:Biotechnology and Pharmacy, Pezzuto JM, Johnson ME, Manasse HR, eds. New York:Chapman and Hall, p 116.
24. Burgess DJ, Yoon JK. 1995. Influence of interfacial properties on perfluorocarbon/aqueous emulsion stability. Colloids Surf 4:297-308.
25. Burgess DJ, Sahin NO. 1994. Interfacial rheology of ß-casein solution. In:Structure and Flow in Surfactant Solutions, Herb CA, Prud ' homme RK, eds. ACS Symp Ser, Washington, DC:ACS, pp 380-393.
26. Burgess DJ, Sahin NO. 1997. Influence of protein emulsifier interfacial properties on oil-in-water emulsion stability. Pharm Dev Tech 3:21-32.
27. Buscall R, Davis SS, Potts DC. 1979. The effect of long-chain alkanes on the stability of oil-in-water emulsions:the significance of Ostwald ripening. Colloid Polym Sci 257:636.
28. Chanamai R, Horn G, McClements DJ. 2002. Influence of oil polarity on droplet growth in oil-in-water emulsions stabilized by a weekly adsorbing biopolymer or a nonionic surfactant. J Colloid Interface Sci 247:167.
29. Chiang C, Fuller GC, Frankenfeld JW, Rhodes CT. 1978. Potential pf liquid membranes for drug overdosage treatment:In vitro studies. J Pharm Sci 67:63-66.
30. Chilamkurti RN, Rhodes CT. 1990. Transport across liquid membranes:effect of molecular structure. J Appl Biochem 2:17-24.
31. Collings AJ. 1971. Improvements in or relating to sustained release preparations, British Patent 1,235,667.
32. Criddle DW, Meager Jr AL. 1955. Viscosity and elasticity of oil surface and oil-water interfaces. J Appl Phys 26:838-842.
33. Csoka I, Eros I. 1997. Stability of multiple emulsions I. Determination of factors influencing multiple drop breakdown. Int J Pharm 156:119-123.
34. Cueman GH, Zatz JL. 1988. Multiple emulsions. In:Controlled Release Systems:Fabrication Technology, Vol. 2, Hsieh DS, ed. Boca Raton:CRC Press, pp 23-40.
35. Dalgleish D. 1993. Food emulsions. In:Emulsions and Emulsion Stability, Sjoblom J, eds. New York:Marcel Dekker, pp 287-325.
36. Davies CK, Nash P, Stevens RN. 1980. Acta Metall 28:179.
37. Davis SS. 1976. The emulsion-obsolete dosage form or novel drug delivery system and therapeutic agent? J Clin Pharm 1:11-27.
38. Davis SS, Burbage AS. 1977. Electron micrography of water-in-oil-in-water emulsions. J Colloid Interface Sci 62(2):361-363.
39. Davis SS, Burbage AS. 1978. The particle size analysis of multiple emulsions (water-in-oil-in-water). In:Particle Size Analysis, Groves MJ, eds. London:Heyden, pp 395-410.
40. Davis SS, Round HP, Purewal TS. 1981. Ostwald ripening and the stability of emulsion systems:An explanation for the effect of an added third component. J Colloid Interface Sci 80:508.
41. Davis SS, Walker I. 1983. Measurement of the yield of multiple droplets by a fluorescent tracer technique. Int J Pharm 17:203-213.
42. De Luca M, Grossiord JL, Medard JM, Vaution C. 1990. A stable W/O/W multiple emulsion. Cosmet Toilet 105(11):65-69.
43. Dickinson E, Owusu RK, Tan S, Williams A. 1993. Oil-soluble surfactants have little effect on competitive adsorption of a-lactalbulmin and ß-lactoglobulin in emulsions. J Food Sci 58(2):295-298.
44. Dickinson E, Evison J, Owusu RK. 1991. Preparation of fine protein-stabilized water-in-oil-water emulsions. Food Hydrocolloids 5:481-485.
