Enhanced absorbent products incorporating cellulose and its derivatives: A review

BioResources

Volumn 8, Issue 4, 2013, Pages 6556-6629

  Hubbe, Martin A ^a   Ayoub, Ali ^a   Daystar, Jesse S ^a   Venditti, Richard A ^a   Pawlak, Joel J ^a  

^a NORTH CAROLINA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Absorbency; Carboxymethylcellulose (CMC); Cellulosic materials; Disposable; Fluffpulp; Hydrogels; Life cycle analysis; Rate of absorption; Superabsorbents

Indexed keywords

ABSORPTION; CELLULOSE DERIVATIVES; HYDROGELS; LIFE CYCLE; NANOFIBERS;

ABSORBENCY; CARBOXYMETHYLCELLULOSE; CELLULOSIC MATERIAL; DISPOSABLE; FLUFFPULP; LIFE CYCLE ANALYSIS; RATE OF ABSORPTIONS; SUPERABSORBENTS;

CELLULOSE;

ABSORPTION; CARBOXYMETHYL CELLULOSE; CELLULOSE; CELLULOSE DERIVATIVES; LIFE CYCLE;

EID: 84887162529     PISSN: None     EISSN: 19302126     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.15376/biores.8.4.6556-6629     Document Type: Review

References (389)

1. Abbas, S., Bitis, R., Larsson, A., Larsson, M., and Malmgren, K. (2011). "Superabsorbent polymer composite comprising a superabsorbent polymer and cellulosic nanofibrils," US Pat. 6,844,066.
2. Abd El-Mohdy, H. L. (2007). "Water sorption behavior of CMC/PAM hydrogels prepared by γ-irradiation and release of potassium nitrate as agrochemical," Reactive & Functional Polymers 67, 1094-1102.
3. Aberson, G. (1969). "The water absorbency of pads of dry, unbonded fibre," TAPPI STAP 8, 282-305.
4. Adamson, A. W., and Gast, A. P. (1997). Physical Chemistry of Surfaces, Wiley, New York.
5. Afif, A. E., and Grme, M. (2002). "Non-Fickian mass transport in polymers," J. Rheol. 46, 591-628.
6. Ahmed, I, Jones, A. M., and Smith, S. J. (2005). "Cellulose material with improved absorbency," US Pat. 6,906,131 B2.
7. Akar, E., Altinisik, A., and Seki, Y. (2012). "Preparation of pH- and ionic-strength responsive biodegradable fumaric acid crosslinked carboxymethyl cellulose," Carbohydr. Polymers 90(4), 1634-1641.
8. Ali, A. E. H., El-Rehim, H. A. A., Kamal, H., and Hegazy, D. E. S. A. (2008). "Synthesis of carboxymethyl cellulose based drug carrier hydrogel using ionizing radiation for possible use as site specific delivery system," J. Macromol. Sci. Pt. A - Pure Appl. Chem. 45(8), 628-634.
9. Aliouche, D., Ait-Amar, H., and Lahfati, K. (2001). "Experimental determination and interpretation of absorption capacities of liquids by biotextiles with complex absorbent structure - Influence of superabsorbent polymer gels," Chem. Eng. J. 81(1-3), 317-322.
10. Aliouche, D., Sid, B., and Ait-Amar, H. (2006). "Graft-copolymerization of acrylic monomers onto cellulose. Influence on fibre swelling and absorbency," Anal. Chimie - Sci. Mater. 31(5), 527-540.
11. Anirudhan, T. S., Tharun, A. R., and Rejeena, S. R. (2011). "Investigation on poly(methacrylic acid)-grafted cellulose/bentonite superabsorbent composite: Synthesis, characterization, and adsorption characteristics of bovine serum albumin," Indust. Eng. Chem. Res. 50(4), 1866-1874.
12. Argüelles-Monal, W., Gárciga, M., and Peniche-Covas, C. (1990). "Study of the stoichiometric polyelectrolyte complex between chitosan and carboxymethyl cellulose," Polymer Bull. 23, 307-313.
13. Askari, F., Nafisi, S., Omidian, H., and Hashemi, S. A. (1993). "Synthesis and characterization of acrylic-based superabsorbents," J. Appl. Polymer Sci. 50(10), 1851-1855.
14. Aspler, J. S., Davis, S., and Lyne, M. B. (1987). "The surface chemistry of paper in relation to dynamic wetting and sorption of water and lithographic fountain solutions," J. Pulp Paper Sci. 13(2), J55-J60.
15. ASTM (1983). Technical Supplement: A Compilation of Procedures and Guidelines for Textile Products, AATCC C2C Committee and the ATSM Intl. Committee D13 on Textiles, AATCC, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA.
16. Athawale, V. D., and Lele, V. (2001). "Recent trends in hydrogels based on starch-graft-acrylic acid: A review," Starch-Starke 53(1), 7-13.
17. Aumônier, S., and Collins, M. (2005). "Life cycle assessment of disposable and reusable nappies in the UK," Environmental Agency, May.
18. Ayoub, A., Venditti, R. A., Pawlak, J. J., Salam, A., and Hubbe, M. A. (2013). "Novel hemicellulose-chitosan biosorbent for water desalination and heavy metal removal," ACS Sustainable Chem. Eng., published online, DOI: 10.1021/sc300166m.
19. Azizi Samir, M. A. S., Alloin, F., and Dufresne, A. (2005). "Review of recent research into cellulosic whiskers, their properties and their application in nanocomposite field," Biomacromol. 6(2), 612-626.
20. Back, E. L., and Allen, L. (2000). Pitch Control, Wood Resin and Deresination, TAPPI Press, Atlanta, 392 pp.
21. Back, E. L., and Salmén, N. L. (1982). "Glass transitions of wood components hold implications for molding and pulping processes," Tappi 65(7), 107-110.
22. Baker, J. P., Blanch, H. W., and Prausnitz, J. M. (1995). "Swelling properties of acrylamide-based ampholytic hydrogels - Comparison of experimental with theory," Polymer 1995, 36(5), 1061-1069
23. Bao, Y., Ma, J. Z., and Li, N. (2011). "Synthesis and swelling behaviors of sodium carboxymethyl cellulose-g-poly(AA-co-AM-co-AMPS)/MMT superabsorbent hydrogel," Carbohyd. Polymers 84(1), 76-82.
24. Bao, Y., Ma, J. Z., and Sun, Y. G. (2012). "Swelling behaviors of organic/inorganic composites based on various cellulose derivatives and inorganic particles," Carbohydr. Polymers 88(2), 589-595.
25. Barbucci, R., Magnani, A., and Consumi, M. (2000). "Swelling behavior of carboxymethyl cellulose hydrogels in relation to cross-linking, pH, and charge density," Macromol. 33(20), 7475-7480.
26. Barcus, L. R., and Bjorkquist, W. D. (1997). "Fibers and pulps for papermaking based on chemical combination of poly(acrylate-co-itaconate), polyol and cellulosic fiber," US Pat. 5,698,074.
27. Bare, J. (2011). "TRACI 2.0: The tool for the reduction and assessment of chemical and other environmental impacts 2.0," Clean Technologies and Environmental Policy 13(5), 687-696.
28. Berens, A. R., and Hopfenberg, H. B. (1978). "Diffusion and relaxation in glassy polymer powders. 2. Separation of diffusion and relaxation parameters," Polymer 19, 489-496.
29. Bergenstrahle, M., Wohlert, J., Larsson, P. T., Mazeau, K., and Berglund, L. A. (2008). "Dynamics of cellulose-water interfaces: NMR spin-lattice relaxation times calculated from atomistic computer simulations," J. Phys. Chem. B 112(9), 2590-2595.
30. Berthold, J., and Salmén, L. (1997). "Effects of mechanical and chemical treatments on the pore-size distribution in wood pulps examined by inverse size-exclusion chromatography," J. Pulp Paper Sci. 23(6), J245-J253.
31. Beskisiz, E., Ucar, N., and Demir, A. (2009). "The effects of super absorbent fibers on the washing, dry cleaning and drying behavior of knitted fabrics," Textile Res. J. 79(16), 1459-1466.
32. Beuther, P. D., Veith, M. W., and Zwick, K. J. (2010). "Characterization of absorbent flow rate in towel and tissue," J. Eng. Fibers Fabrics 5(2), 1-7.
33. Bhandari, P. N., Jones, D. D., and Hanna, M. A. (2012). "Carboxymethylation of cellulose using reactive extrusion," Carbohydr. Polym. 87(3), 2246-2254.
34. Billmeyer, F. W. (1971). Textbook of Polymer Science, Wiley-Interscience, New York.
35. Bin, F., Wach, R. A., Minomo, H., Yoshii, F., and Kume, T. (2000). "Hydrogel of biodegradable cellulose derivatives. I. Radiation-induced crosslinking of CMC," J. Appl. Polymer Sci. 78(2), 278-283.
36. Bourges, X., Weiss, P., Daculsi, P., and Legeay, G. (2002). "Synthesis and general properties of silated-hydroxypropyl methylcellulose in prospect of biomedical use," Adv. Colloid Interface Sci. 99(3), 215-228.
37. Brannon-Peppas, L., and Peppas, N. A. (1990). "The equilibrium swelling behavior of porous and non-porous hydrogels," In: Absorbent Polymer Technology, Brannon-Peppas, L., and Harland, R. S. (eds.), Studies in Polymer Science Ser. 8, Elsevier, Amsterdam.
38. Breier, R. (1997). "Die Strangveredlung von Lyocell - Aktueller Stand der Praxis," Lenzinger Berichte 76, 108-111.
39. Bristow, J. A. (1967). "Liquid adsorption into paper during short time intervals," Svensk Papperstidning 19(15), 623-629.
40. Bristow, J. A. (1972). "Swelling of fiber building boards on immersion in water," Svensk Papperstidning 75(21), 847-852.
41. Brodin, F. W., Lund, K., Brelid, H., and Theliander, H. (2012). "Reinforced absorbent material: A cellulosic composite of TEMPO-oxidized MFC and CTMP fibres," Cellulose 19(4), 1413-1423.
42. Brodin, F. W., and Theliander, H. (2012). "Absorbent materials based on kraft pulp: Preparation and material characterization," BioResources 7(2), 1666-1683.
43. Brydson, J. A. (1975). Plastics Materials, Butterworth, Boston, loc cit. p. 59.
44. Buchholz, F. L., and Graham, A. T. (2005). Modern Superabsorbent Polymer Technology, Wiley-VCH, New York.
45. Buchholz, F. L., and Peppas, N. A. (1994). Superabsorbent Polymers. Science and Technology, ACS Symp. Ser. 573, Amer. Chem. Soc., Washington, DC.
46. Buchholz, F. L., Pesce, S. R., and Powell, C. L. (2005). "Deswelling stresses and reduced swelling of superabsorbent polymer in composites of fiber and superabsorbent polymers," J. Appl. Polymer Sci. 98(6), 2493-2507.
