Illicit Drugs in the Environment: Implication for Ecotoxicology

Illicit Drugs in the Environment: Occurrence, Analysis, and Fate Using Mass Spectrometry

Volumn , Issue , 2011, Pages 251-274

  Domingo, Guido ^a   Schirmer, Kristin ^b   Bracale, Marcella ^a   Pomati, Francesco ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF INSUBRIA   (Italy)

^b SWISS FEDERAL INSTITUTE OF AQUATIC SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY   (Switzerland)

Author keywords

Homology prediction for human illicit drug targets in set of model aquatic species; Illicit drug analysis application in environment for ecotoxicology, acute and long term effects on human subjects; Risk characterization, illicit drug occurrence in environment adverse effects on nontarget aquatic organisms

Indexed keywords

EID: 84886066517     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1002/9781118000816.ch14     Document Type: Chapter

References (97)

1. Altschul, S. F.,W. Gish,W. Miller, E.W. Myers, and D. J. Lipman. 1990. Basic local alignment search tool. J. Mol. Biol. 215:403-410.
2. Altschul, S. F., T. L. Madden, A. A. Schaffer, J. Zhang, Z. Zhang,W. Miller, and D. J. Lipman. 1997. Gapped BLAST and PSI-BLAST: A new generation of protein database search programs. Nucl. Acids Res. 25:3389-3402.
3. Banerjee, S. P., V. K. Sharma, Kung, and S. Lily. 1978. Amphetamine induces β-adrenergic receptor supersensitivity. Nature (London) 271(5643):380-381.
4. Bedford, J. A., C. E. Turner, and H. N. Elsohly. 1982. Comparative lethality of coca and cocaine. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 17(5):1087-1088.
5. Bell, E. A., and B. V. Charlwood. 1980. Encyclopedia of Plant Physiology: Secondary Plant Products. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
6. Bengel, D., D. L. Murphy, A. M. Andrews, C. H. Wichems, D. Feltner, A. Heils, R. Mossner, H. Westphal, and K. P. Lesch. 1998. Altered brain serotonin homeostasis and locomotor insensitivity to 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine ("Ecstasy") in serotonin transporterdeficient mice. Mol. Pharmacol. 53:649-655.
7. Boleda, M. R., M. T. Galceran, and F. Ventura. 2007. Trace determination of cannabinoids and opiates in wastewater and surface waters by ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. J. Chromatogr. A 1175:38-48.
8. Bones, J., K. V. Thomas, and P. Brett. 2007. Using environmental analytical data to estimate levels of community consumption of illicit drugs and abused pharmaceuticals. J. Environ. Monit. 9:701-707.
9. Braude, M. C., and J. P. Ludford (editors).1984. Marijuana: Effects on the Endocrine and Reproductive Systems, pp. 82-96. NIDA, Rockville.
10. Budavari, S. (editor) 1996. The Merck Index-An Encyclopedia of Chemicals, Drugs, and Biologicals, p. 631. Whitehouse Station, NJ: Merck and Co.
11. Bundy, J. B., M. P. Davey, and M. R. Viant. Environmental metabolomics: a critical review and future perspectives. Metabolomics 5(1):3-21.
12. Campos, D., G. Noratto, R. Chirinos, C. Arbizu, W. Roca, and L. Cisneros-Zevallos. 2006. Antioxidant capacity and secondary metabolites in four species of Andean tuber crops: native potato (Solanum sp.), mashua (Tropaeolum tuberosum Ruiz & Pavon), Oca (Oxalis tuberosa Molina) and ulluco (Ullucus tuberosus Caldas). J. Sci. Food Agr. 86:1481-1488.
13. Capurro, A., M. Reyes-Paroda, D. Olazabal, R. Perrone, R. Silveira, and O. Macadar. 1997. Aggressive behaviour and jamming avoidance response in weakly electric fish Gymnotus carapo: effects of methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA). Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 118A:831-840.
14. Castiglioni, S., E. Zuccato, E. Crisci, C. Chiabrando, R. Fanelli, and R. Bagnati. 2006. Identification and measurement of illicit drugs and their metabolites in urban wastewater by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Anal. Chem. 78:8421-8429.