45. Dickinson E, Hong ST. 1994. Surface coverage of ß-lactoglobulin at the oil-water interfaces:Influence of protein heat treatment and various emulsifiers. J Agric Food Chem 42:1602-1606.
46. Ducoulombier D, Zhou H, Boned C, Peyreleasse J, Saint-Guirons H, Xans P. 1986. Condensed phases and macromolecules-pressure (1-1000 bars) and temperature (20-100 ° C) dependence of the viscosity of liquid hydrocarbons. J Phys Chem 90:1692.
47. Economou IG, Heidman JL, Tsonopoulos C. 1997. Mutual solubilities of hydrocarbons and water:III. 1-hexene, 1-octene, C10-C12 hydrocarbons. AIChE J 43:535.
48. Elbary AA, Nour SA, Ibrahim I. 1990. Physical stability and rheological properties of W/O/W emulsions as a function of electrolytes. Pharm Indus 52(3):357-363.
49. Elson LA, Mitchley BCV, Collings AJ, Schneider R. 1970. Chemotherapeutic effect of a water-in-oil-in-water of methotrexate on the mouse L1210 leukaemia, Rev Europ Etudes Clin Biol 15:87-90.
50. Engel RH, Riggi SJ, Fahrenbach MJ. 1968. Insulin:Interstinal absorption as water-in-oil-in-water emulsions. Nature 129:856-857.
51. Eros I, Balazs J, Peter I, Tasci M. 1990. Investigation of drug containing multiphase emulsions. Pharmazie 45:419-422.
52. Estrada-Baltazar A, Alvarado JF, Iglesias-Silva G. 1998. Experimental liquid viscosity of decane and octane + decane from 298.15 K to 373.15 K and up to 25 Mpa. J Chem Eng Data 43:441.
53. Ferreira LAM, Seiller M, Grossiord JL, Marty JP, Wepierre J. 1994. Vehicle influence on in vitro release of metronidazole:Role of W/O/W multiple emulsion. Int J Pharm 109:251-259.
54. Ferreira LAM, Doucet J, Seiller M, Grossiord JL, Marty JP. 1995. In vitro percutaneous absorption of metronidazole and glucose:comparison of O/W, W/O/W and W/O systems. Int J Pharm 121:169-179.
55. Ficheux MF, Bonakder L, Leal-Calderon F, Bibette J. 1998. Some stability criteria for double emulsions. Langmuir 14:2702-2706.
56. Florence AT, Whitehill D. 1985. Stability and stabilization of water-in-oil-in-water multiple emulsions. ACS Symp Ser 272(Macro-and Microemulsions):359-380.
57. Florence AT, Law TK, Whateley TL. 1985. Nonaqueous foam structures form osmotically swollen W/O/W emulsion droplets. J Colloid Interface Sci 107(2):584-588.
58. Florence AT, Rogers JA. 1971. Emulsion stabilization by nonionic surfactants:Experiment and theory. J Pharm Pharmacol 23:153-169.
59. Florence AT, Whitehill D. 1982. Stabilization of water/oil/water multiple emulsions by polymerization of the aqueous phase. J Pharm Pharmacol 34:687-691.
60. Florence AT, Whitehill D. 1982. The formulation and stability of multiple emulsions. Int J Pharm 11:277-308.
61. Frankenfeld JW, Fuller GC, Rhodes CT. 1976. Potential use of liquid membranes for emergency treatment of drug overdose. Drug Dev Commun 2(4-5):405-419.
62. Fukushima S, Juni K, Nakano M. 1983. Preparation of and drug release from W/O/W type double emulsion containing anticancer agents. Chem Pharm Bull 31(11):4048-4056.
63. Garti N, Aserin A. 1996. Emulsions and microemulsions. In:Drugs and the Pharmaceutical Sciences, Vol. 73, Benita S, ed. Dekker, New York, NY.