47. Buyanov, A. L., Gofman, I. V., Revel'skava, L. G., Khripnov, A. K., and Tkachenko, A. A. (2010). "Anisotropic swelling and mechanical behavior of composite bacterial cellulose - poly(acrylamide or acrylamide-sodium acrylate) hydrogels," J. Mechan. Behav. Biomed. Mater. 3, 102-111.
48. Cai, J., and Zhang, L. (2006). "Unique gelation behavior of cellulose in NaOH/urea aqueous solution," Biomacromol. 7(1), 183-189.
49. Campbell, W. B. (1959). "The mechanism of bonding," Tappi 42(12), 999-1001.
50. Cao, B., Tschirner, U., and Ramaswamy, S. (1998). "Impact of pulp chemical composition on recycling," Tappi J. 81(12), 119-127.
51. Capitani, D., Emanuele, M. C., Bella, J., Segre, A. L., Attanasio, D., Focher, B., and Capretti, G. (1990). "1H NMR relaxation study of cellulose and water interaction in paper," TAPPI J. 82(9), 117-124.
52. Carman, P. C. (1938). "Fluid flow through granular beds," Trans. Inst. Chem. Engrs. (London) 16, 168-188.
53. Carman, P. C. (1939). "Determination of the specific surface of powders. Part 2," J. Soc. Chem. Ind. 58, 2-7.
54. Carrier, W. D. (2002). "Goodby, Hazen; Hello, Kozeny-Carman," J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng. (Nov.), 1054-1056.
55. Cassie, A. B. D., and Baxter, S. (1944). "Wettability of porous surfaces," Trans. Faraday Soc. 40, 546-551.
56. Çaykara, T., Sengiil, G., and Birlik, G. (2006). "Preparation and swelling properties of temperature-sensitive semi-interpenetrating polymer networks composed of poly(N-tert-butylacrylamide)-co-acrylamide] and hydroxypropyl cellulose," Macromol. Mater. Eng. 291(9), 1044-1051.
57. Chang, C., Lue, A., and Zhang, L. (2008). "Effect of crosslinking methods on the structure and properties of cellulose/PVA hydrogels," Macromol. Chem. Phys. 209(12), 1266-1273.
58. Chang, C. Y, Duan, G., and Zhang, L. N. (2009a). "Fabrication and characterization of novel macroporous cellulose-alginate hydrogels," Polymer 50, 5467-5473.
59. Chang, C., Han, K., and Zhang, L. (2009b). "Structure and properties of cellulose/poly(N-isopropylacrylamide) hydrogels prepared by IPN strategy," Polymer Advan. Technol. 22(9), 1329-1334.
60. Chang, C. Y., Duan, B., Cai, J., and Zhang, L. N. (2010). "Superabsorbent hydrogels based on cellulose for smart swelling and controllable delivery," Eur. Polymer J. 46(1), 92-100.
61. Chang, C. Y., and Zhang, L. N. (2011). "Cellulose-based hydrogels: Present status and application prospects," Carbohydrate Polymers 84(1), 40-53.
62. Chapuis, R. P., and Auberton, M. (2003). "On the use of the Kozeny-Carman equation to predict the hydraulic conductivity of soils," Can. J. Geotech. 40, 616-628.
63. Charreau, H., Foresti, M. L., and Vazquez, A. (2013). "Nanocellulose patents trends: A comprehensive review on patents on cellulose nanocrystals, microfibrillated and bacterial cellulose," Recent Patents Nanotechnol. 7(1), 56-70.
64. Chatterjee, P. K., and Gupta, B. S. (eds.) (2002). Absorbent Technology, Vol. 13 of Textile Science and Technology series, Elsevier, Amsterdam.
65. Chen, X. M., Burger, C., Fang, D. F., Ruan, D., Zhang, L., Hsiao, B. S., and Chu, B. (2006). "X-ray studies of regenerated cellulose fibers wet spun from cotton linter pulp in NaOH/thiourea aqueous solutions," Polymer 47(8), 2839-2848.
66. Chen, Y., Liu, Y. F., and Tan, H. M. (2008). "Preparation of macroporous cellulose-based superabsorbent polymer through the precipitation method," BioResources 3(1), 247-254.
67. Chen, Y., and Tan, H. M. (2006). "Crosslinked carboxymethylchitosan-g-poly(acrylic acid) copolymer as a novel superabsorbent polymer," Carbohyd. Res. 341(7), 887-896.
68. Cheng, Q. Z., Wang, J. X., McNeel, J. F., and Jacobson, P. M. (2010). "Water retention value measurements of cellulosic materials using a centrifuge technique," BioResources 5(3), 1945-1954.
69. Colón, J., Ruggieri, L., Sánchez, A., González, A., and Puig, I. (2011). "Possibilities of composting disposable diapers with municipal solid wastes," Waste Management & Research 29(3), 249-259.
70. Cooke, T. F. (1990), "Biodegradability of polymers and fibers - A review of the literature," J. Polymer Eng. 9(3), 171-211.
71. Cundall, R. B., Lawton, J. F., Murray, D., and Phillips, G. O. (1979). "Polyelectrolyte complexes. 1. The effect of pH and ionic strength on the stoichiometry of model polycation - polyanion complexes," Makromol. Chem. 180, 2913-2922.
72. Dai, Q., and Kadla, J. F. (2009). "Effect of nanofillers on carboxymethyl cellulose/hydroethyl cellulose hydrogels," J. Appl. Polymer Sci. 114(3), 1664-1669.
73. Darcy, H. (1856). Les Fontaines Publiques de la Ville de Dijon, Dalmont, Paris.
74. Demitri, C., Del Sole, R., Scalera, F., Sannino, A., Vasapollo, G., Maffezzoli, A., Ambrosio, L., and Nicolais, L. (2008). "Novel superabsorbent cellulose-based hydrogels crosslinked with citric acid," J. Appl. Polymer Sci. 110(4), 2453-2460.
75. Deo, H. T., and Gotmare, V. D. (1999). "Acrylonitrile monomer grafting on gray cotton to impart high water absorbency," J. Appl. Polymer Sci. 72(7), 887-894.
76. De Oliveira, W., and Glasser, W. G. (1996). "Hydrogels from polysaccharides. I. Cellulose beads for chromatographic support," J. Appl. Polymer Sci. 60(1), 63-73.
77. Dogu, S., Kilic, M., and Okay, O. (2009). "Collapse of acrylamide-based polyampholyte hydrogels in water," J. Appl. Polymer Sci. 113(3), 1375-1382.
78. Dragan, S., and Cristea, M. (2001). "Influence of low-molecular-weight salts on the formation of polyelectrolyte complexes based on polycations with quaternary ammonium salt groups in the main chain and poly(sodium acrylate)," Eur. Polym. J. 37, 1571-1575.
79. Drost-Hansen, W. (1969). "Structure of water near solid interfaces," Ind. Eng. Chem. 61(11), 10-47.
80. Duran, N., Lemes, A. P., and Seabra, A. B. (2012). "Review of cellulose nanocrystals patents: preparation, composites and general applications," Recent Patents Nanotechnol. 6(1), 16-28.
81. Dutkiewicz, J. K. (2002). "Superabsorbent materials from shellfish waste - A review," J. Biomed. Mater. Res. 63(3), 373-381.
82. Edana. (2005). "Sustainability report: Baby diapers and incontinence products," Report 2005. Accessed 6/3/13, http://www.edana.org/docs/default-source/default-document-library/sustainability-report-baby-diapers-and-incontinence-products-2005.pdf?sfvrsn=2.
83. Ehrnrooth, E., Htun, M., and de Ruvo, A. (1977). "Esterification as a means of improving the properties of once-dried fibers," Trans. BPBIF Symp. Fiber-Water Interactions in Papermaking, Oxford, 8899-915.
84. Eklund, D., and Salminen, P. (1987). "Water sorption in paper during short times," Appita 40(5), 340-346.
85. El-Din, H. M. N., Alla, S. G. A., and El-Naggar, A. W. M. (2010). "Swelling and drug release properties of acrylamide/carboxymethyl cellulose networks formed by gamma irradiation," Radiation Physics Chem. 79(6), 725-730.
86. Eldin, M. S. M., El-Sherif, H. M., Soliman, E. A., Elzatahry, A. A., and Omer, A. M. (2011). "Polyacrylamide-grafted carboxymethyl cellulose: Smart pH-sensitive hydrogel for protein concentration," J. Appl. Polymer Sci. 122(1), 469-479.
87. Eldin, M. S. M., Omer, A. M., Soliman, E. A., and Hassan, E. A. (2013). "Super-absorbent polyacrylamide grafted carboxymethyl cellulose pH sensitive hydrogel: 1. Preparation and characterization," Desalination Water Treat. 51(16-18), 3196-3206.
88. El Salmawi, K. M. (2007). "Application of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)/carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) hydrogel produced by conventional crosslinking or by freezing and thawing," J. Macromol. Sci. Pt. A. Pure Appl. Chem. 44(4-6), 619-624.
89. El Salmawi, K. M., and Ibrahim, S. M. (2011). "Characterization of superabsorbent carboxymethylcellulose/clay hydrogel prepared by electron beam irradiation," Macromol. Res. 19(10), 1029-1034.
90. EPA (2012). "The degradable debate," http://www.epa.gov/osw/wycd/catbook/debate.htm. Accessed 6/3/2013.
91. Eriksson, I., Haglind, I., Lidbrandt, O., and Salmén, L. (1991). "Fiber swelling favoured by lignin softening," Wood Sci. Technol. 25, 135-144.
92. Fader, M., Bliss, D., Cottenden, A., Moore, K., and Norton, C. (2010). "Continence products: Research priorities to improve the lives of people with urinary and/or fecal leakage," Neurourology and Unrodynamics 29(4), 640-644.
93. Fält, S., and Wågberg, L. (2003). "Influence of electrolytes on the swelling and strength of kraft-liner pulps," Nordic Pulp Paper Res. J. 18(1), 69-73.
94. Fanta, G. F., Burr, R. C., and Doane, W. M. (1987). "Graft polymerization of acrylonitrile onto wheat straw," J. Appl. Polymer Sci. 33, 899-906.
95. Farag, S., and Al-Afaleq, E. I. (2002). "Preparation and characterization of saponified de-lignified cellulose polyacrylonitrile-graft copolymer," Carbohyd. Polym. 48(1), 1-5.
96. Faroongwarng, E., and Sukonrat, P. (2008). "Thermal behavior of water in the selected starch- and cellulose-based polymeric hydrogels," Intl. J. Pharmaceutics 352(1-2), 152-158.
97. Fatehi, P., Outhouse, K. C., Xiao, H. N., and Ni, Y. H. (2010). "Debonding performance of various cationic surfactants on networks made of bleached kraft fibers," Indust. Eng. Chem. Res. 49(22), 11402-11407.
98. Favier, V., Canova, G. R., Shrivastava, S. C., and Cavaille, J. Y. (1997). "Mechanical percolation in cellulose whisker nanocomposites," Polymer Eng. Sci. 37(10), 1732-1739.