15. Conesa,A., S. Götz, J. M. Garcia-Gomez et al. 2005. Blast2GO:Auniversal tool for annotation, visualization and analysis in functional genomics research. Bioinformatics 21:3674-3676.
16. Darland, T., and J. E. Dowling. 2001. Behavioral screening for cocaine sensitivity in mutagenized zebrafish. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S. 98(20):11691-11696.
17. Davis, W. A., H. T. Hatoum, and L. W. Waters. 1987. Toxicity of MDA (3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine, l considered for relevance to hazards of MDMA (Ecstasy) abuse. Alcohol Drug Res. 7:123-134.
18. Di Chiara,G.,V. Bassareo, S. Fenu, M. A. De Luca, L. Spina, C. Cadoni, E. Acquas, E. Carboni, V. Valentini, and D. Lecca D. Dopamine and drug addiction: the nucleus accumbens shell connection. Neuropharmacology 47(Suppl. 1):227-241.
19. Ellinwood, E. H., G. R. King, and T. H. Lee. 1998. Chronic amphetamine use and abuse. In Psychopharmacology: The Fourth Generation of Progress edited by F. E. Bloom and D. J. Kupfer, fourth ed. CD Rom Version. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott, Williams and Wilkins; 1998.
20. Ersche, K. D., Roiser J. P., Robbins T. W., Sahakian B. J. Chronic cocaine but not chronic amphetamine use is associated with perseverative responding in humans. Psychopharmacology 2008; 24 Jan, 2008 (e-pub ahead of print).
21. Gene Ontology Consortium Creating the gene ontology resource: design and implementation. Genome Res 2001; 1425-1433.
22. Gérard C.M., C. Mollereau, G. Vassart,M. Parmentier. Molecular cloning of a human cannabinoid receptor which is also expressed in testis. Biochem J 1991; 279(1):129-134.
23. Gheorghe A., A. Van Nuijs, B. Pecceu, L. Bervoets, P. G. Jorens, R. Blust, H. Neels, A. Covaci. Analysis of cocaine and its principal metabolites in waste and surface water using solidphase extraction and liquid chromatography-ion trap mass spectrometry. Anal Bioanal Chem 2008; 391:1309-1319.
24. Gilman, A. G., Goodman L. S., Gilman A.. In: Goodman L. S., Gilman, A., editors. The pharmacological basis of therapeutics. 7th ed. New York: Macmillan; 1985. p 550.
25. Giros, B., M. Jaber, S. R. Jones, R. M. Wightman, and M. G. Caron. 1996. Hyperlocomotion and indifference to cocaine and amphetamine in mice lacking the dopamine transporter. Nature (London) 379:606-612.
26. Goodenough, U. W., B. Shames, L. Small, T. Saito, R. C. Crain, M. A. Sanders, and J. L. Salisbury. 1993. The role of calcium in the Chlamydomonas reinhardtii mating reaction. J Cell Biol. 121:365-374.
27. Gossel, T. A., and J. D. Bricker. 1994. Principles of Clinical Toxicology. third ed, p. 421. New York, NY: Raven Press.
28. Graham, E. S., J. C. Ashton, M. Glass. 2009. Cannabinoid receptors: a brief history and "what's hot." Front Biosci 14:944-957.
29. Guilhermino, L., T. Diamantino, M. C. Silva, and A.M. V.M. Soares. 2000. Acute toxicity test with Daphnia magna: An alternative to mammals in the prescreening of chemical toxicity? Ecotoxicol. Environ. Safety 46:357-362.
30. Gunnarsson, L., J. W. Thornton, E. Need, and D. Crews. 2003. Resurrecting the ancestral steroid receptor: ancient origin of estrogen signaling. Science 301:1714-1717.
31. Gunnarsson, L., A. Jauhiainen, E. Kristiansson, O. Nerman, and D. G. J. Larsson. 2008. Evolutionary conservation of human drug targets in organisms used for environmental risk assessments. Environ. Sci. Technol. 42:5807-5813.
32. Haddad, L.M. 1990. Clinical Management of Poisoning and Drug Overdose, second edition, p. 731. Philadelphia, PA: W.B. Saunders.
33. Harvey, A. L. 1993. Natural and Synthetic Neurotoxins, p. 268. London Academic Press.
34. Ho, W. S., and Hiley, C. R. 2003. Vasodilator actions of abnormal-cannabidiol in rat isolated small mesenteric artery. Br. J. Pharmacol. 138(7):1320-1332.
35. Howlett, A. C. 2002. The cannabinoid receptors. Prostaglandins Other Lipid Mediat. 68-69:619-631.