64. Garti N, Aserin A, Cohen Y. 1994. Mechanistic considerations on the release of electrolytes form multiple emulsions stabilized by BSA and nonionic surfactants. J Controlled Release 29:41-51.
65. Geiger S, Jager-Lezer N, Tokgoz S, Seiller M, Grossiord JL. 1999. Characterization of the mechanical properties of a water/oil/water multiple emulsion oily membrane by a micropipette aspiration technique. Colloids Surf A 157:325-332.
66. Ghaicha L, Leblanc R. 1995. Monolayers of mixed surfactants at the oil-water interface, hydrophobic interactions, and stability of water-in-oil emulsions. Langmuir 11:585-590.
67. Gresham PA, Barrett M, Smith SV, Schneider R. 1971. Use of a sustained release multiple emulsion to extend the period of radioprotection conferred by cysteamine. Nature 234:149-150.
68. Griffin WC. 1949. Classification of surface-active agents by HLB. J Soc Cosmet Chem 11:311-326.
69. Herbert WJ. 1965. Multiple emulsion:A new form of mineral oil antigen adjuvant. Lancet 2:771.
70. Higuchi WI, Misra J. 1962. Physical degradation of emulsions via the molecular diffusion route and the possible prevention thereof. J Pharm Sci 51:459.
71. Hou W, Papadopoulos KD. 1997. W 1 /O /W 2 and O 1 /W /O 2 globules stabilized with Span 80 and Tween 80. Colloids Surf A 125:181-187.
72. Hunter RJ. 1986. Foundations of Colloid Science, Vol. 2. New York:Oxford University Press.
73. Jiao J, Rhodes DG, Burgess DJ. 2002. Multiple emulsion stability:Pressure balance and interfacial film strength. J Colloid Interface Sci 250:444-450.
74. Jiao J, Burgess DJ. 2003. Rheology and stability of W/O/W multiple emulsions containing Span 83 and Tween 80. AAPS Pharm Sci 5(1):62-73.
75. Jiao J, Burgess DJ. 2003. Ostwald ripening of water-in-hydrocarbon emulsions stabilized by non-ionic surfactant Span 83. J Colloid Interface Sci 264:509-516.
76. Jiao J, Burgess DJ. 2005. Characterization and analysis of dispersed systems. In:Drugs and the Pharmaceutical Sciences, Vol. 149:Injectable Dispersed Systems-Formulation, Processing, and Performance, Burgess DJ, ed. Boca Raton:Taylor and Francis Group, pp 77-124.
77. Kabalnov AS, Perrzov AV, Shchukin ED. 1987. Ostwald ripening in emulsions 1. Direct observation of Ostwald ripening in emulsions. J Colloid Interface Sci 118:590-597.
78. Kabalnov AS, Makarov KN, Perrzov AV, Shchukin ED. 1990. Ostwald ripening in emulsions 2. Ostwald ripening in hydrocarbon emulsions:Experimental verification of equation for absolute rates. J Colloid Interface Sci 138:98-104.
79. Kabalnov AS, Shchukin ED. 1992. Ostwald ripening theory:Applications to fluorocarbon emulsion stability. Adv Colloid Interface Sci 38:69-97.
80. Kabalnov AS. 1994. Can micelles mediate a mass transfer between oil droplets? Langmuir 10:680.
81. Kavaliunas DR, Frank SG. 1978. Liquid crystal stabilization of multiple emulsions. J Colloid Interface Sci 66:586-588.
82. Kawashima Y, Hino T, Takeuchi H, Niwa T. 1992. Stabilization of water/oil/water multiple emulsion with hypertonic inner aqueous phase. Chem Pharm Bull 40(5):1240-1246.
83. Kita Y, Matsumoto S, Yonezawa D. 1977. Viscometric method for estimating the stability of W/O/W type multiple-phase emulsions. J Colloid Interface Sci 62:87-94.