99. Fei, B., Wach, R. W., Mitomo, H., Yoshii, F., and Kume, T. (2000). "Hydrogel of biodegradable cellulose derivatives. I. Radiation-induced crosslinking of CMC," J. Appl. Polymer Sci. 78(2), 278-283.
100. Feng, H., Li, J. A., and Wang, L. J. (2010a). "Preparation of biodegradable flax shive cellulose-based superabsorbent polymer under microwave irradiation," BioResources 5(3), 1484-1495.
101. Feng, X., and Pelton, R. (2007). "Carboxymethyl cellulose:polyvinylamine complex hydrogel swelling," Macromol. 40(5), 1624-1630.
102. Feng, X., Pelton, R., and Leduc, M. (2006). "Mechanical properties of polyelectrolyte complex films based on polyvinylamine and carboxymethyl cellulose," Indust. Eng. Chem. Res. 45(20), 6665-6671.
103. Feng, Y., Xiao, C. F., and Yang, B. C. (2010b). "Studies on a novel polyacrylonitrile copolymer/cellulose acetate blending water absorbency fiber," Fibers Polymers 11(6), 838-842.
104. Fick, A. (1855). "V. On liquid diffusion," The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science 10(63), 30-39.
105. Fink, H. P., Weigl, P., Purz, H. J., and Ganster, J. (2001). "Structure formation of regenerated cellulose materials from NMMO-solution," Prog. Polymer Sci. 26, 1473-1524.
106. Fleer, G. J., Cohen Stuart, M. A., Scheutjens, J. M. H. M., Cosgrove, T., and Vincent, B. (1993). Polymers at Interfaces, Chapman & Hall, London.
107. Flores Gonzales, E. C. (2010). "Nappy or panty liner, contains disposable core made entirely from natural materials," US Pat. 2005222545-A1.
108. Flory, P. J. (1953). Principles of Polymer Chemistry, Cornel Univ. Press, Ithaca, NY.
109. Froix, M. F., and Nelson, R. (1975). "The interaction of water with cellulose from nuclear magnetic resonance relaxation times," Macromol. 8(6), 726-730.
110. Gabrielii, I., and Gatenholm, P. (1998). "Preparation and properties of hydrogels based on hemicellulose," J. Appl. Polymer Sci. 69(8), 1661-1667.
111. Gabrielii, I., Gatenholm, P., Glasser, W. G., Jain, R. K., and Kenne, L. (2000). "Separation, characterization and hydrogel-formation of hemicellulose from aspen wood," Carbohyd. Polym. 43(4), 367-374.
112. Gane, P. A. C., Schoelkopt, J., Gantenbein, D., and Schenker, M. (2012). "Process for production of nano-fibrillar cellulose gels," US Pat. Appl. US2012/0107480A1.
113. Ganji, F., Vasheghani-Farahani, S., and Vasheghani-Farahani, E. (2010). "Theoretical description of hydrogel swelling: A review," Iranian Polymer J. 19(5), 375-398.
114. Gawel, K., Gao, M., and Stokke, B. T. (2012). "Impregnation of weakly charged anionic microhydrogels with cationic polyelectrolytes and their swelling properties monitored by a high resolution interferometric technique. Transformation from a polyelectrolyte to a polyampholyte hydrogel," Eur. Polymer J. 48(11), 1949-1959.
115. Gelin, K., Bodin, A., Gatenholm, P., Mihranyan, A., Edwards, K., and Strømme, M. (2007). "Characterization of water in bacterial cellulose using dielectric spectroscopy and electron microscopy," Polymer 48(26), 7623-7631.
116. Gert, E. V. (1996). "Possibilities of nitric acid preparation of powder cellulose forms," Cellulose 3(4), 217-228.
117. Gigac, J., and Fiserova, M. (2008). "Influence of pulp refining on tissue paper properties," TAPPI J. 7(8), 27-32.
118. Goetz, L. A., Sladky, J. P., and Ragauskas, A. J. (2009). "Analysis of microwave vs. thermally assisted grafting of poly(methyl-vinyl ether co-maleic acid)-polyethylene glycol to birch kraft pulp," Holzforschung 63(4), 414-417.
119. Goetz, L. A., Sladky, J. R., and Ragauskas, A. J. (2011). "Preparation of microwave-assisted polymer-grafted softwood kraft pulp fibers. Enhanced water absorbency," J. Appl. Polymer Sci. 119(1), 387-395.
120. Grignon, J., and Scallan, A. M. (1980). "Effect of pH and neutral salts upon the swelling of cellulose gels," J. Appl. Polymer Sci. 25(12), 2829-2833.
121. Gröndahl, M., Eriksson, L., and Gatenholm, P. (2004). "Material properties of plasticized hardwood xylans for potential application as oxygen barrier films," Biomacromol. 5(4), 1528-1535.
122. Guilherme, M. R., Campese, G. M., Radovanovic, E., Rubira, A. F., Feitosa, J. P. A., and Muniz, E. C. (2005). "Morphology and water affinity of superabsorbent hydrogels composed of methacrylated cashew gum and acrylamide with good mechanical properties," Polymer 46(19), 7867-7873.
123. Gupta, B. S. (1988). "The effect of structural factors on the absorbent characteristics of nonwovens," Tappi J. 71(8), 147-152.
124. Gürdaǧ, G., Güçlü, G., and Özgümüş, S. (2001). "Graft copolymerization of acrylic acid onto cellulose: Effects of pretreatments and crosslinking agent," J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 80(12), 2267-2272.
125. Han, S., Lee, M., and Kim, B. K. (2010). "Cross linking reactions of oxidized cellulose fiber. I. Reactions between dialdehyde cellulose and multifunctional amines on lyocell fabric," J. Appl. Polymer Sci. 117(2), 682-690.
126. Harsh, D. C., and Gehrke, S. H. (1991). "Controlling the swelling characteristics of temperature-sensitive cellulose ether hydrogels," J. Controlled Release 17(2), 175-185.
127. Heiner, A. P., Kuutti, L., and Teleman, O. (1998). "Comparison of the interface between water and four surfaces of native crystalline cellulose by molecular dynamics simulations," Carbohydrate Res. 306(1-2), 205-220.
128. Heiner, A. P., and Teleman, O. (1997). "Interface between monoclinic crystalline cellulose and water: Breakdown of the odd/even duplicity," Langmuir 13(11), 511-518; (26), 7305 (erratum).
129. Hiemenz, P. E. (1977). Principles of Colloid and Surface Chemistry, Marcel Dekker, New York.
130. Herrington, T. M., and Petzold, J. C. (1992). "An investigation into the nature of charge on the surface of papermaking wood pulps. I. Charge/pH isotherms," Colloids Surf. 64(2), 97-108.
131. Higgins, H. G., and McKenzie, A. W. (1963). "The structure and properties of paper. XIV. Effects of drying on cellulose fibers and the problem of maintaining pulp strength," Appita 16(6), 145-164.
132. Hirsh, S. G., and Spontak, R. J. (2002). "Temperature-dependent property development in hydrogels derived from hydroxypropylcellulose," Polymer 43(1), 123-129.
133. Hodgson, K. T., and Berg, J. C. (1988). "The effect of surfactants on wicking flow in fiber networks," J. Colloid Interface Sci. 121(1), 22-31.
134. Hou, Q. X., Liu, W., Liu, Z. H., and Bai, L. L. (2008). "Characteristics of wood cellulose fibers treated with periodate and bisulfite," Indust. Eng. Chem. Res. 46(23), 7830-7837.
135. Hu, S.-H., and Ko, Y. C. (2006). "Method of producing twisted, curly fibers," US. Pat. 6,984,447.
136. Hua, X., Lale, M., and Owston, T. (2011). "Cellulose nanofilaments and method to produce same," US Pat. Appl. 2011/0277947A1.
137. Huang, L. J., Xu, T., Wang, H. T., and Wang, S. F. (2011). "Preparation of super absorbent polymer by carboxymethyl cellulose grafting acrylic acid using low-temperature plasma treatment," Advan. Mater. 239-242, 2578-2583.
138. Hubbe, M. A. (2006). "Sensing the electrokinetic potential of cellulosic fiber surfaces," BioResources 1(1), 116-149.
139. Hubbe, M. A., Chen, H., and Heitmann, J. A. (2009). "Permeability reduction phenomena in packed beds, fiber mats, and wet webs of paper exposed to flow of liquids and suspensions: A review," BioResources 4(1), 405-451.
140. Hubbe, M. A., Hasan, S. H., and Ducoste, J. J. (2011). "Cellulosic substrates for removal of pollutants from aqueous systems: A review. 1. Metals," BioResources 6(2), 2161-2287.
141. Hubbe, M. A., and Heitmann, J. A. (2007). "Review of factors affecting the release of water from cellulosic fibers during paper manufacture," BioResources 2(3), 500-533.
142. Hubbe, M. A., and Panczyk, M. (2007a). "Dewatering of refined, bleached hardwood kraft pulp by gravity, vacuum, and centrifugation with applied pressure. Part 1. Physical and ionic effects," O Papel 68(10), 74-87.
143. Hubbe, M. A., and Panczyk, M. (2007b). "Dewatering of refined, bleached hardwood kraft pulp by gravity, vacuum, and centrifugation with applied pressure. Part 2. Effects of wet-end additives," O Papel 68(10), 88-100.
144. Hubbe, M. A., Rojas, O. J., Lucia, L. A., and Jung, T. M. (2007a). "Consequences of the nanoporosity of cellulosic fibers on their streaming potential and their interactions with cationic polyelectrolytes," Cellulose 14(6), 655-671.
145. Hubbe, M. A., Rojas, O. J., Lucia, L. A., and Sain, M. (2008). "Cellulosic nanocomposites: A review," BioResources 3(3), 929-980.
146. Hubbe, M. A., Venditti, R. A., and Rojas, O. J. (2007b). "What happens to cellulosic fibers during papermaking and recycling? A review," BioRes. 2(4), 739-788.
147. Hult, E.-L., Larsson, P. T., and Iversen, T. (2001). "Cellulose fibril aggregation - An inherent property of kraft pulps," Polymer 42(8), 3309-3314.
148. Ibrahim, M. M., and El-Zawawy, W. K. (2004). "Preparation, characterization, and properties of fast-responding bulk hydrogel and treated bleached banana pulp," Polymers for Advanced Technologies 15(5), 275-283.
149. Ibrahim, S. M., El Salmawi, K. M., and Zahran, A. H. (2007). "Synthesis of crosslinked superabsorbent carboxymethyl cellulose/acrylamide hydrogels through electron-beam irradiation," J. Appl. Polymer Sci. 104(3), 2003-2008.
150. Ingmanson, W. L. (1952). "An investigation of the mechanisms of water removal from pulp slurries," Tappi 35(10), 439-448.
151. Ingmanson, W. L. (1953). "Filtration resistance of compressible materials," Chem. Eng. Progr. 49(11), 577-584.
152. Jain, V., and Ni, Y. H. (2008). "Alkaline hydrolysis of methyl acrylate grafted cellulose fibers," J. Appl. Polymer Sci. 107(6), 3885-3890.