36. Huang, Y., S. H. Ho, and R. K. Manjunatha. 1999. Bioactivities of safrole and isosafrole on Sitophilus zeamais (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) and Tribolium castaneum (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae). J. Econ. Entomol. 92:676-683.
37. Huerta-Fontela, M., M. T. Galceran, and F. Ventura. 2008. Occurrence of psychoactive stimulatory drugs in wastewaters in north-eastern Spain. Sci. Total Environ. 397:31-40.
38. Hummel, M., and E. Unterwald. 2002. D1 dopamine receptor: a putative neurochemical and behavioral link to cocaine action. J. Cell. Physiol. 191(1):17-27.
39. Hummel, D., D. Loeffler, G. Fink, and T. A. Ternes. 2006. Simultaneous determination of psychoactive drugs and their metabolites in aqueous matrices by liquid chromatography mass spectrometry, Environ. Sci. Technol. 40:7321-7328.
40. Imming, P., C. Sinning, and A. Meyer. 2006. Drugs, their targets and the nature and number of drug targets. Nat. Rev. Drug Discov. 5(10):821-834.
41. Járai, Z., J. A. Wagner, K. Varga, K. D. Lake, D. R. Compton, B. R. Martin, A. M. Zimmer, T. I. Bonner, N. E. Buckley, E. Mezey, R. K. Razdan, A. Zimmer, and G. Kunos G. 1999. Cannabinoid-induced mesenteric vasodilation through an endothelial site distinct from CB1 or CB2 receptors. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. US 96(24):14136-14141.
42. Johnston, G. A., M. Chebib, J. R. Hanrahan, and K. N. Mewett. 2003. GABAC receptors as drug targets. Curr. Drug Targets CNS Neurol. Disord. 2:260-268.
43. Jones, O. A. H., N. Voulvoulis, and J. N. Lester. 2002. Aquatic environmental assessment of the top 25 English prescription pharmaceuticals. Water Res. 36:5013-5022.
44. Juhila, J., A. Honkanen, J. Sallinen, A. Haapalinna, E. R. Korpi, and M. Scheinin. 2005. Alpha(2A)-Adrenoceptors regulate d-amphetamine-induced hyperactivity and behavioural sensitization in mice. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 517(1-2):74-83.
45. Kamdem, D. P., and D. A. Gage. 1995. Chemical composition of essential oil from the root bark of Sassafras albidum. J. Org. Chem. 61(6):574-575.
46. Kasprzyk-Hordern, B., R. M. Dinsdale, and A. J. Guwy. 2008. The occurrence of pharmaceuticals, personal care products, endocrine disruptors and illicit drugs in surface water on South Wales, UK. Water Res. 42:3498-3518.
47. Knapp, R. J., E. Malatynska, L. Fang, X. Li, E. Babin, M. Nguyen, G. Santoro, E. V. Varga, V. J. Hruby,W. R. Roeske, et al. 1994. Identification of a human delta opioid receptor: cloning and expression. Life Sci. 54(25):463-469.
48. Lambert, D. G. 2004. Drugs and receptors. BJA-CEPD Rev. 4(6):181-184(4).
49. Lee, K. W., Y. Kim, A. M. Kim, K. Helmin, A. C. Nairn, and P. Greengard. 2006. Cocaine-induced dendritic spine formation in D1 and D2 dopamine receptor-containing medium spiny neurons in nucleus accumbens. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. US 28;103(9): 3399-3404.
50. Lengauer, T., and R. Zimmer. 2000. Protein structure prediction methods for drug design. Briefings Bioinform. 1(3):275-288.
51. Levin, E. D., Z. Bencan, and D. T. Cerutti. 2007. Anxiolytic effects of nicotine in zebrafish. Physiol. Behav. 90:54-58.
52. Lilius, H., T. Hastbacka, and B. Isomaa. 1995. A comparison of the toxicity of 30 reference chemicals to Daphnia magna and Daphnia pulex. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 14:2085-2088.
53. Lydon, J., A. H. Teramura, and C. B. Coffman. 1987. UV-B radiation effects on photosynthesis, growth and cannabinoid production of two Cannabis sativa chemotypes. Photochem. Photobiol. A 46:201.
54. Mach, D. I., and M. B. Livingston. 1922. Effects of cocaine on the growth of Lupinus albus. A contribution to the comparative pharmacology of animal and plant protoplasm. J. Gen. Physiol. 4:573-584.
55. Mackie, K. 2008. Cannabinoid receptors: where they are and what they do. J. Neuroendocrinol. 20(Suppl 1):10-4.
56. Martins, J., O. L. Teles, and V. Vasconcelos 2007. Assays with Daphnia magna and Danio rerio as alert systems in aquatic toxicology. Environ. Int. 33(3):414-425.