84. Kitchener JA, Mussellwhite PR. 1968. The Theory of Stability of Emulsions, Sherman P, ed. London:Academic Press, pp 77-125.
85. Kover T, Csoka I, Eros I. 1997. Formation and stability of multiple phase (W/O/W) emulsions. Part I:Investigation of the primary interface. Pharmazie 52:166-167.
86. Kover T, Csoka I, Eros I. 1997. Formation and stability of multiple phase (W/O/W) emulsions. Part II:Relationship between primary interface saturation and formation . Pharmazie 52(4):328.
87. Krog N. 1991. Thermodynamics of interfacial films in food emulsions. In:Microemulsions and Emulsions in Food, El-Nokaly M, Cornell D, eds. Washington, DC:ACS, pp 138-145.
88. Lanier JG, Newman MJ, Lee EM, Sette A, Ahmed R. 1999. Peptide vaccination using nonionic block copolymers induces protective anti-viral CTL responses. Vaccine 18(5-6):549-557.
89. Laugel C, Chaminade P, Baillet A, Seiller M, Ferrier D. 1996. Moisturizing substances entrapped in W/O/W emulsions:analytical methodology for formulation, stability and release studies. J Controlled Release 38:59-67.
90. Laugel C, Baillet A, Youenang Piemi MP, Marty JP, Ferrier D. 1998. Oil-water-oil multiple emulsions for prolonged delivery of hydrocortisone after topical application:Comparison with simple emulsions. Int J Pharm 160:106-117.
91. Law TK, Florence AT, Whateley TL. 1984. Release from multiple W/O/W emulsions stabilized by interfacial complexation. J Pharm Pharmacol 36(suppl):50.
92. Law TK, Whateley TL, Florence AT. 1986. Stabilization of W/O/W multiple emulsion by interfacial complexation of macromolecules and nonionic surfactants. J Controlled Release 3:279-290.
93. Li NN, Shrier AL. 1972. Liquid membrane water treating. In:Recent Development in Separation Science, Vol. 1, Cleveland:Chem. Rubber Co., pp 163-174.
94. Lifshitz IM, Slyozov VV. 1961. The kinetics of precipitation from supersaturated solid solutions. J Phys Chem Solids, 19:35.
95. Lin TJ, Kurihara H, Ohta H. 1975. Effects of phase inversion and surfactant location on the formation of O/W emulsions. J Soc Cosmet Chem 26:121-139
96. Lin SJ, Wu WH. 1991. Physical parameters and release behaviors of W/O/W multiple emulsions containing cosurfactants and different specific gravity of oils. Pharm Acta Helv 66(12):342-347.
97. Magdassi S, Frenkel M, Garti N, Kasan R. 1984. Multiple emulsion II:HLB shift caused by emulsifier migration to external interface. J Colloid Interface Sci 97(2):374-379.
98. Magdassi S, Frenkel M, Garti N. 1984. On the factors affecting the yield of preparation and stability of multiple emulsions. J Disper Sci Tech 5(1):49-59.
99. Magdassi S, Garti N. 1984. Release of electrolytes in multiple emulsions:Coalescence and breakdown or diffusion through oil phase? Colloids Surf 12:367-373.
100. Magdassi S, Garti N. 1986. A kinetic model for release of electrolytes from W/O/W multiple emulsions. J Controlled Release 3:273-277.
101. Martin A, Swarbrick J, Cammarata N. 1993. Physical Pharmacy, Fourth Edition, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania:Lee & Febiger, pp 371-373 and 487-490.
102. Matsumoto S, Kita Y, Yonezawa D. 1976. An attempt at preparing water-in-oil-in-water multiple phase emulsions. J Colloid Interface Sci 57(2):353-361.
103. Matsumoto S, Kohda M, Murata S. 1977. Preparation of lipid vesicles on the basis of a technique for providing W/O/W emulsions. J Colloid Interface Sci 62(1):149-157.