153. Jain, V., Xiao, H. N., and Ni, Y. H. (2007). "Grafting of poly(methyl acrylate) onto sulfite pulp fibers and its effect on water absorbance," J. Appl. Polymer Sci. 105(6), 3195-3203.
154. Jayme, G., and Büttel, H. (1964). "Die Abhängigkeit des Wasserrückhaltevermögens (WRV-Wert) verschiedener gebleichter und ungebleichter Zellstoffe," Wochenbl. Papierfabr. 92(23-24), 718-727.
155. Jeong, B., and Gutpwska, A. (2002). "Lessons from nature: Stimuli-responsive polymers and their biomedical applications," Trends in Biotechnology 20(7), 305-311.
156. Jerkeman, P. (1970). "Cellulose fibers as water-absorbent material," Svensk Papperstidn. - Nordiska Cellulosa 73(2), 37-38.
157. Johnson, B. N. (1994). "Inventory of land management inputs for producing absorbent fiber for diapers: A comparison of cotton and softwood land management," Forest Products Journal 44(6), 39-45.
158. Joshi, S. C., Liang, C. M., and Lam, Y. C. (2008). "Effect of solvent state and isothermal conditions on gelation of methylcellulose hydrogels," J. Biomater. Sci.: Polymer Edn. 19(12), 1611-1623.
159. Joubert, J. M., Kirge, G. J. R., and Borgin, K. (1959). "Evidence for a hydrate of cellulose from studies of its surface properties," Nature 184(4698), 1561-1562.
160. Kabiri, K., Omidian, H., Zohuriaan-Mehr, M. J., and Doroudiani, S. (2011). "Superabsorbent hydrogel composites and nanocomposites: A review," Polymer Compos. 32(2), 277-289.
161. Kabra, B. G., and Gehrke, S. H. (1994). "Rate-limiting steps for solvent sorption and desorption by microporous stimuli-sensitive absorbent gels," In: Superabsorbent Polymers: Science and Technology, Buchholz, F. L., and Peppas, N. A. (eds.), ACS Symp. Ser., Vol. 573, 76-86.
162. Kabra, B., Gehrke, S., and Spontak, R. (1998). "Microporous responsive hydroxypropyl cellulose gels. 1. Synthesis and microstructure," Macromol. 31(7), 2166-2173.
163. Karaaslan, A. M., Tshabalala, M. A., and Buschle-Diller, G. (2010). "Wood hemicellulose/chitosan-based semi-interpenetrating network hydrogels: Mechanical, swelling and controlled drug release properties," BioResources 5(2), 1036-1054.
164. Karaaslan, M. A., Tshabalala, M. A., and Buschle-Diller, G. (2012). "Semi-interpenetrating polymer network hydrogels based on aspen hemicellulose and chitosan: Effect of crosslinking sequence on hydrogel properties," J. Appl. Polymer Sci. 124(2), 1168-1177.
165. Karaaslan, M. A., Tshabalala, M. A., Yelle, D. J., and Buschle-Diller, G. (2011). "Nanoreinforced biocompatible hydrogels from wood hemicelluloses and cellulose whiskers," Carbohydrate Polymers 86(1), 192-201.
166. Kazanskii, K. S., and Dubrovskii, S. A. (1992). "Chemistry and physics of agricultural hydrogels," Advan. Polymer Sci. 104, 97-133.
167. Kettunen, M., Silvennoinen, R. J., Houbenov, N., Nykanen, A., Ruokolainen, J., Sainio, J., Pore, V., Kemell, M., Ankerfors, M., Lindstrom, T., Ritala, M., Ras, R. H. A., and Ikkala, O. (2011). "Photoswitchable superabsorbency based on nanocellulose aerogels," Advan. Functional Mater. 21(3), 510-517.
168. Kim, B. S., and Mun, S. P. (2009). "Effect of Ce4+ pretreatment on swelling properties of cellulosic superabsorbents," Polymers for Advanced Technologies 20(12), 899-906.
169. Kim, U., and Kuga, S. (2002). "Functionalization of cellulose by periodate oxidation," Cell Commun. 56(1), 7-10.
170. Klemm, D., Kramer, F., Moritz, S., Lindström, T., Ankerfors, M., Gray, D., and Dorris, A. (2011). "Nanocelluloses: A new family of nature-based materials," Angew. Chem. Intl. Ed. 50(24), 5438-5466.
171. Klungness, J. H., and Caulfield, D. F. (1982). "Mechanisms affecting fiber bonding during drying and aging of pulps," Tappi J. 65(12), 94-97.
172. Knudson, M. I. (1993). "Bentonite in paper: The rest of the story," TAPPI Papermakers Conf., TAPPI Press, Atlanta, 141-150.
173. Kocherbitov, V., Ulvenlund, S., Kober, M., Jarring, K., and Arnebrant, T. (2008). "Hydration of microcrystalline cellulose and milled cellulose studied by sorption calorimetry," J. Phys. Chem. B 112(12), 3728-3734.
174. Kondo, T., Koschella, A., Heublein, B., Klemm, D., and Heinze, T. (2008). "Hydrogen bond formation in regioselectively functionalized 3-mono-O-methyl cellulose," Carbohydr. Res. 343(15), 2600-2604.
175. Kono, H., and Fujita, S. (2012). "Biodegradable superabsorbent hydrogels derived from cellulose by esterification crosslinking with 1,2,3,4-butanetetracarboxylic dianhydride," Carbohydr. Polymers 87(4), 2582-2588.
176. Kono, H., Fujita, S., and Oeda, I. (2013). "Comparative study of homogeneous solvents for the esterification crosslinking of cellulose with 1,2,3,4-butanetetracarboxylic dianhydride and water absorbency of the reaction products," J. Appl. Polymer Sci. 127(1), 478-486.
177. Kono, H., and Zakimi, M. (2013). "Preparation, water absorbency, and enzyme degradability of novel chitin- and cellulose/chitin-based superabsorbent hydrogels," J. Appl. Polymer Sci. 128(1), 572-581.
178. Koroskenyi, B., and McCarthy, S. P. (2001). "Synthesis of acetylated konjac glucomannan and effect of degree of acetylation on water absorbency," Biomacromol. 2(3), 824-826.
179. Kosemund, K., Schlatter, H., Ochsenhirt, J. L., Krause, E. L., Marsman, D. S., and Erasala, G. N. (2009). "Safety evaluation of superabsorbent baby diapers," Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 53(2), 81-89.
180. Kozeny, J. (1927). "About capillaries conducting water in the earth," Sitzber. Akd. Wiss. Wien, Math. Naurv. Kasse 136(Abl. 2a), 271-306.
181. Kulicke, W. M., and Nottelmann, H. (1989). "Structure and swelling of some synthetic, semisynthetic, and biopolymer hydrogels," Adv. Chem. Ser. 223, 15-44.
182. Kumar, J., Balomajumder, C., and Mondal, P. (2011). "Application of agro-based biomasses for zinc removal from wastewater - A review," Clean - Soil Air Water 39(7), 641-652.
183. Kuwabara, S., and Kubota, H. (1996). "Water-absorbing characteristics of acrylic acid-grafted carboxymethyl cellulose synthesized by photografting," J. Appl. Polymer Sci. 60(11), 1965-1970.
184. Laftah, W. A., Hashim, S., and Ibrahim, A. N. (2011). "Polymer hydrogels: A review," Polymer-Plastics Technol. Eng. 50(14), 1475-1486.
185. Laine, J., and Stenius, P. (1997). "Effect of charge on the fibre and paper properties of bleached industrial kraft pulps," Paperi Puu- Paper Timber 79(4), 257-266.
186. Larsson, M., Stading, M., and Larsson, A. (2010). "High performance polysodium acrylate superabsorbents utilizing microfibrillated cellulose to augment gel properties," Soft Mater. 8(3), 207-225.
187. Larsson, M., Zhou, Q., and Larsson, A. (2011). "Different types of microfibrillated cellulose as filler materials in polysodium acrylate superabsorbents," Chinese J. Polymer Sci. 29(4), 407-413.
188. Leks-Stepien, J., and Khadzhynova, S. (2005). "Effect of wetting solution components on the rate of penetration into offset paper," Przeglad Papierniczy 61(6), 337-340.
189. Lepoutre, P., Hui, S. H., and Robertson, A. A. (1973). "Water absorbency of hydrolyzed polyacrylonitrile-grafted cellulose fibers," J. Appl. Polymer Sci. 17(10), 3143-3156.
190. Levi Strauss & Co. (2009). "A Product Life Cycle Approach to Sustainability," Report, accessed 6/3/13, http://www.levistrauss.com/sites/default/files/librarydocument/2010/4/Product_Lifecyle_Assessment.pdf.
191. Levis, J. W., and Barlaz, M. A. (2011). "Is biodegradability a desirable attribute for discarded solid waste? Perspectives from a national landfill greenhouse gas inventory model," Environmental Science & Technology 45(13), 5470-5476.
192. Li, D., Zhang, X. Y., Simon, G. P., and Wang, H. T. (2013). "Forward osmosis desalination using polymer hydrogels as a draw agent: Influence of draw agent, feel solution and membrane on process performance," Water Res. 47(1), 209-215.
193. Li, H., Liu, H., Fu, S. Y., and Zhan, H. Y. (2011). "Surface hydrophobicity modification of cellulose fibers by layer-by-layer self-assembly of lignosulfonates," BioResources 6(2), 1681-1695.
194. Li, Q., Ma, Z. H., Yue, Q. Y., Gao, B. Y., Li, W. H., and Xu, X. (2012). "Synthesis, characterization and swelling behavior of superabsorbent wheat straw graft copolymers," Bioresour. Technol. 118, 204-209.
195. Li, S., and Dai, H. (2004). "The influences of inorganic salts on WRV of papermaking stock," Proc. 2nd Intl. Symp. Techol. Pulping Papermaking Biotech. Fiber Plants (2nd ISTPPBFP), Nanjing Forestry Univ., Oct. 13-14, 434-437.
196. Li, Y., and Tanaka, T. (1990). "Kinetics of swelling and shrinkage of gels," J. Chem. Phys. 92, 1365-1371.
197. Liang, R., Yuan, H. B., Xi, G. X., and Zhou, Q. X. (2009). "Synthesis of wheat straw-g- poly(acrylic acid) superabsorbent composites and release of urea from it," Carbohydrate Polymers 77(2), 181-187.
198. Liang, X. T., Huang, Z. Q., Zhang, Y. J., Hu, H. Y., and Liu, Z. J. (2013). "Synthesis and properties of novel superabsorbent hydrogels with mechanically activated sugarcane bagasse and acrylic acid," Polymer Bull. 70(6), 1781-1794.
199. Lim, D. W., Whang, H. S., Yoon, K. J., and Ko, S. W. (2001). "Synthesis and absorbency of a superabsorbent from sodium starch sulfate-g-polyacrylonitrile," J. Appl. Polymer Sci. 79(8), 1423-1430.