57. Mc Calla, T. M., and F. A. Haskins. 1964. Phytotoxic substances from soil microorganisms and crop residues. Bacteriol. Rev. 28(2):181-207.
58. McClung, C., and J. Hirsh. 1998. Stereotypic behavioral responses to free-base cocaine and the development of behavioral sensitization in Drosophila. Curr. Biol. 8:109-112.
59. Mc Hugh, D., C. Tanner, R. Mechoulam, R. G. Pertwee, and R. A. Ross. 2008. Inhibition of human neutrophil chemotaxis by endogenous cannabinoids and phytocannabinoids: evidence for a site distinct from CB1 and CB2. Mol. Pharmacol. 73(2):441-450.
60. Mas, M., M. Farré, R. de la torre, et al. 1999. Cardiovascular and neuroendocrine effects and pharmacokinetics of 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine in humans. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Therap. 290:136-145.
61. Matsuda, L. A., S. J. Lolait, M. J. Brownstein, A. C. Young, and T. I. Bonner. 1990. Structure of a cannabinoid receptor and functional expression of the cloned cDNA. Nature (London) 346(6284):561-564.
62. Moore, M. T., S. L. Greenway, J. L. Farris, andB. Guerra. 2008. Assessing caffeine as an emerging environmental concern using conventional approaches. Arch. Environ. Contaminations Toxicol. 54(1):31-35.
63. Morrow, D.,D. Corrigan, and S. Waldren. 2001. Development of a bioassay for phytochemicals using Daphnia pulex. Planta Med. 67(9):843-846.
64. Nathanson, J. A., E. J. Hunnicutt, L. Kantham, and C. Scavone. 1993. Cocaine as a naturally occurring insecticide. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. US. 90:9645-9648.
65. OECD. 2006. Report of the validation of the 21-day fish screening assay for the detection of endocrine substances (phase 1b), series on testing and assessment. Number 61, ENV/JM/MONO 29.
66. Onizuka, S., T. Kasaba, T. Hamakawa, S. Ibusuki, and M. Takasaki. 2004. Lidocaine increases intracellular sodium concentration through voltage-dependent sodium channels in an identified lymnaea neuron. Anesthesiology 101:110-120.
67. Orchard, I. 1982. Octopamine in insects: neurotransmitter, neurohormone, and neuromodulator. Can. J. Zool. 60:659-669.
68. Osborne, R. H. 1996. Insect neurotransmission: neurotransmitters and their receptors. Pharmacol. Therap. 69:117-142.
69. Overington, J. P., B. Al-Lazikani, and A. L. Hopkins. 2006. How many drug targets are there? Nat. Rev. Drug Discov. 5(12):993-996.
70. Paerl, H., and J. Huisman. 2008. Blooms like it hot. Science 320:57-58.
71. Pinal-Seoane, N., I. R. Martin, V. Gonzalez-Nunez, E. M. de Velasco, F. A. Alvarez, R. G. Sarmiento, and R. E. Rodriguez. 2006. Characterization of a new duplicate delta-opioid receptor from zebrafish. J. Mol. Endocrinol. 37:391-403.
72. Pomati, F., C. Rossetti, D. Calamari, and B. A. Neilan. 2003. Effects of saxitoxin (STX) and veratridine on bacterial Na+ -K+ fluxes: a prokaryote-based STX bioassay. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 69(12):7371-7376.
73. Pomati, F., C. Rossetti, G. Manarolla, B. P. Burns, and B. A. Neilan. 2004. Interactions between intracellular Na+ levels and saxitoxin production in Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii T3. Microbiology 150(Pt 2):455-461.
74. Pomati, F., R. Kellmann, R. Cavalieri, B. P. Burns, and B. A. Neilan. 2006. Comparative gene expression of PSP-toxin producing and non-toxic Anabaena circinalis strains. Environ Int. 32(6):743-748.
75. Postigo, C., M. J. Lopez de Alda, and D. Barceló. 2008. Fully automated determination in the lownanogram per litre level of different classes of drugs of abuse in sewagewater by on-line solid-phase extraction-liquid chromatography-electrospray-tandem mass spectrometry. Anal. Chem. 80:3123-3134.
76. Rihel, J., D. A. Prober, A. Arvanites, K. Lam, S. Zimmerman, S. Jang, S. J. Haggarty, D. Kokel, L. L. Rubin, R. T. Peterson, and A. F. Schier. 2010. Zebrafish behavioral profiling links drugs to biological targets and rest/wake regulation. Science 327(5963):348-351.