104. Matsumoto S. 1983. Development of W/O/W type dispersion during phase inversion of concentrated W/O emulsions. J Colloid Interface Sci 94(2):362-368.
105. Matsumoto S, Kitayama T, Kohda M. 1985. Some trials in stabilizing W/O/W emulsions under the presence of electrolytes. J Jap Oil Chem Soc 34:688-695.
106. Matsumoto S, Kohda M. 1980. The viscosity of W/O/W emulsions:An attempt to estimate the water permeation coefficient of the oil layer from the viscosity changes in diluted system on aging under osmotic pressure gradient. J Colloid Interface Sci 73(1):13-20.
107. Matsumoto S. 1987. W/O/W type multiple emulsions. In:Nonionic surfactant physical chemistry, Schick MJ, eds. New York:Marcel Dekker, pp 549-600.
108. May SW, Li NN. 1974. Encapsulation of enzymes in liquid membrane emulsions. Enzyme Eng 2:77-82.
109. Mikhin KV, Stepanow SV, Byakov VM. 2003. Formation of Ps bubble in liquid media. Radiat Phys Chem 68:415-417.
110. Mohamed SM, Ghazy FS, Mahdy MA, Gad MA. 1989. Factors affecting the yield of multiple emulsion and drug release. Mans J Pharm Sci 5:56-71.
111. Morimoto Y, Sugibayashi K, Yamagauchi Y, Kato Y. 1979. Detoxication capacity of a multiple (W/O/W) emulsion for the treatment of drug overdose:drug extraction into the emulsion in the gastro-intestinal tract of rabbits. Chem Pharm Bull 27(12):3188-3192.
112. Morimoto Y, Yamagauchi Y, Sugibayashi K. 1979. Detoxication capacity of a multiple (W/O/W) emulsion for the treatment of drug overdose. II. Detoxication of quinine sulfate with the emulsion in the gastro-intestinal tract of rabbits. Chem Pharm Bull 27(12):3188-3192.
113. Murray BS, Dickinson E. 1996. Interfacial rheology and the dynamic properties of adsorbed films of food proteins and surfactants. Food Sci Technol Int 2(3):131-145.
114. Myers D. 1988. Surfactant science and technology. New York, NY:VCH Publishers, pp 209-253.
115. Myers SL, Shively ML. 1992. Preparation and characterization of emulsifiable glasses:Oil-in-water and water-in-oil-in-water emulsions. J Colloid Interface Sci 149(1):271-278.
116. Nakhare S, Vyas SP. 1996. Preparation and characterization of multiple emulsion based systems for controlled diclofenac sodium release. J Microencapsu 13(3):281-292.
117. Nakhare S, Vyas SP. 1995. Prolonged release of rifampicin from multiple W/O/W emulsion systems. J Microencapsu 12(4):409-415.
118. Ng SM, Frank SG. 1982. Formation of multiple emulsions in a four-component system containing nonionic surfactants. J Disper Sci Tech 3:217.
119. Ohwaki T. 1992. Improvement of the formation percentage of water-in-oil-in-water multiple emulsions by the addition of surfactants in the internal aqueous phase of the emulsion. Int J Pharm 85:19-28.
120. Okada H. 1997. One-and three-month release injectable microspheres of the LH-RH superagonist leuprorelin acetate. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 28(1):43-70.
121. Omotosho JA, Whateley TL, Law TK, Florence AT. 1986. The nature of the oil phase and the release of solutes from multiple (W/O/W) emulsions. J Pharm Pharmacol 38:865-870.
122. Omotosho JA, Law TK, Whateley TL, Florence AT. 1986. The stabilization of W/O/W emulsions by interfacial interaction between albumin and non-ionic surfactants. Colloids Surf 20:133-144.
123. Omotosho JA, Florence AT, Whateley TL. 1990. Absorption and lymphatic uptake of 5-fluorouracil in the rate following oral administration of W/O/W multiple emulsions . Int J Pharm 61:51-56.