200. Lim, K. Y., Yoon, K. J., and Kim, B. C. (2003). "Highly absorbable lyocell fiber spun from celluloses/hydrolyzed starch-g-PAN solution in NMMO monohydrate," Eur. Polymer J. 39(11), 2115-2120.
201. Lin, C. X., Zhan, H. Y., Liu, M. H., Fu, S. Y., and Huang, L. H. (2010). "Rapid homogeneous preparation of cellulose graft copolymer in BMIMCL under microwave irradiation," J. Appl. Polymer Sci. 118(1), 399-404.
202. Lindström, T., and Carlsson, G. (1982). "The effect of carboxyl groups and their ionic form during drying on the hornification of cellulose fibers," Svensk Papperstidn. 85(15), R146-R151.
203. Lionetto, F., Sannino, A., and Maffezzoli, A. (2005). "Ultrasonic monitoring of the network formation in superabsorbent cellulose based hydrogels," Polymer 46(6), 1796-1803.
204. Lionetto, F., Sannino, A., Mensitieri, G., and Maffezzoli, A. (2003). "Evaluation of the degree of cross-linking of cellulose-based superabsorbent hydrogels: A comparison between different techniques," Macromol. Symp. 200, 199-207.
205. Liu, J., Li, Q., Su, Y., Yue, Q. Y., Gao, B. Y., and Wang, R. (2013). "Synthesis of wheat straw cellulose-g-poly (potassium acrylate)/PVA semi-IPNs superabsorbent resin," Carbohydr. Polym. 94(1), 539-546.
206. Liu, P., Peng, J., Li, J., and Wu, J. (2005a). "Radiation crosslinking of CMC-Na at low dose and its application as substitute for hydrogel," Radiat. Phys. Chem. 72(5), 635-638.
207. Liu, P., Zhai, M., Li, J., Peng, J., and Wu, J. (2002). "Radiation preparation and swelling behavior of sodium carboxymethylcellulose hydrogels," Radiat. Phys. Chem. 63(3-6), 525-528.
208. Liu, Q., Wang, X., and Kee, D. D. (2005b). "Mass transport through swelling membranes," Intl. J. Eng. Sci. 43, 1464-1470.
209. Liu, Q. X., Xu, W. C., Lv, Y. B., and Li, J. L. (2011). "Preparation and properties studies of cellulose super absorbent polymer," Advanced Textile Materials, Book Ser.: Advanced Materials Research, Vol 332-334, 1816-1819.
210. Liu, W., Zhang, B., Lu, W., Li, X., Zhu, D., Yao, K., Wang, Q., Zhao, C., and Wang, C. (2004). "A rapid temperature-responsive sol-gel reversible poly(N-isopropylacryl-amide)-g-methylcellulose copolymer hydrogel," Biomater. 25(15), 3005-3012.
211. Liu, Z. X., Miao, Y. G., Wang, Z. Y., and Yin, G. H. (2009). "Synthesis and characterization of a novel super-absorbent based on chemically modified pulverized wheat straw and acrylic acid," Carbohydrate Polymer 77(1), 131-135.
212. Loh, W. (2002). "Block copolymer micelles," Encyclopedia of Surface and Colloid Science, Markcel Dekker, New York.
213. Lokhande, H. T., and Gotmare, V. D. (1999). "Utilization of textile loom waste as a highly absorbent polymer through graft co-polymerization," Bioresour. Technol. 68(3), 283-286.
214. Lokhande, H. T., and Varadarajan, P. V. (1993). "A new approach in the production of non-wood-based cellulosic superabsorbents through the PAN grafting method," Bioresour. Technol. 45(3), 161-165.
215. Loria-Bastarrachea, M. I., Carrillo-Escalante, H. J., and Aguilar-Vega, M. J. (2002). "Grafting of poly(acrylic acid) onto cellulosic microfibers and continuous cellulose filaments and characterization," J. Appl. Polymer Sci. 83(2), 386-393.
216. Lowe, R. M., Page, D. H., Waterhouse, J. F., Hsieh, J., Cheluka, N., and Ragauskas, A. J. (2007). "Deformation behavior of wet lignocellulosic fibers," Holzforschung 61(3), 261-266.
217. Lu, G. D., Yan, Q. Z., Su, X. T., Liu, Z. Q., and Ge, C. C. (2007). "Progress of porous hydrogels," Prog. Chem. 19(4), 485-493.
218. Lucas, R. (1918). "Rate of capillary ascension of liquids," Kolloid Z. 23, 15-22.
219. Lund, K., de al Motte, H., Brelid, H., Westman, G., and Hanson, C. (2011). "Diepoxide treatment of softwood kraft pulp: Influence on absorption properties of fibre networks," Cellulose 18(5), 1365-1375.
220. Lund, K., Sjöström, K., and Brelid, H. (2012). "Alkali extraction of kraft pulp fibers: Influence on fibre and fluffpulp properties," J. Eng. Fiber Fabr. 7(2), 30-39.
221. Lyne, M. B., and Aspler, J. S. (1982). "Wetting and the sorption of water by paper under dynamic conditions," Tappi J. 65(12), 98-101.
222. Ma, J., Xu, Y., Zhang, Q., Zha, L., and Liang, B. (2007). "Preparation and characterization of pH- and temperature-responsive semi-IPN hydrogels of carboxymethyl chitosan with poly-(N-isopropyl acrylamide) crosslinking by clay," Colloid Polym. Sci. 28, 479-484.
223. Macaulay, M., Clarke-ONeill, S., Fader, M., Pettersson, L., and Cottenden, A. (2004). "Are washable absorbents effective at containing urinary incontinence?," Nursing Times 100(12), 58-62.
224. Maloney, T. C., Paulapuro, H., and Stenius, H. (1998). "Hydration and swelling of pulp fibers measured with differential scanning calorimetry," Nordic Pulp Paper Res. J. 13(1), 31-36.
225. Mann, R. L., and Leah, P. J. (1987). "Fluffpulp and debonding agents," Paper Southern Africa 7(6), 41-42.
226. Marci, G., Mele, G., Palmisano, L., Pulito, P., and Sannino, A. (2006). "Environmentally sustainable production of cellulose-based superabsorbent hydrogels," Green Chem. 8(5), 439-444.
227. Masoodi, R., and Pillai, K. M. (2010). "Darcy's law-based model for wicking in paper-like swelling porous media," AIChE J. 56(9), 2257-2267.
228. Masoodi, R., Tan, H., and Pillai, K. M. (2012). "Numerical simulation of liquid absorption in paper-like swelling porous media," AIChE J. 58(8), 2536-2544.
229. Matushek, M. (2008). The History of Super Absorbent Chemistry, M2 Polymer Technologies, Inc.
230. Meena, R., Lehnen, R., Schmitt, U., and Saake, B. (2011). "Effect of oat spelt and beech xylan on the gelling properties of kappa-carrageenan hydrogels," Carbohydrate Polymers 85(3), 529-540.
231. Michaels, A.S. (1965). "Polyelectrolyte complexes," Indust. Eng. Chem. 57(10), 32-40.
232. Michaels, A. S., Mir, L., and Schneider, N. S. (1965). "A conductometric study of polycation-polyanion reactions in dilute aqueous solution," J. Phys. Chem. 69(5), 1447-1455.
233. Mirabella, N., Castellani, V., and Sala, S. (2013). "Life cycle assessment of bio-based products: A disposable diaper case study," The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment 18, 1036-1047.
234. Miyamoto, T., Long, M., and Donkai, N. (1995). "Preparation of new types of temperature-responsive cellulose derivatives," Macromol. Symp. 99, 141-147.
235. Mizutani, C., Inagaki, H., and Bertoniere, N. R. (1999). "Water absorbancy of never-dried cotton fibers," Cellulose 6(2), 167-176.
236. Moss, P. A., and Pere, J. (2006). "Microscopical study on the effects of partial removal of xylan on the swelling properties of birch kraft pulp fibres," Nordic Pulp Paper Res. J. 21(1), 8-12.
237. Myung, D., Waters, D., Wiseman, M., Duhamel, P.-E., Noolandi, J., Ta, C. N., and Frank, C. W. (2008). "Progress in the development of interpenetrating polymer network hydrogels," Polymers. Advan. Technol. 19(6), 647-657.
238. Nagorski, H. (1994). "Characterization of a new superabsorbent polymer generation," In: Superabsorbent Polymers: Science and Technology, Buchholz, F. L., and Peppas, N. A. (eds.), ACS Symposium Series, Vol. 573, pp. 99-111.
239. Neumann, P., Blizzard, L., Grimmer, K., and Grant, R. (2004). "Expanded paper towel test: An objective test of urine loss for stress incontinence," Neurourology Urodynamics 23(7), 649-655.
240. Nishio, Y., and Manley, R. (1988). "Cellulose-poly(vinyl alcohol) blends prepared from solutions in N, N-dimethylacetamide-lithium chloride," Macromol. 21(5), 1270-1277.
241. Obataya, E., Shibutani, S., and Minato, K. (2007). "Swelling of acetylated wood II: Effects of delignification on solvent adsorption of acetylated wood," J. Wood Sci. 53(5), 408-411.
242. O'Brien, K., Olive, R., Hsu, Y. C., Morris, L., Bell, R., and Kendall, N. (2009). "Life cycle assessment: Reusable and disposable nappies in Australia," ALCAS-Australian Life Cycle Assessment Society, downloaded July 2013, s3.amazonaws.com/zanranstorage/www.crdc.com.au/./44777470.pdf
243. Olive, R. (2004). "A life cycle analysis of disposable, reusable and compostable nappies under Brisbane conditions," Dept. of Chemical Engineering, University of Queensland.
244. Oliveira, V. A., Veloso, T. C., Leao, V. A., dos Santos, C. G., and Botaro, V. R. (2013). "Hydrogels of cellulose acetate crosslinked with pyromellitic dianhydride - Part 1: Synthesis and swelling kinetics," Quimica Nova 36(1), 102-106.
245. Omidian, H., Hashemi, S. A., Sammes, P. G., and Meldrum, I. G. (1998). "A model for the swelling of superabsorbent polymers," Polymer 39, 6697-6704.
246. Omidian, H., Rocca, J. G., and Park, K. (2005). "Advances in superporous hydrogels," J. Controlled Release 102(1), 3-12.
247. Oppermann, W. (1995). "Superabsorbent materials based on cellulose," Papier 49(12), 765-769.
248. Pääkkö, M., Vapaavuori, J., Silvennoinen, R., Kosonen, H., Ankerfors, M., Lindström, T., Berglund, L. A., and Ikkala, O. (2008). "Long and entangled native cellulose I nanofibers allow flexible aerogels and hierarchically porous templates for functionalities," Soft Matter 4, 2492-2499.
249. Page, D. H. (1969). "A theory for the tensile strength of paper," Tappi 52(4), 674-681.
250. Pan, S. B., and Ragauskas, A. J. (2012). "Preparation of superabsorbent cellulosic hydrogels," Carbohydr. Polymers 87(2), 1410-1418.