77. Rink, E., and M. F. Wullimann. 2001. The teleostean (zebrafish) dopaminergic system ascending to the subpallium (striatum) is located in the basal diencephalon (posterior tuberculum). Brain Res. 889:316-330.
78. Ritz,M. C., R. J. Lamb, S. R. Goldberg, and M. J. Kuhar. 1987. Cocaine receptors on dopamine transporters are related to self-administration of cocaine. Science 237:1219-1223.
79. Rodgers, J. H., Jr, E. Deaver, B. C. Suedel, and P. L. Rogers. 1997. Comparative aqueous toxicity of silver compounds: laboratory studies with freshwater species. Bull. Environ. Contamination Toxicol. 58:851-858.
80. Ryberg, E., N. Larsson, S. Sjögren, S. Hjorth, N. O. Hermansson, J. Leonova, T. Elebring, K. Nilsson, T. Drmota, and P. J. Greasley. 2007. The orphan receptor GPR55 is a novel cannabinoid receptor. Br. J. Pharmacol. 152(7):1092-1101.
81. Sanderson, H., D. Johnson, T. Reitsma, C. Wilson, R. Brain, and K. R, Solomon. 2004. Ranking and prioritization of environmental risks of pharmaceuticals in surface waters. Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 39:158-183.
82. Searls, D. B. 2003. Pharmacophylogenomics: genes, evolution and drug targets. Nat. Rev. Drug Discov. 2:613-623.
83. Scholz, S., K. Schirmer, and R. Altenburger. 2010. Pharmaceutical contaminants in urban water cycles-a discussion of novel concepts for environmental risk assessment. In: Xenobiotics in the Urban Water Cycle; Mass Flows, Environmental Process, Mitigation and Treatment Strategies, Environmental Pollution, edited by D. Fatta-Kassinos, K. Bester, and K. Kümmerer, Vol. 16, DOI 10.1007/978-90-481-3509-7 12; Berlin: Springer.
84. Silva, E., N. Rajapakse, and A. Kortenkamp. 2002. Something from "nothing"-eight weak estrogenic chemicals combined at concentrations below NOECs produce significant mixture effects. Environ. Sci. Technol. 36(8):1751-1756.
85. Suzuki, T., and M. Misawa. 1997. Opioid receptor types and dependence. Nippon Yakurigaku Zasshi 109(4):165-174.
86. Suzuki, T., T. Ezure, T. Yamaguchi, H. Domen, M. Ishida, and W. Schmidt. 2000. Stimulatory effect of procaine on the growth of several microalgae and cyanobacteria. Pharmaceut. Press 52:243-251.
87. Suzuki, T., K. Nakasato, S. Shapiro, F. Pomati, A. Brett, and B. A. Neilan. 2004. Effects of synthetic local anaesthetics on the growth of the cyanobacterium Synechococcus leopoliensis. J. Appl. Phycol. 16:(2)145-152.
88. Taiz, L., and E. Zeiger. 1991. Plant Physiology, p. 559. Redwood, CA: Benjamin/Cummings; 1991.
89. Thomas, R. J. 1975. The toxicologic and teratologic effects of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol in the zebrafish embryo. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 32(1):184-190.
90. Thomson Healthcare, Inc. 2006. Physicians'Desk Reference, 60th edition, pp. 1175-1177 Montvale, NJ: Thomson PDR.
91. + on chemotaxis and motility of Escherichia coli. J. Bacteriol. 182:4856-4861.
92. USEPA 2007. Validation of the fish short-term reproduction assay: integrated summary report, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Endocrine Disruptor Screening Program, Washington, DC, December 15, 2007.
93. Van Der Woude, F. J. 2000. Cocaine use and kidney damage. Nephrol. Dialysis Transplant. 15(3):299-301.
94. Xu, F., R. R. Gainetdinov, W. C. Wetsel, S. R. Jones, L. M. Bohn, G. W. Miller, Y. M. Wang, and M. G. Caron. 2000. Mice lacking the norepinephrine transporter are supersensitive to psychostimulants. Nat. Neurosci. 3:465-471.
95. Zuccato, E., and S. Castiglioni. 2009. Illicit drugs in the environment. Philos. Trans. A Math. Phys. Eng. Sci. 367:3965-3978.
96. Zuccato, E., C. Chiabrando, S. Castiglioni,D. Calamari, R. Bagnati, S. Schiarea, and R. Fanelli. 2005. Cocaine in surface waters: a new evidence-based tool to monitor community drug abuse. Environ. Health Global Access Sci. Source 4:1-7.
97. Zuccato, E., S. Castiglioni, R. Bagnati, C. Chiabrando, P. Grassi, and R. Fanelli. 2008. Illicit drugs, a novel group of environmental contaminants. Water Res. 42:961-968.