124. Omotosho JA. 1990. The effect of acacia, gelatin and polyvinylpyrrolidone on chloroquine transport from multiple W/O/W emulsions. Int J Pharm 62:81-84.
125. Omotosho JA, Whateley TL, Law TK, Florence AT. 1989. Release of 5-fluorouracil from intramuscular W/O/W multiple emulsions. Biopharm Drug Disp 10:257-268.
126. Opawale FO, Burgess DJ. 1998. Influence of interfacial rheological properties of mixed emulsifier films on the stability of water-in-oil-in-water emulsions. J Pharm Pharmacol 50:965-973.
127. Opawale FO, Burgess DJ. 1998. Influence of interfacial properties of lipophilic surfactant on water-in-oil emulsion stability. J Colloid Interface Sci 197:142-150.
128. Ostwald W. 1900. Uber die vermeintliche isomerie des rotten und gelben quecksilberoxyds und die oberflachenspannung fester korper. Z Phys Chem 34:495.
129. Oza KP, Frank SG. 1989. Multiple emulsions stabilized by colloidal microcrystalline cellulose. J Disper Sci and Tech 10(2):163-185.
130. Padday JF, Russel DR. 1960. The measurement of the surface tension of pure liquids and solutions. J Colloid Sci 15:503-511.
131. Pal R. 1996. Multiple O/W/O emulsion rheology. Langmuir 12:2220.
132. Panchal CJ, Zalic JE, Gerson DF. 1979. Multiple-phase emulsions using microbial emulsifiers. J Colloid Interface Sci 68:295-307.
133. Pandit JK, Mishra B, Chand B. 1987. Drug release from multiple W/O/W emulsions. Indian J Pharm Sci 103-105.
134. Parkinson C, Matsumoto S, Sherman P. 1970. The influence of particle size distribution on the apparent viscosity of non-Newtonian dispersed systems. J Colloid Interface Sci 33(1):150-160.
135. Raynal S, Grossiord JL, Seiller M, Clausse D. 1993. A topical W/O/W multiple emulsion containing several active substances:Formulation, characterization and study of release. J Controlled Release 26:129-140.
136. Rosano HL, Gandolfo FG, Hidrot JP. 1998. Stability of W 1 /O /W 2 multiple emulsions:Influence of ripening and interfacial interactions. Colloids Surf A 138:109-121.
137. Seifriz W. 1925. Studies in emulsions. J Phys Chem 29:738.
138. Sela Y, Magdassi S, Garti N. 1995. Release of markers from the inner water phase of W/O/W emulsions stabilized by silicone based polymeric surfactants. J Controlled Release 33:1-12.
139. Sheriff M, Warburton B. 1974. Measurement of dynamic rheological properties using the principle of externally shifted and restored resonance. Polymer 15:253-254.
140. Sheriff M, Warburton B. 1975. The theory of a universal oscillatory rheometer for the study of linear viscoelastic materials using the principle of normalized resonance. In:Theoretical Rheology. London:Applied Science Publishers, pp 299-316.
141. Shinoda K, Yoneyama T, Tsutsumi H. 1980. Evaluation of emulsifier blending. J Disper Sci Technol 1(1):1-12.
142. Sherman P. 1953. Studies in water-in-oil emulsions. III. The properties of interfacial films of sorbitan sesquioleate. J Colloid Sci 8:35-37.
143. Shimizu M, Nakane Y. 1995. Encapsulation of biologically active proteins in a multiple emulsion. Biosci Biochem 59(3):492-496.
144. Silva-Cunha A, Cheron M, Grossiord JL, Puisieux F, Seiller M. 1998. W/O/W multiple emulsions of insulin containing a protease inhibitor and an absorption enhancer:Biological activity after oral administration to normal and diabetic rats. Int J Pharm 169:33-44.