251. Pan, Y.-L., Kuga, S., and Usuda, M. (1988). "Ultrasonic technique to study wetting and liquid penetration of paper," TAPPI J. 71(5), 119-123.
252. Pandey, J. K., Nakagaito, A. N., and Takagi, H. (2013). "Fabrication and applications of cellulose nanoparticle-based polymer composites," Polymer Eng. Sci. 53(1), 1-8.
253. Parham, R., and Hergert, H. (1980). "Fluffpulp: A review of its development and current technology," Pulp Paper 54(3), 110-115, 121.
254. Park, S., Venditti, R. A., Jameel, H., and Pawlak, J. J. (2006). "Changes in pore size distribution during the drying of cellulose fibers as measured by differential scanning calorimetry," Carbohydr. Polym. 66(1), 97-103.
255. Park, S., Venditti, R. A., Jameel, H., and Pawlak, J. J. (2007). "Studies of the heat of vaporization of water associated with cellulose fibers characterized by thermal analysis," Cellulose 14, 195-204.
256. Paula, H. C. B., Gomes, F. J. S., and de Paula, R. C. M. (2002). "Swelling studies of chitosan/cashew nut gum physical gels," Carbohydr. Polym. 48, 313-318.
257. Payne, K. C., Jackson, C. D., Aizpurua, C. E., Rojas, O. J., and Hubbe, M. A. (2012). "Oil spill abatement: Factors affecting oil uptake by cellulosic fibers," Environ. Sci. Technol. 46(14), 7725-2230.
258. Peng, X. W., Ren, J. L., Zhong, L. X., Peng, F., and Sun, R. C. (2011). "Xylan-rich hemicelluloses-graft-acrylic acid ionic hydrogels with rapid responses to pH, salt, and organic solvents," J. Agricul. Food Chem. 59(15), 8208-8215.
259. Peppas, N. A., and Hariharan, D. (1994). "Dynamic swelling of ionic networks. Application to behavior of dry superabsorbents," In: Superabsorbent Polymers Science and Technology, Buchholz, F. L., and Peppas, N. A. (eds.), ACS Symp. Ser. 573, Amer. Chem. Soc., Washington, DC.
260. Peppas, N. A., and Sahlin, J. J. (1989). "A simple equation for the description of solute release. III. Coupling of diffusion and relaxation," Int. J. Pharm. 57, 169-172.
261. Peura, M., Karppinen, T., Soovre, A., Salmi, A., Tenkanen, M., Haeggstrom, E., and Serimaa, R. (2008). "Crystallization and shear modulus of a forming biopolymer film determined by in situ x-ray diffraction and ultrasound reflection methods," J. Appl. Physics 104(2), article no. 023513; DOI: 10.1063/1.2951451.
262. Poffenberger, C., Deac, Y., and Zeman, W. (2000). "Novel hydrophilic softeners for tissue and towel applications," TAPPI Papermakers Conf. & Trade Fair, TAPPI Press, Atlanta, 85-93.
263. Pohjanlehto, H., Setala, H., Kammiovirta, K., and Harlin, A. (2011). "The use of N, N '-diallylaldardiamides as cross-linkers in xylan derivatives-based hydrogels," Carbohydrate Res. 346(17), 2736-2745.
264. Pönni, R., Vuorinen, T., and Kontturi, E. (2012). "Proposed nano-scale coalescence of cellulose pulp fibers during technical treatments," BioResources 7(4), 6077-6108.
265. Pourjavadi, A., Amini-Fazl, M. S., and Ayyari, M. (2007a). "Optimization of synthetic conditions CMC-g-poly (acrylic acid)/celite composite superabsorbent by Taguchi method and determination of its absorbency under load," Expr. Polymer Lett. 1(8), 488-494.
266. Pourjavadi, A., and Ghasemzadeh, H. (2006). "CMC-g-poly (sodium acrylate)/kaolin superabsorbent hydrogel composites: Synthesis, characterization and swelling behavior," Polymers Polymer Compos. 14(7), 701-712.
267. Pourjavadi, A., Ghasemzadeh, H., and Mojahedi, F. (2009). "Swelling properties of CMC-g-poly (AAm-co-AMPS) superabsorbent hydrogel," J. Appl. Polymer Sci. 113(6), 3442-3449.
268. Pourjavadi, A., and Mahdavinia, G. R. (2005). "Superabsorbency and swelling behaviour of partially hydrolyzed carboxymethylcellulose-g-PAAm hydrogels," J. Polymer Mater. 22(3), 235-243.
269. Pourjavadi, A., Seidi, F., Salimi, H., and Soleyman, R. (2008.). "Grafted CMC/silica gel superabsorbent composite: Synthesis and investigation of swelling behavior in various media," J. Appl. Polymer Sci. 108(5), 3281-3290.
270. Pourjavadi, A., Soleyman, R., Ghasemzadeh, H., and Salimi, H. (2010). "CMC/celite superabsorbent composites: Effect of reaction variables on saline-absorbency under load," Iranian Polymer J. 19(8), 571-579.
271. Pourjavadi, A., Zohuriaan-Mehr, M. J., Ghasernpoori, S. N., and Hossienzadeh, H. (2007b). "Modified CMC. V. Synthesis and super-swelling behavior of hydrolyzed CMC-g-PAN hydrogel," J. Appl. Polymer Sci. 103(2), 877-883.
272. Pramanick, A. K., and Crouse, B. W. (1998). "Application of deep grooved polyester fiber in composite high absorbent paper," TAPPI Nonwovens Conf. Trade Fair, Petersburg, FL, 211-228.
273. Proctor, H. R. (1914). "The equilibrium of dilute hydrochloric acid and gelatin," J. Chem. Soc. (London) 105, 313-327.
274. Quddus, M. A. A. R., Rojas, O. J., and Pasquinelli, M. A. (submitted). "Molecular dynamics simulations of the thermal stability of crystalline cellulose surfaces coated with oleic acid," Functional Materials from Renewable Resources, ACS Symp. Ser. 1107, 191-208;
275. Quddus, M. "A systematic study of fatty acids interacting with crystalline cellulose surfaces via molecular dynamic simulations," Doctoral dissertation, NC State Univ., Depts. of Fiber and Polymer Sci. and Forest Biomaterials, 2011.
276. Raafat, A. I., Eid, M., and El-Arnaouty, M. B. (2012). "Radiation synthesis of superabsorbent CMC based hydrogels for agriculture applications," Nucl. Intrum. Methods Phys. Res. Sec. B - Beam Interac. Mater. Atoms 283, 71-76.
277. Rajagopa, K. R. (2003). "Diffusion through polymeric solids undergoing large deformation," Mater. Sci. Technol. 19, 1175-1180.
278. Rezai, E., and Warner, R. R. (1997). "Polymer-grafted cellulose fibers. 1. Enhanced water absorbency and tensile strength," J. Appl. Polymer Sci. 65(8), 1463-1469.
279. Rodriguez, R., Alvarez-Lorenzo, C., and Concheiro, A. (2003). "Cationic cellulose hydrogels: Kinetics of the cross-linking process and characterization as pH/ion-selective drug delivery systems," J. Control Release 86(2-3), 253-265.
280. Roy, N., Saha, N., Kitano, T., and Saha, P. (2010). "Novel hydrogels of PVP-CMC and their swelling effect on viscoelastic properties," J. Appl. Polymer Sci. 117(3), 1703-1710.
281. Rudie, A. W., Ball, A., and Patel, N. (2006). "Ion exchange of H+, Na+, Mg2+, Ca2+, Mn2+, and Ba2+ on wood pulp," J. Wood Chem. Technol. 26(3), 259-272.
282. Sahoo, P. K., Mohapatra, R., Sahoo, A., DebSarkar, N., and Swain, S. K. (2005). "Characterization, biodegradation, and water absorbency of chemically modified tossa variety jute fiber via pulping and grafting with acrylamide," Intl. J. Polymer Anal. Charact. 10(3-4), 153-167.
283. Saito, H., Sakaurai, A., Sakakibara, M., and Saga, H. (2003). "Preparation and properties of transparent hydrogels," J. Appl. Polymer Sci. 90(11), 3020-3025.
284. Saito, N., Aoyama, M., Shimizu, Y., Takai, M., and Hayashi, J. (1995). "Super absorbent materials prepared from lignocellulosic materials by phosphorylation. 7. Characteristics of water absorbencies and alkaline treatments," Mokuzai Gakkaishi 41(2), 179-185.
285. Saito, N., Shimizu, Y., Takai, M., and Hayashi, J. (1994a). "Super absorbent materials prepared from lignocellulosic materials by phosphorylation. 4. Fine-structure and water absorbency," Mokuzai Gakkaishi 40(9), 937-942.
286. Saito, N., Shimizu, Y., Takai, M., and Hayashi, J. (1994b). "Super absorbent materials prepared from lignocellulosic materials by phosphorylation. 5. Crystalline-structure and water absorbency," Mokuzai Gakkaishi 40(11), 1200-1207.
287. Salam, A., Pawlak, J. J., Venditti, R. A., and El-Tahlawy, K. (2011a). "Incorporation of carboxyl groups into xylan for improved absorbency," Cellulose 18(4), 1033-1041.
288. Salam, A., Venditti, R. A., Pawlak, J. J., and El-Tahlawy, K. (2011b). "Crosslinked hemicellulose citrate-chitosan aerogel foams," Carbohyd. Polymers 84(4), 1221-1229.
289. Salimi, H., Pourjavadi, A., Seidi, F., Jahromi, P. E., and Soleyman, R. (2010). "New smart carrageenan-based superabsorbent hydrogel hybrid: Investigation of swelling rate and environmental responsiveness," J. Appl. Polymer Sci. 117(6), 3228-3238.
290. Sammon, C., Bajwa, G., Timmins, P., and Melia, C. D. (2006). "The application of attenuated total reflection Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy to monitor the concentration and state of water in solution of a thermally responsive cellulose ether during gelation," Polymer 47(2), 577-584.
291. Sannino, A., Demitri, C., and Madaghiele, M. (2009). "Biodegradable cellulose-based hydrogels: Design and applications," Materials 2(2), 353-373.
292. Sannino, A., Madaghiele, M., Conversano, F., Mele, G., Maffezzoli, A., Netti, P. A., Ambrosio, L., and Nicolais, L. (2004a). "Cellulose derivative-hyaluronic acid-based microporous hydrogels cross-linked through divinyl sulfone (DVS) to modulate equilibrium sorption capacity and network stability," Biomacromol. 5(1), 92-96.
293. Sannino, A., Maffezzoli, A., and Nicolais, L. (2003). "Introduction of molecular spacers between the crosslinks of a cellulose-based superabsorbent hydrogel: Effects on the equilibrium sorption properties," J. Appl. Polymer Sci. 90(1), 168-174.
294. Sannino, A., Mensitieri, G., and Nicolais, L. (2004b). "Water and synthetic urine sorption capacity of cellulose-based hydrogels under a compressive stress field," J. Appl. Polymer Sci. 91(6), 3791-3796.
295. Sannino, A., and Nicolais, L. (2005). "Concurrent effect of microporosity and chemical structure on the equilibrium sorption properties of cellulose-based hydrogels," Polymer 46(13), 4676-4685.
296. Scallan, A. M. (1983). "The effect of acid groups on the swelling of pulps: A review," TAPPI J. 66(11), 73-75.
297. Scallan, A. M., and Carles, J. E. (1972). "The correlation of the water retention value with the fibre saturation point," Svensk Papperstidn. 75, 699-703.
298. Scallan, A. M., and Tigerström, A. (1992). "Swelling and elasticity of the cell walls of pulp fibers," J. Pulp Paper Sci. 18(5), J188-J193.
299. SCAN (2000). "Water retention value," SCAN-C 62:00, Scandinavian Pulp, Paper and Board Testing Committee.
300. Schexnailder, P., and Schmidt, G. (2009). "Nanocomposite polymer hydrogels," Colloid Polymer Sci. 287(1), 1-11.
301. Schmaljohann, D. (2006). "Thermo- and pH-responsive polymers in drug delivery," Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews 58, 1655-1670.
302. Schuchardt, D. R., and Berg, J. C. (1991). "Liquid transport in composite cellulose-superabsorbent fiber networks," Wood Fiber Sci. 23(3), 342-357.
303. Schuster, K. C., Suchomel, F., Manner, J., Abu-Rous, M., and Firgo, H. (2006). "Functional and comfort properties of textiles from TENCEL ® fibres resulting from the fibres' water-absorbing nanostructure: A review," Macromol. Symp. 244, 149-165.
304. Sehaqui, H., Salajková, M., Zhou, Q., and Berglund, L. (2010). "Mechanical performance tailoring of tough ultra-high porosity foams prepared from cellulose I nanofiber suspensions," Soft Matter 6, 1824-1832.
305. Sehaqui, H., Zhou, Q., and Berglund, L. (2011). "High porosity aerogels of high specific surface area prepared from nanofibrillated cellulose (NFC)," Compos. Sci. Technol. 71(13), 1593-1599.
306. Sen, S. K., Baheti, V. K., Venditti, R. A., Pawlak, J. J., Park, S., and Bansal, M. C. (2012). "Cellulose microfibril-water interaction as characterized by isothermal thermogravimetric analysis and scanning electron microscopy," BioResources 7(4), 4683-4703.
307. Shang, J., Shao, Z., and Chen, X. (2008). "Electrical behavior of a natural polyelectrolyte hydrogel: Chitosan/carboxymethylcellulose hydrogel," Biomacromol. 9(4), 1208-1213.
308. Shet, R. T., and Wallajapet, P. R. R. (1997). "Manufacture of sulfonated cellulose with improved absorbent properties," US Pat. 5703225.
309. Shepherd, I., and Xiao, H. N. (1999). "The role of surfactants as rewetting agents in enhancing paper absorbancy," Colloids Surf. A - Physicochem. Eng. Aspects 157, 235-244.
310. Shi, S. N., Wang, W. B., and Wang, A. Q. (2013). "pH-responsive sodium alginate-based superporous hydrogel generated by an anionic surfactant micelle templating," Carbohydr. Polym. 94(1), 449-455.
311. Shu, J., Li, X. J., and Zhao, D. B. (2011). "Microwave-irradiated preparation of super absorbent resin by graft copolymerization of cellulose and acrylic acid/acrylamide," Manufacturing Processes and Systems, Book Ser.: Advanced Materials Research, Univ Wollongong, Vols. 148-149, pp. 799-802.
312. Silva, S. M. C., Pinto, F. V., Antunes, F. E., Miguel, M. G., Sousa, J. J. S., and Pais, A. A. C. C. (2008). "Aggregation and gelation in hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose aqueous solutions," J. Colloid Interface Sci. 327(2), 333-340.
313. Simoncic, B., and Roman, V. (2007). "Wettability of cotton fabric by aqueous solutions of surfactants with different structures," Colloids Surf. A.- Physicochem. Eng. Aspects 292(2-3), 236-245.
314. Singh, J., and Weber, M. E. (1996). "Kinetics of one-dimensional gel swelling and collapse for large volume change," Chem. Eng. Sci. 51, 4499-4508.
315. Singha, A. S., and Rana, A. K. (2011). "Kinetics of graft copolymerization of acrylic acid onto Cannabis indica fibre," Iranian Polymer J. 20(11), 913-929.
316. Sipponen, M. H., Pastinen, O. A., Strengell, R., Hyotylainen, J. M. I., Heiskanen, I. T., and Laakso, S. (2010). "Increased water resistance of CTMP fibers by oat (Avena sativa L.) husk lignin," Biomacromol. 11(12), 3511-3518.
317. Smith, P. M., and Sheeran, K. D. (1992). "A profile of consumer preferences for baby diapers," Forest Prod. J. 42(9), 65-71.
318. Smook, G. A. (1992). Handbook for Pulp & Paper Technologists, Second Ed., Angus Wilde Publications, Vancouver.
319. Spagnol, C., Rodrigues, F. H. A., Pereira, A. G. B., Fajardo, A. R., Rubira, A. F., and Muniz, E. C. (2012a). "Superabsorbent hydrogel nanocomposites based on starch-g-poly(sodium acrylate) matrix filled with cellulose nanowhiskers," Cellulose 19(4), 1225-1237.
320. Spagnol, C., Rodrigues, F. H. A., Pereira, A. G. B., Fajardoa, A. R., Rubira, A. F., and Muniz, E. C. (2012b). "Superabsorbent hydrogel composite made of cellulose nanofibrils and chitosan-graft-poly(acrylic acid)," Carbohydr. Polym. 87, 2038-2045.
321. Spagnol, C., Rodrigues, F. H. A., Neto, A. G. V. C., Pereira, A. G. B., Fajardo, A. R., Radovanovic, E., Rubira, A. F., and Muniz, E. C. (2012c). "Nanocomposites based on poly(acrylamide-co-acrylate) and cellulose nanowhiskers," Eur. Polymer J. 48, 454-463.
322. Spence, K. L., Venditti, R. A., Rojas, O. J., Habibi, Y., and Pawlak, J. J. (2010). "The effect of chemical composition on microfibrillar cellulose films from wood pulps: Water interactions and physical properties for packaging applications," Cellulose 17, 835-848.
323. Steadman, R., and Luner, P. (1985). "The effect of wet fiber flexibility on sheet apparent density," In: Papermaking Raw Materials, Trans. 8th Fundamental Res. Symp., Oxford, UK, Sept. 15-20, Mechanical Engineering Publ. Ltd., London, 311-358.
324. Stone, J., and Scallan, A. (1966). "Influence of drying on the pore structures of the cell wall," In: Consolidation of the Paper Web. Transactions of the Symposium Held at Cambridge, Sept. 1965, Bolam, F. (ed.), Tech. Sec. British Paper & Board Makers' Assoc., London, Vol 1., 145-174.
325. Stone, J., and Scallan, A. (1968). A structural model for the cell wall of water-swollen wood pulp fibers based on their accessibility to macromolecules," Cellulose Chem. Technol. 2, 343-358.
326. Ström, G., and Carlsson, G. (1992). "Wettability of kraft pulps - Effect of surface composition and oxygen plasma treatment," J. Adhes. Sci. Technol. 6(6), 745-761.
327. Ström, G., and Kunnas, A. (1991). "The effect of cationic polymers on the water retention value of various pulp," Nordic Pulp Paper Res. J. 6(1), 12-19.
328. Sun, T., and Lindsay, J. D. (2003). "Curly cellulose fiber for diapers, having preset wet curl value is obtained by applying polymeric reactive compound to cellulose fiber having preset curl value which is treated with intra-crystalline swelling agent," US Pat. 2003108739-A1.
329. Suo, A. L., Qian, J. M., Yao, Y., and Zhang, W. G. (2007). "Synthesis and properties of carboxymethyl cellulose-graft-poly(acrylic acid-co-acrylamide) as a novel cellulose-based superabsorbent," J. Appl. Polymer Sci. 103(3), 1382-1388.
330. Swerin, A., Ödberg, L., and Lindström, T. (1990). "Deswelling of hardwood kraft pulp fibers by cationic polymers," Nordic Pulp Paper Res. J. 5(4), 188-196.
331. Tag, C. M., Toiviainen, M., Juuti, M., Rosenholm, J. B., Backfolk, K., and Gane, P. A. C. (2012). "The effect of isopropyl alcohol and non-ionic surfactant mixtures on the wetting of porous coated paper," Transport in Porous Media 94(1), 225-242.
332. Tanaka, T, and Fillmore, D. J. (1979). "Kinetics of swelling of gels," J. Chem. Phys. 70, 1214-1218.
333. Tanaka, Y., Gong, J. P., and Osada, Y. (2005). "Novel hydrogels with excellent mechanical performance," Prog. Polymer Sci. 30(1), 1-9.
334. Tang, Y., Wang, X., Li, Y., Lei, M., Du, Y., Kennedy, J. F., and Knill, C. J. (2010). "Production and characterization of novel injectable chitosan/methylcellulose/salt blend hydrogels with potential application as tissue engineering scaffolds," Carbohydrate Polymers 82(3), 833-841.
335. TAPPI (1981). "Water retention value (WRV)," Useful Test Method, UM 256, TAPPI Press, Atlanta.
336. TAPPI (1996). TAPPI Standard Methods, TAPPI Press, Atlanta.
337. Theliander, H., Wernersson, F., Hansson, C., Gustafson, I., and Falk, T. (2011). "Absorbent article comprising absorbent porous foam of freeze-dried microfibrillated cellulose," WO Patent 2011090410, 28 July 2011.
338. Thuresson, K., and Lindman, B. (1999). "Association in nonionic cellulose ether solutions due to microcrystallites," Colloids Surf. A - Physicochem. Eng. Aspects 159(1), 219-226.
339. Uner, B. (2009). "The effect of support media on corona treated paper sorption properties," Scient. Res. Essays 4(10), 1024-1030.
340. Valencia, J., and Pierola, I. F. (2007). "Interpretation of the polyelectrolyte and antipolyelectrolyte effects of poly (N-vinylimidazole-co-sodium styrenesulfonate) hydrogels," J. Polymer Sci. Part B - Polymer Phys. 45(13), 1683-1693.
341. Varaprasad, K., Vimala, K., Ravindra, S., Reddy, N. N., and Raju, K. M. (2011). "Development of sodium carboxymethyl cellulose-based poly(acrylamide-co-2-acrylamido-2-methyl-1-propane sulfonic acid) hydrogels for in vitro drug release studies of ranitidine hydrochloride an anti-ulcer drug," Polym.-Plast. Technol. Eng. 50(12), 1199-1207.
342. Vitta, S. B., Stahel, E. P., and Stannet, V. T. (1986). "The preparation and properties of acrylic and methacrylic acid grafted cellulose prepared by ceric ion initiation. II. Water retention properties," J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 32(7), 5799-5810.
343. Wach, R. A., Mitomo, H., Yoshii, F., and Kume, T. (2001). "Hydrogel of biodegradable cellulose derivatives. II. Effect of some factors on radiation-induced crosslinking of CMC," J. Appl. Polymer Sci. 81(12), 3030-3037.