145. Singh S, Singh R, Vyas SP. 1995. Multiple emulsion based systems carrying insulin:Development and characterization. J Microencapsul 12(6):609-615.
146. Smith A, Davis SS. 1973. The role of molecular diffusion in the bulk stability of O/W hydrocarbon emulsions. J Pharm Sci 25:117.
147. Soma J, Papadopoulos KD. 1996. Ostwald ripening in sodium dodecyl sulfate-stabilized decane-in-water emulsions. J Colloid Interface Sci 181:225.
148. Swarbrick J. 1997. Coarse dispersions. In:Remington:The Science and Practice of Pharmacy , 20th ed. Gennaro AR, ed. Mack Publishing Company, Easton, PA.
149. Taylor P, Ottewill RH. 1994. The formation and aging rates of oil-in-water miniemulsions . Colloids Surf A 88:303.
150. Taylor P. 1995. Ostwald ripening in emulsions. Colloids Surf A 99:175.
151. Tokgoz NS, Grossiord JL, Fructus A, Seiller M, Prognon P. 1996. Evaluation of two fluorescent probes for the characterization of W/O/W emulsions. Int J Pharm 141:27-37.
152. Trevino L, Sole-Violan L, Daumur P, Devallez B, Postel M, Riess JG. 1993. Molecular diffusion in concentrated fluorocarbon emulsions and its effect on emulsion stability. New J Chem 17:275.
153. Tsonopoulos C. 1999. Thermodynamic analysis of the mutual solubilities of normal alkanes and water. Fluid Phase Equilib 156:21.
154. Tsonopoulos C. 2001. Thermodynamic analysis of the mutual solubilities of hydrocarbons and water. Fluid Phase Equilib 186:185.
155. Ugelstad J, Mork PC, Kaggerud KH, Ellingsen T, Berge A. 1980. Swelling of oligomer-polymer particles:New methods of preparation of emulsion and polymer dispersions . Adv Colloid Interface Sci 13:101.
156. Vaziri A, Warburton B. 1994. Slow release of chloroquine phosphate from multiple taste-masked W/O/W multiple emulsions. J Microencapsul 11(6):641-648.
157. Walstra P. 1996. Emulsion stability. In:Encyclopedia of Emulsion Technology, Vol. 4, Becher P, ed. New York:Marcel Dekker, pp 1-62.
158. Warburton B. 1993. In:Techniques in rheological measurement, Collyer AA, (Ed). London:Chapman and Hall, p 55.
159. Welin-Berger K, Bergenstahl B. 2000. Inhibition of Ostwald ripening in local anesthetic emulsions by using hydrophobic excipients in the disperse phase. Int J Pharm 200:249-260.
160. Weiss J, Herrmann N, McClements DJ. 1999. Ostwald ripening of hydrocarbon emulsion droplets in surfactant solutions. Langmuir 15:6652.
161. Weiss J, Cancelliere C, McClements DJ. 2000. Mass transport phenomena in oil-in-water emulsions containing surfactant micelles:Ostwald ripening. Langmuir 16:6833.
162. Wilke CR, Chang D. 1955. Correlation of diffusion coefficients in dilute solutions. Am Inst Chem Eng J 1:264.
163. Yoshioka T, I keuchi K, Hashida M, Muranishi S, Sezaki H. 1982. Prolonged release of bleomycin from parenteral gelatin sphere-in-oil-in-water multiple emulsion. Chem Pharm Bull 30(4):1408-1415.
164. Yoshioka T, Sternberg B, Florence AT. 1994. Preparation and properties of vesicle (niosomes) of sorbitan monoesters (Span 20, 40, 60, 80) and a sorbitan triester (Span 85). Int J Pharm 105:1-6.
165. Zheng S, Zheng Y, Beissinger RL, Wasan DT, McCormick DL. 1993. Hemoglobin multiple emulsion as an oxygen delivery system. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta 1158:65-74.