344. Wach, R. A., Mitomo, H., Yoshii, F., and Kume, T. (2002). "Hydrogel of radiation-induced cross-linked hydroxypropylcellulose," Macromol. Mater. Eng. 287(4), 285-295.
345. Wang, C. G., He, L. X., Dong, X. G., Gao, X. P., Liu, W., Dong, X. C., Yuan, T., and Zhang, J. (2007). "Preparation and properties of superabsorbent by graft co-polymerization of acrylic-acid onto different celluloses of crops stems," Chem. J. Chinese Univ. - Chin. 28(9), 1787-1790.
346. Wang, D., Song, Z. Q., and Shang, S. B. (2008). "Characterization and biodegradability of amphoteric superabsorbent polymers," J. Appl. Polymer Sci. 107(6), 4116-4120.
347. Wang, J. L., Wang, W. B., and Wang, A. Q. (2010). "Synthesis, characterization and swelling behaviors of hydroxyethyl cellulose-g-poly(acrylic acid)/attapulgite superabsorbent composite," Polymer Eng. Sci. 50(5), 1019-1027.
348. Wang, J. L., Wang, W. B., Zheng, Y. A., and Wang, A. Q. (2011a). "Effects of modified vermiculite on the synthesis and swelling behaviors of hydroxyethyl cellulose-g-poly(acrylic acid)/vermiculite superabsorbent nanocomposites," J. Polymer Res. 18(3), 401-408.
349. Wang, J., Xu, L., Li, C. C., Yue, Z. Y., Zhai, M. L., and Li, J. Q. (2010). "Antipolyelectrolyte swelling of amphiphilic hydroxypropyl methylcellulose phthalate gels," Colloids Surf. A - Physicochem. Eng. Aspects 356, 89-96.
350. Wang, W. B., and Wang, A. Q. (2010). "Nanocomposite of carboxymethyl cellulose and attapulgite as a novel pH-sensitive superabsorbent: Synthesis, characterization and properties," Carbohydrate Polymers 82(1), 83-91.
351. Wang, W. B., Wang, J., Kang, Y. R., and Wang, A. Q. (2011b). "Synthesis, swelling and responsive properties of a new composite hydrogel based on hydroxyethyl cellulose and medicinal stone," Composites. Pt. B - Eng. 42(4), 809-818.
352. Wang, W. B., Wang, Q., and Wang, A. Q. (2011c). "pH-responsive carboxymethylcellulose-g-poly(sodium acrylate)/polyvinylpyrrolidone semi-IPN hydrogels with enhanced responsive and swelling properties," Macromol. Res. 19(1), 57-65.
353. Wang, W. B., Xu, J. X., and Wang, A. Q. (2011d). "A pH-, salt- and solvent-responsive carboxymethylcellulose-g-poly(sodium acrylate)/medical stone superabsorbent composite with enhanced swelling and responsive properties," Express Polymer Lett. 5(5), 385-400.
354. Wang, Y. Z., Shi, X. N., Wang, W. B. and Wang, A. Q. (2013). "Synthesis, characterization, and swelling behaviors of a pH-responsive CMC-g-poly(AA-co-AMPS) superabsorbent hydrogel," Turk. J. Chem. 37(1), 149-159.
355. Warner, R. R., and Rezai, E. (1997). "Polymer-grafted cellulose fibers. 2. Polymer localization and induced alterations in fiber morphology," J. Appl. Polymer Sci. 65(8), 1471-1485.
356. Washburn, E. V. (1921). "The dynamics of capillary flow," Phys. Rev. 17, 273-283.
357. Weerawarna, S. A., and Su, B. (2010). "Methods for the preparation of mixed polymer superabsorbent fibers containing cellulose," US Patent 7,717,995 B2.
358. Weisbrod, A. V., and Van Hoof, G. (2012). "LCA-measured environmental improvements in PampersA (R) diapers," Intl. J. Life Cycle Assess. 17(2), 145-153.
359. Weise, U., and Paulapuro, H. (1996). "The relationship between fiber shrinkage and hornification," Papier 50(6), 328-333; reprinted in English in 1998 in: Prog. Paper Recycling 7(3), 14-21.
360. Weise, U. and Paulapuro, H. (1999). "Effect of drying and rewetting cycles on fiber swelling," J. Pulp Paper Sci. 25(5), 163-166.
361. Welo, L. A., Ziifle, H. M., and Loeb, L. (1952). "Swelling capacities of fibers in water Part I: Desiccation rate measurements," Textile Res. J. 22, 254-261.
362. Wichterle, O., and Lim, D. (1960). "Hydrophilic gels for biological use," Nature 185, 117-118.
363. Williams, J. L., and Stannet, V. T. (1979). "Highly water absorptive cellulose by postdecrystallization," J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 23(4), 1265-1268.
364. Wiryana, S., and Berg, J. C. (1991). "The transport of water in wet-formed networks of cellulose fibers and powdered superabsorbent," Wood Fiber Sci. 23(3), 457-464.
365. Wu, F., Zhang, Y., Liu, L., and Yao, J. M. (2012). "Synthesis and characterization of a novel cellulose-g-poly(acrylic acid-co-acrylamide) superabsorbent composite based on flax yarn waste," Carbohydrate Polymers 87(4), 2519-2525.
366. Wu, W. J., Pan, Z. G., and Peng, J. P. (2008). "Preparation of superabsorbent polymer from softwood pulp by grafting-copolymerization," Proc. Intl. Conf. Pulping, Papermaking Biotechnol. 2008: ICPPB '08, Jin, Y., Zhai, H., and Li, Z. (eds.), Vol. 2, pp. 529-532.
367. Xiao, C. M., and Gao, Y. K. (2008). "Preparation and properties of physically crosslinked sodium carboxymethylcellulose/poly(vinyl alcohol) complex hydrogels," J. Appl. Polymer Sci. 107(3), 1568-1572.
368. Xiao, Y. C., and Meshitsuka, G. (2001). "Development of high-retention water absorbent from cellulosic materials: Water absorbent from bleached kraft pulp," J. Wood Sci. 47(5), 394-399.
369. Xie, L. H., Liu, M. Z., Ni, B. L., and Wang, Y. F. (2012). "Utilization of wheat straw for the preparation of coated controlled-release fertilizer with the function of water retention," J. Agric. Food Chem. 60(28), 6921-6928.
370. Xu, G. G., and Yang, C. Q. X. (1999). "Comparison of the kraft paper crosslinked by polymeric carboxylic acids of large and small molecular sizes: Dry and wet performance," J. Appl. Polymer Sci. 74(4), 907-912.
371. Yamane, C., Aoyagi, T., Ago, M., Sato, K., Okajima, K., and Takahashi, T. (2006). "Two different surface properties of regenerated cellulose due to structural anisotropy," Polymer J. 38(8), 819-826.
372. Yanai, Y., Hamada, K., and Shimizu, Y. (2006). "The liquid ammonia treatment of cotton fibers - Comparison and combination with mercerization using a practical unit," Sen-I Gakkaishi 62(4), 81-88.
373. Yang, C. Q., and Xu, Y. F. (1998). "Paper wet performance and ester crosslinking of wood pulp cellulose by poly(carboxylic acids)," J. Appl. Polymer Sci. 67(4), 649-658.
374. Yang, F., Li, G., He, Y. G., Ren, F. X., and Wang, G. X. (2009). "Synthesis, characterization, and applied properties of carboxymethyl cellulose and polyacrylamide graft copolymer," Carbohydrate Polymers 78(1), 95-99.
375. Yang, J. Y., Zhou, X. S., and Fang, J. (2011). "Synthesis and characterization of temperature sensitive hemicellulose-based hydrogels," Carbohydrate Polymers 86(3), 1113-1117.
376. Yin, Y., Yang, Y., and Xu, H. (2002). "Swelling behavior of hydrogels for colon-site drug delivery," J. Appl. Polymer Sci. 83, 2835-2842.
377. Yoshimura, T., Matsunaga, M., and Fujioka, R. (2009). "Alginate-based superabsorbent hydrogels composed of carboxylic acid-amine interaction: preparation and characterization," E-Polymers, Article No. 080.
378. Yoshimura, T., Matsuo, K., and Fujioka, R. (2005). "Synthesis and characterization of superabsorbent polymers from various kinds of cotton balls," Konbunshi Ronbunshu 62(7), 321-325.
379. Yoshimura, T., Matsuo, K., and Fujioka, R. (2006). "Novel biodegradable superabsorbent hydrogels derived from cotton cellulose and succinic anhydride: Synthesis and characterization," J. Appl. Polymer Sci. 99(6), 3251-3256.
380. Yoshinobu, M., Morita, M., and Sakata, I. (1992). "Porous structure and rheological properties of hydrogels of highly water absorptive cellulose graft copolymers," J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 45(5), 805-812.
381. Young, R. A. (1976). "Wettability of wood pulp fibers. Applicability of methodology," Wood Fiber 8(2), 120-128.
382. Zamani, A., Henriksson, D., and Taherzadeh, M. J. (2010). "A new foaming technique for production of superabsorbents from carboxymethyl chitosan," Carbohyd. Polymers 80(4), 1091-1101.
383. Zhang, J., Jiang, N., Dang, Z., Elder, T. J., and Ragauskas, A. J. (2008a). "Oxidation and sulfonation of cellulosics," Cellulose 15(3), 489-496.
384. Zhang, M., Hubbe, M. A., Venditti, R. A., and Heitmann, J. A. (2002). "Can recycled kraft fibers benefit from chemical addition before they are first dried?," APPITA J. 55(2), 135-144.
385. Zhang, Y. T., Fan, L. H., Cheng, L. H., Zhang, L., and Chen, H. L. (2009). "Preparation and morphology of high-performance exfoliated poly(sodium acrylate)/hydrotalcite nanocomposite superabsorbents," Polymer Eng. Sci. 49(2), 264-271.
386. Zhang, Y. T., Fan, L. H., Zhao, P. Z., Zhang, L., and Chen, H. L. (2008b). "Preparation of nanocomposite superabsorbents based on hydrotalcite and poly(acrylic-co-acryla-mide) by inverse suspension polymerization," Composite Interfaces 15(7-9), 747-757.
387. Zhang, Z., Wang, Z. C., Chang, Y., Wu, Z. C., Xu, J., and Lei, Z. Q. (2010). "Preparation of superabsorbent composites by graft copolymerization of acrylamide onto native cellulose," Proceedings of the 7th National Conference on Chinese Functional Materials and Applications, pp. 531-533.
388. Zohuriaan-Mehr, M. J., and Kabiri, K. (2008). "Superabsorbent polymer materials: A review," Iranian Polymer J. 17(6), 451-477.
389. Zohuriaan-Mehr, M. J., Omidian, H., Doroudiani, S., and Kabiri, K. (2010). "Advances in non-hygienic applications of superabsorbent hydrogel materials," J. Mater. Sci. 45(21), 5711-5735.